{ "cells": [ { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "861aba8b-f039-48e5-a100-912c57ec79ca", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "[Oregon Curriculum Network](http://4dsolutions.net/ocn/)\n", "\n", "[Home](School_of_Tomorrow.ipynb)\n", "\n", "# The Particle Zoo\n", "\n", "The idea of a \"zoo\" is not all that misleading, as in the animal and other kingdoms, we like to organize species or specimens according to a taxonomy, a categorization system.\n", "\n", "For example, protons and neutrons seem quite similar but for charge. The fact that either may change into the other, perhaps with help from the outside, further connects them, although in particle world, species transforming into one another, according to a grammar, some rules, is the name of the game, par for the course.\n", "\n", "Indeed, protons and neutrons, both nucleons, both made of quarks (by computation), both get to be baryons, a subtype of hadron. Hadrons are composite " ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "8bc2b58f-ae22-4027-b361-9c7b84f62758", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "#### The Standard Model\n", "\n", "Lets use Python's class hierarchy syntax to start to get a feel for the Standard Model. The code below is far from complete. It's merely suggestive. We're just getting the ball rolling so to speak.\n", "\n", "Some of the types below are for classification, i.e. Fermionic, Bosonic, Hadronic. These are not particles as such, but categories of particle that may interact. Subclasses of these types provide the actual Fermions, Hadrons (Baryons and Mesons) and Bosons (gauge and scalar).\n", "\n", "\"Particle\n", "\n", "Gauge Bosons, as they're called, transmit the strong (gluon) and weak (W, Z) forces. Hadrons are made of odd (Baryon) or even (Meson) numbers of quarks. Baryon subclasses include the Proton and Neutron. Meson subtypes include the Kaon and Pion.\n", "\n", "Pretty much everything else is Fermionic and is either one of six types of a Quark or a Lepton. Leptons, another category, considered elementary in the Standard Model (not made of Quarks, unlike Hadrons) include the charged electron, muon, tauon, and the neutral neutrino variant of each of those.\n", "\n", "Every particle comes with its own anti-particle, with the same mass, but other attributes switched from positive to negative, or left to right.\n", "\n", "The gluons, participating in quark interactions, come with another quantum attribute known as color.\n", "\n", "Most hadrons are unstable standing alone, except for the proton. The neutron, the next longest-living particle, holds together for some minutes (say 15), before turning into proton while giving off an electron and anti-neutrino.\n", "\n", "If it weren't for the fact that super high speeds correspond to slower time passage (time dilation), for such as the muons, we would not detect them in nature. As it is, particle accelerators, such as the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, are required to give sufficient longevity for detectability and classification. Even then, neutrinos are notoriously hard to detect, as they do not ordinarily react with other particles." ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 7, "id": "06c671ee-de52-4520-8b4d-065331ff7516", "metadata": {}, "outputs": [], "source": [ "S = \"Strong\"\n", "W = \"Weak\"\n", "E = \"Electromagnetic\"\n", "G = \"Gravitational\"\n", "\n", "class Bosonic:\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Bose-Einstein stats, integral spins\n", " \"\"\"\n", " B = 1\n", " def __add__(self, other):\n", " qnumbers = self.I + other.I, self.Q + other.Q, self.B + other.B\n", " if issubclass(self, Hadronic):\n", " quarks = self.quarks + other.quarks\n", "\n", "class Fermionic:\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Fermi-Dirac Stats, half odd integer spin, Pauli Exclusion\n", " \"\"\"\n", " I = 1/2\n", " def __add__(self, other):\n", " return self.I + other.I, self.Q + other.Q, self.B + other.B\n", "\n", "class Hadronic:\n", " \"\"\"\n", " # Made of Quarks, Colored\n", " ἁδρός (heavy)\n", " \"\"\"\n", " def __add__(self, other):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Hints at outcome thanks to conservation\n", " \"\"\"\n", " return self.I + other.I, self.quarks + other.quarks\n", " \n", " F = [S,]\n", " \n", "class Baryon(Hadronic, Fermionic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " # Quarks: Quark + Quark + Quark (odd) \n", " \"\"\"\n", "\n", "class Lepton(Fermionic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Not made of Quarks, Color free \n", " https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepton_number\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Q = [-1, 0, 1]\n", " F = [E, W, G]\n", " \n", "class Quark(Fermionic):\n", " F = [S, E, W, G]\n", " \n", " def __add__(self, other):\n", " # gluons involved\n", " pass\n", " \n", "class Up(Quark):\n", " Q = 