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<li><a href="./">Disease Surveillance</a></li>
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<li><a href="index.html#section"></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Introduction</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.1" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#passive-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.1</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.2" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#climate-change"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.2</b> Climate change</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.3" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#the-report"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.3</b> The report</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1</b> Diseases of Cattle Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#neonatal-calves-birth-to-one-month-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.1</b> Neonatal Calves (birth to one month of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.2" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#calves-one-to-five-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.2</b> Calves (one to five months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.3" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#weanlings-six-months-to-one-year-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.3</b> Weanlings (six months to one year of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.4" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#adult-cattle-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.4</b> Adult Cattle (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2</b> Johne’s Disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-transmission"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.1</b> JD transmission</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.2</b> JD Diagnostics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.3" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#post-mortem-examination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.3</b> Post mortem examination</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#control-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4</b> Control Programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#acknowledgement"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4.1</b> Acknowledgement</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3</b> Clostridial disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.1" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#blackleg"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.1</b> Blackleg</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.2" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#botulism"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.2</b> Botulism</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#malignant-oedema"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.3</b> Malignant Oedema</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.4" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#enterotoxaemia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.4</b> Enterotoxaemia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.5" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#black-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.5</b> Black Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.6" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#braxy"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.6</b> Braxy</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.7" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-abomasitis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.7</b> Clostridial abomasitis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.8" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-vaccination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.8</b> Clostridial Vaccination</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4</b> Bovine Neonatal Enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#neonatal-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1</b> Neonatal enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#rotavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.1</b> Rotavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.2" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#cryptosporidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.2</b> <em>Cryptosporidiosis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.3" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coronavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.3</b> Coronavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#escherichia-coli-k99"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.4</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em> K99</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.5" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#salmonella-dublin"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.5</b> <em>Salmonella</em> Dublin</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.6" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#campylobacter-jejuni"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.6</b> <em>Campylobacter jejuni</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.7" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#giardia-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.7</b> <em>Giardia spp.</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.8" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coccidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.8</b> Coccidiosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5</b> Zinc Sulphate Turbidity (ZST) Test</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.1" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-test-and-the-importance-of-colostrum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.1</b> ZST test and the importance of colostrum</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.2" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#outline-of-2018-figures"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.2</b> Outline of 2018 figures</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.3" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#shortcomings-in-submission-practices"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.3</b> Shortcomings in submission practices</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.4" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-and-immunoglobulin-classes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.4</b> ZST and immunoglobulin classes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#post-mortem-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.5</b> <em>Post mortem</em> samples</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.6" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#ovine-submissions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.6</b> Ovine submissions</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6</b> Bovine Abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#primary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.1</b> Primary Pathogens</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#salmonella-dublin-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2</b> <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#listerial-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.1</b> Listerial abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#leptospiral-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.2</b> Leptospiral abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#minor-primary-abortifacients-sporadic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.3</b> Minor Primary Abortifacients (sporadic abortions)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#protoozoal-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.3</b> Protoozoal abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#secondary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4</b> Secondary Pathogens</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#mycotic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4.1</b> Mycotic abortions</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7</b> Bovine Mastitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#milk-culture-in-rvls"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1</b> Milk Culture in RVLs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#staphylococcus-aureus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#streptococcus-uberis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.3" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#truperella-pyogenes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.3</b> <em>Truperella pyogenes</em></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#contaminated-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.2</b> Contaminated samples</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8</b> Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD)</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.1" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#bacterial-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.1</b> Bacterial Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.2" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#viral-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.2</b> Viral Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.3" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#trends"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.3</b> Trends</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.4" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#parasitic-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.4</b> Parasitic Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9</b> Antimicrobial Resistance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#staphylococcus-aureus-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#streptococcus-uberis-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.3" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#pasteurella-multocida"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.3</b> <em>Pasteurella multocida</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.4" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#mannheimia-haemolytica"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.4</b> <em>Mannheimia haemolytica</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#escherichia-coli"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em></a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#maldi-tof"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.1</b> Maldi-ToF</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#whole-genome-sequencing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.2</b> Whole Genome Sequencing</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10</b> Bovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1</b> Trichostrongylidae</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1.1</b> Nematodirus spp.</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2</b> Coccidia</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2.1</b> Treatment and control</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#rumen-and-liver-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3</b> Rumen and Liver Fluke</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3.1</b> Treatment and Control</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11</b> Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD) Eradication Programme and Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1</b> Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) eradication programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#negative-herd-status-nhs"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.1</b> Negative herd status (NHS)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#targeted-advisory-service-on-animal-health-tasah"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.2</b> Targeted Advisory Service on Animal Health (TASAH)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.2</b> Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis eradication programme</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12</b> Sheep Diseases Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.1" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#diseases-of-sheep"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.1</b> Diseases of Sheep</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.2" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#lambs-birth-to-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.2</b> Lambs (birth to 12 months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.3" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#adult-sheep-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.3</b> Adult Sheep (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