2/3\n", "\n", "class Down(Quark):\n", " Q = -1/3\n", "\n", "class Charm(Quark):\n", " Q = 2/3\n", " \n", "class Strange(Quark):\n", " Q = -1/3\n", "\n", "class Top(Quark):\n", " Q = 2/3\n", "\n", "class Bottom(Quark):\n", " Q = -1/3\n", " \n", "class Electron(Lepton):\n", " Q = -1\n", " L = 1\n", " M = True\n", "\n", "class Muon(Lepton):\n", " Q = -1\n", " L = 1\n", " M = True\n", "\n", "class Tauon(Lepton):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Heavy lepton\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Q = -1\n", " L = 1\n", " M = True\n", "\n", "class Neutrino(Lepton):\n", " Q = 0\n", " L = 0\n", " M = True\n", "\n", "class Meson(Hadronic, Bosonic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " # Quark + AntiQuark (even)\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Q = [-1, 0, 1]\n", " F = [S, E, W, G]\n", "\n", "class Proton(Baryon):\n", " Quarks = [Up(), Up(), Down()]\n", "\n", "class AntiProton(Baryon):\n", " Q = -1\n", " \n", "class Neutron(Baryon):\n", " Quarks = [Down(), Up(), Up()]\n", "\n", "class Kaon(Meson):\n", " pass\n", "\n", "class Pion(Meson):\n", " pass\n", "\n", "class Photon(Bosonic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " hν or hf (frequency)\n", " I: +1 ℏ,   0 ℏ,   −1 ℏ\n", " Q: 0\n", " M: 0\n", " \"\"\"\n", " pass\n", "\n", "class Gluon(Bosonic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Intra-Quark Strong Force\n", " \"\"\"\n", " pass\n", "\n", "class W(Bosonic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Weak Force, plus and minus\n", " \"\"\"\n", " pass\n", "\n", "class Z(Bosonic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Weak Force, neutral\n", " \"\"\"\n", "\n", "class Higgs(Bosonic):\n", " \"\"\"\n", " Scalar Boson\n", " \"\"\"" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "febbc863-9113-4665-b0b5-e26126cbfb5e", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "In the game of quantum mechanics, various quantum numbers are conserved through the transforming exchanges. Exactly what these quantum numbers are depends on the system being quantized. Typically a transformation will preserve spin, baryon number, charge, total energy, linear momentum. \n", "\n", "In the taxonomy above, some of the quantum numbers would be:\n", "\n", "* electric charge (Q)\n", "* isospin (I)\n", "* baryon number (B)\n", "* lepton number (L)\n", "\n", "Additional relations (featuring specific additional quark properties):\n", "\n", "* Hypercharge (Y): Y = B + S + C + B′ + T (Baryon #, Strangeness, Charmness, Bottomness, Topness)\n", "* Electric charge (Q): Q = I3 + 1/2Y (see Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula)\n", "\n", "where I3 is the z-component of isospin." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "892345ca-d8fb-4ea1-9e76-df92142e7fb7", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "![Particle Zoo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Standard_Modellen.png)" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "174e7ac6-a3ad-4ab5-9460-e7df20ae5cbe", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "Keeping track of all these particles and the experiments concerning them was a core motivation for inventing hypertext, the basic idea of the World Wide Web, or Web as we mostly call it, with W3 a supporting organization. Tim Berners-Lee got a green light from CERN, the particle accelerator center, to develop the HTTP protocol in service of the particle physics community." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "55c9263a-bcb3-4c48-b06a-36cfee0a5f65", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "The classic nuclear power reactor was developed out of the wartime push to develop nuclear weapons. Enriching Uranium isotope 238 with isotope 235 provides a material happy to shed neutrons, causing a cascade of byproducts, such as plutonium, and heat energy sufficient to turn a turbine, for generating electricity.\n", "\n", "New designs for nuclear power reactors, such as for the molten salt thorium reactor, have entered prototype phase and may soon offer commercial power as well, in which case the older models might finally be retired." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "id": "f3d35d47-75e8-466a-b3c7-574d9cda204f", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "Now lets talk more about particle decay and in what ways uncontrolled and/or deliberately instigated chain reactions might harm humans and their environment, in some cases for very long time periods.\n", "\n", "[Isotope Decay](isotope_decay.ipynb)" ] } ], "metadata": { "kernelspec": { "display_name": "Python 3 (ipykernel)", "language": "python", "name": "python3" }, "language_info": { "codemirror_mode": { "name": "ipython", "version": 3 }, "file_extension": ".py", "mimetype": "text/x-python", "name": "python", "nbconvert_exporter": "python", "pygments_lexer": "ipython3", "version": "3.7.9" } }, "nbformat": 4, "nbformat_minor": 5 }