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<li class="chapter" data-level="13" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13</b> Ovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.1" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#agents-of-parasitic-gastroenteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.1</b> Agents of Parasitic Gastroenteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.2" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.2</b> Trichostrongylidae</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.3" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.3</b> Nematodirus</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.4" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.4</b> Coccidia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.5" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#liver-and-rumen-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.5</b> Liver and rumen fluke</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.6" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#sarcocystosis-cysticercosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.6</b> Sarcocystosis & Cysticercosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14</b> Disease of Pigs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#post-mortem-diagnoses"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1</b> Post mortem diagnoses</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#gastrointestinal-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.1</b> Gastrointestinal disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#systemic-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.2</b> Systemic disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.3" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.3</b> Respiratory disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#notifiable-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2</b> Notifiable disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#african-swine-fever-awareness"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2.1</b> African swine fever awareness</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15</b> Poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-influenza-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1</b> Avian Influenza Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-mycoplasma-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2</b> Avian Mycoplasma Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-salmonella-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.3</b> Avian Salmonella surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#newcastle-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.4</b> Newcastle Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#disease-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.5</b> DISEASE DIAGNOSTICS</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#case-reports-in-poultry"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6</b> Case reports in poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#tetratrichomonas-gallinarum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.1</b> <em>Tetratrichomonas gallinarum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#gallibacterium-anatis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.2</b> <em>Gallibacterium anatis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#enterococcus-caecorum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.3</b> <em>Enterococcus caecorum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#chronic-cholera"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.4</b> Chronic cholera</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#ornithobacterium-rhinotracheale"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.5</b> Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale</a></li>
</ul></li>
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<li class="chapter" data-level="16" data-path="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><a href="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16</b> TB and Deer in Ireland</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17" data-path="r-packages.html"><a href="r-packages.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17</b> R packages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="references.html"><a href="references.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>References</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie" target="blank"> DAFM webpage</a></li>
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<div id="bovine-abortion" class="section level1">
<h1><span class="header-section-number">Section 6</span> Bovine Abortion</h1>
<hr />
<p><br><br></p>
<blockquote>
<ul>
<li>Cosme Sánchez-Miguel
<ul>
<li>Senior Research Officer, Cork Regional Veterinary Laboratory, Model Farm Road, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>
</blockquote>
<hr />
<p>Abortion in ruminants is a significant cause of economic loss. Laboratory diagnosis is central to managing and controlling outbreaks, limiting their spread and preventing zoonotic infections. While many pathogens can cause abortion in cattle, no single diagnostic test can be used to identify all aetiologies. Regional Veterinary Laboratories (RVLs) foetal investigations primarily focus on the most likely aetiologies and those with zoonotic potential. Brucellosis, an important disease, has been eradicated in Ireland following a successful statutory program; however, continuous surveillance remains crucial for both public and animal health considerations.</p>
<p>A threshold of 5 <em>per cent</em> foetal mortality rate of is recommended when deciding whether to instigate an investigation, although in some instances, a cluster of cases in quick succession may be more critical in deciding to submit aborted material to the laboratory. The aetiology of bovine abortion is broad and diagnostic success rate is low, however, adequate sampling, appropriate laboratory testing, clinical history, vaccination programme and epidemiological information increase chances of reaching an aetiologic diagnosis.</p>
<p>Aborted foetus, placenta and maternal serum constitute the minimum sampling requirements for an abortion investigation. The inclusion of placenta is critical for diagnosis of some mycotic and bacterial abortions where placenta is the primary tissue affected. Submission of blood samples from aborting cows can provide valuable information by either excluding some organisms, i.e. <em>Neospora caninum</em>, or reinforcing diagnosis of other agents, as is the case in <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> abortions.</p>
<p>In 2018, 1914 bovine foetuses, stillbirths and foetal material (placenta, foetal organs, abomasal contents, etc.) were tested for Brucellosis and routine foetal cultures in RVLs. This section presents some of the most common aetiologies diagnosed in RVLs. Bacterial, fungal and protozoal agents are the most frequent abortifacients detected; they can be divided into primary and secondary pathogens. Primary pathogens can cross an intact placenta and cause placentitis and fetopathy. Secondary pathogens are opportunistic organisms that count on maternal immunosuppression or placental damage to cause abortion .</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:salfiguno"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/salfiguno-1.png" alt="Submissions of bovine foetuses and foetal material aggregated and mapped at their DED (District Electoral Division), and colour-coded by Regional Veterinary Laboratory," width="384" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 6.1: Submissions of bovine foetuses and foetal material aggregated and mapped at their DED (District Electoral Division), and colour-coded by Regional Veterinary Laboratory,
</p>
</div>
<p>In routine RVL foetal culture workflows, most bacteria associated with abortion in cattle can be isolated by aerobic culture from abomasal contents, placenta or foetal organs. Anaerobic culture is not usually carried out in this workflow, therefore, anaerobic bacteria may be underreported as abortifacients. Similarly, organisms that required specific media culture, e.g. <em>Mycoplasma spp</em>, <em>Ureaplasma</em> or <em>Chlamydophila spp</em>, may also be underreported.</p>
<div id="primary-pathogens" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">6.1</span> Primary Pathogens</h2>
<p>Agents such as <em>Brucella abortus</em>, <em>Salmonella Dublin</em>, <em>Leptospira harjo</em>, <em>Listeria monocytogenes</em>, <em>Aspergillus fumigatus</em>, <em>Neospora caninum</em>, BVDv, BHV-1, etc., are capable of crossing intact placentas causing placentitis, fetopathy and/or luteal regression; they are classified as primary abortifacients.</p>
<p><br><br></p>
<style>
div.blue { background-color:#e6f0ff; border-radius: 5px; padding: 20px;}
</style>
<div class="blue">
<p>Some abortifacients are zoonotic and can pose a serious threat to the health of veterinary practitioners and farmers. It is advisable to always take precautions when handling foetuses or aborted material.</p>
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
</div>
<div id="salmonella-dublin-abortion" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">6.2</span> <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> abortion</h2>
<p>Salmonella abortions in Ireland are predominantly associated with <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> serotype. In 2018, <code>4.21</code> <em>per cent</em> of bovine abortions were attributed to <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> (Table <a href="bovine-abortion.html#tab:saltabuno">6.1</a>. This type of abortion usually occurs in the second half of pregnancy with bacterial translocation from the intestine to the placenta. Typically, aborted foetuses are autolysed, occasionally emphysematous, and smell of <em>rotten eggs</em> due to production of hydrogen sulphide. A diagnosis of <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> can also be reached with maternal serology. In non-vaccinated aborting cows a single blood sample can be up to 85 <em>per cent</em> accurate in predicting a <em>S. Dublin</em> foetal culture positive result <span class="citation">(Sánchez-Miguel et al. <a href="#ref-Sanchez-Miguel2018">2018</a>)</span>.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:saltabuno">Table 6.1: </span>Number of Salmonella Dublin isolates in foetal material in 2018 (n= 1970 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Result
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of Cases
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Negative
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1887
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
95.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Positive
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
83
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
4.2
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><em>Salmonella Dublin</em> abortions have a well documented seasonal distribution in Ireland characterised by a steady increase towards October/November, as shown in Table <a href="bovine-abortion.html#tab:saltabdos">6.2</a> and Figure <a href="bovine-abortion.html#fig:salfigdos">6.2</a>; this seasonal distribution emphasises the importance of choosing the right time to vaccinate for <em>Salmonella Dublin</em>.</p>
<p><br><br></p>
<p><br><br></p>
<table class="table table-striped table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:saltabdos">Table 6.2: </span>Monthly count and percentage of Salmonella culture results in foetal material during 2018 (n= 1970 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Month
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Total
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Positive
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Jan
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
624
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
16
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Feb
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
386
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Mar
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
136
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
0
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Apr
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
66
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
0
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
May
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
39
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
0
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Jun
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
26
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
0
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Jul
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
29
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
0
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Aug
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
35
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Sep
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
51
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
4
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Oct
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
113
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
11
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
10
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Nov
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
200
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
23
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
12
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Dec
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
265
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
27
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
10
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<br><br>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:salfigdos"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/salfigdos-1.png" alt="Annual distribution of foetal submissions (bars) and *Salmonella Dublin* isolates (line) from foetal bacterial cultures as a percentage of monthly bovine submission (n= 1970 )." width="672" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 6.2: Annual distribution of foetal submissions (bars) and <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> isolates (line) from foetal bacterial cultures as a percentage of monthly bovine submission (n= 1970 ).
</p>
</div>
<p>Nine <em>Salmonella spp.</em> serotypes other than <em>S. Dublin</em> were also isolated in foetuses, eight were <em>Salmonella typhimurium</em> and one <em>Salmonella Indiana</em> <a href="bovine-abortion.html#tab:alltab">6.4</a>.</p>
<div id="listerial-abortion" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">6.2.1</span> Listerial abortion</h3>
<p><em>Listeria monocytogenes</em> and possibly <em>L. ivanovii</em> may cause sporadic abortions in all stages of pregnancy. <em>Listeria spp.</em> are widespread in the environment; clinical disease is associated with ingestion of poorly fermented silage. Following ingestion, <em>Listeria monocytogenes</em> proliferates firstly in placenta, then in foetal liver causing septicaemia and, lastly, death.</p>
<p>The proportion of diagnosed abortions attributed to <em>L. monocytogenes</em> infection is usually is low, amounting to 42 (2.19 <em>per cent</em>) of the total abortions during 2018 (Table <a href="bovine-abortion.html#tab:salm1tb">6.3</a>. Most listerial abortions have a sporadic occurrence and are rarely associated with listerial encephalitis. A markedly autolysed foetus is usually aborted in the third trimester.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:salm1tb">Table 6.3: </span>Frequency of detection of other primary abortion pathogens in foetal culture during 2018 (n= 1970 )
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Organism
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of cases
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Trueperella pyogenes
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
131
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
6.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Bacillus licheniformis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
101
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
5.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Listeria moncytogenes
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
42
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2.2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Aspergillus spp
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
12
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0.6
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div id="leptospiral-abortion" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">6.2.2</span> Leptospiral abortion</h3>
<p><em>Leptospira hardjo</em> has adapted to cattle, which serve as maintenance host. <em>Leptospira spp.</em> is labile and difficult to culture, hence diagnosis normally relies on detection of antibody titres by foetal serology or, occasionally, on Fluorescent Antibody Test (FAT) on foetal kidney smears using multivalent antisera or PCR for pathogenic <em>Leptospira spp.</em>. Leptospirosis is likely to be underdiagnosed as cause of abortion in cattle due to poor diagnostic tests available at present. This may explain the variability in percentages of diagnosed cases from year to year and laboratory to laboratory. Abortion is frequently the only clinical sign observed in a herd, except in lactating cattle where signs of acute leptospirosis may include agalactia, mastitis, fever, haemolytic anaemia, haemoglobinuria and icterus.</p>
</div>
<div id="minor-primary-abortifacients-sporadic-abortions" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">6.2.3</span> Minor Primary Abortifacients (sporadic abortions)</h3>
<p>Some bacteria can cause maternal bacteraemia, reach the gravid uterus and foetus and progress to causing sporadic abortion. Amongst them, <em>Truperella pyogenes</em>, with 131 (6.84 <em>per cent</em>) and <em>Bacillus licheniformis</em> with 101 cases (5.28 <em>per cent</em>) are listed as the most common agents of sporadic abotion.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="protoozoal-abortion" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">6.3</span> Protoozoal abortion</h2>
<p>Since its identification in the 80’s, neosporosis, caused by the protozoan <em>Neospora caninum</em>, has emerged as one of the most common infectious causes of abortion in cattle worldwide. Acutely infected dogs shed <em>N. caninum</em> oocysts in faeces contaminating the environment. Cattle may become infected by ingesting oocysts (from infected aborted material or environment) or by acquiring the parasite in utero. The parasite invades and multiplies within placental cells causing impairment of oxygen and nutrient transfer from mother to foetus, leading to foetal death. <em>N. caninum</em> may also reach foetal organs causing a non-suppurative inflammatory reaction; foetal brain, followed by myocardium, are the preferred sites to detect characteristic lesions (Figure <a href="bovine-abortion.html#fig:neospora">6.3</a>.</p>
<p>In 2018, <em>N. caninum</em> was detected in 81 foetuses, either by foetal serology, histological examination or by both methods. This figure represents a similar proportion of cases in 2018 compared to 2016, 4 <em>per cent</em> and 3.5 <em>per cent</em> of the total number of foetuses respectively; however, it is essential to bear in mind that not every submitted foetus is tested for <em>N. caninum</em>.</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:neospora"></span>
<img src="images/neospora2.jpg" alt="Protozoal encephalitis: non-suppurative encephalitis (orange arrow), mild vasculitis (green arrow) and congestion, associated with Neospara caninum in the brain of a bovine foetus. Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel." width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 6.3: Protozoal encephalitis: non-suppurative encephalitis (orange arrow), mild vasculitis (green arrow) and congestion, associated with Neospara caninum in the brain of a bovine foetus. Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel.
</p>
</div>
<p>Most <em>N. caninum</em> abortions occur in mid to late gestation, but not all cows that are infected with <em>N. caninum</em> will abort. Nonetheless, infected cows are more likely to abort than uninfected. <em>N. caninum</em> abortions are more frequently seen in heifers or recently infected cows. This type of abortion follows different patterns that are dependent on level of exposure to parasite and predominant route of transmission within the individual herd. These patterns are:</p>
<ul>
<li>Epidemic abortions (abortion storms): due to primary infection of naive cows that are exposed to a single source of infection such as ingestion of aborted membranes, feed or water contaminated with <em>N. caninum</em> oocysts.</li>
<li>Endemic abortions: chronic abortion episodes spanning several years and found within infected family lines as a result of recurrent transplacental (vertical) transmission.</li>
<li>Sporadic abortions: occasional occurrence of abortions within a herd</li>
</ul>
<p>In RVLs, diagnosis of bovine neosporosis at <em>post-mortem</em> is based on presence of lesions consistent with protozoal damage in infected tissues (brain, myocardium and placenta) and detection of specific antibodies in the dam or foetal blood or fluids. Detection of <em>N. caninum</em> by PCR or immunohistochemistry in tissues is not undertaken in routine foetal submissions and is only carried out occasionally in herd investigations. Diagnostic of <em>N. caninum</em> abortions poses a two-fold challenge: tissue lesions, though very distinctive (necrotic foci and mononuclear cell infiltrates) are only suggestive of protozoal abortion and foetal serology depends on quality of the sample (absence of autolysis) and age of the foetus (mature enough to have produced antibodies). In addition to that, a serology positive <em>N. caninum</em> test result should be viewed with caution as calves are not always adversely affected by the protozoa and abortion could have been caused by a different abortifacient agent.</p>
<p>Control options for Neospora infection are based on biosecurity, identification of infected animals and appropriate management decisions. An integrated control programme should include measures aimed at minimising chances of horizontal (ingestion of infective oocysts) and vertical (from mother to foetus) transmission thus interrupting the parasite life-cycle.</p>
<style>
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<div class="blue">
<p>Prevent Neospora transmission by enhancing biosecurity</p>
<ul>
<li><p>Dispose of aborted materials (foetuses and placenta) promptly and safely, as tissues infected by Neospora and other abortificient agents pose a high risk of infection.</p></li>
<li><p>Prevent dogs from having access to cattle areas, especially calving areas.</p></li>
<li><p>Prevent dogs from having access to cattle feed, pastures, fields for production of cattle forage and water sources.</p>
<ul>
<li>Control rodents on the farm. Rodents may act as intermediate hosts for Neospora and they may pose a risk if ingested by dogs.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:alltab">Table 6.4: </span>Combined frequency of detection of selected abortion agents on routine foetal culture.
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Organism
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No of Cases
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Coliforms
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
333
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Streptococcus spp
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
61
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Bacillus spp
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
11
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Yeasts and Fungi
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
10
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Salmonella spp (other than S. dublin)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Staph. spp
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Listeria spp
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Mannheimia haemolytica
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Pseudomonas spp
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Pasteurella multocida
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Histophilus somnus
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div id="secondary-pathogens" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">6.4</span> Secondary Pathogens</h2>
<p>These organisms form a diverse group of bacteria associated with opportunistic infections of placenta and foetus; they are incapable of transplacental infection unless there is a damage to the placenta or dam is immunocompromised. Since their presence is widespread in the environment, they can potentially cause maternal bacteraemia, reach the gravid uterus and trigger an opportunistic abortion. Table <a href="bovine-abortion.html#tab:alltab">6.4</a> summarises the number of cases in 2018, amongst them <em>Streptococcus spp.</em> (61 cases isolated), <em>Bacillus spp</em> (61), <em>Staphylococcus spp.</em> (9), <em>Mannheimia haemolytica</em> (6), <em>Pseudomonas spp.</em> (5), <em>Pasteurella multocida</em> (2), <em>Histophilus somnus</em> (1), <em>Yersinia pseudotuberculosis</em> (1).</p>
<p>Their presence in tissues of aborted foetuses should not be considered as definitive evidence of cause of abortion. For secondary pathogens to be the regarded as cause of abortion, they must be isolated from foetal material, have produced representative lesions and primary pathogens must have been excluded. Secondary pathogens usually cause sporadic abortions; multiple abortions can be a consequence of maternal health issues that facilitate haematogenous infections.</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:aspegillus"></span>
<img src="images/Aspergillus.jpg" alt="Angioinvasive: Aspergillus fumigatus invading through the endothelial cells of a blood vessel. Grocott's methenamine silver stain. Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel." width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 6.4: Angioinvasive: Aspergillus fumigatus invading through the endothelial cells of a blood vessel. Grocott’s methenamine silver stain. Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel.
</p>
</div>
<div id="mycotic-abortions" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">6.4.1</span> Mycotic abortions</h3>
<p>Mycotic abortions usually occur in the third trimester of pregnancy. <em>Aspergillus spp.</em> (Figure <a href="bovine-abortion.html#fig:aspegillus">6.4</a> and <em>Mucor spp.</em> are the most common organisms isolated (10 cases in 2018). Clinical signs in dams, apart from placental retention, are infrequently observed. Diagnosis of fungal abortion is based on demonstration of fungi and presence of consistent gross and histopathological lesions. Grossly visible placental lesions include a leathery, diffusely thickened intercotyledonary membrane with necrotic haemorrhagic infarcts in cotyledons. Foetal lesions may be absent and autolysis minimal. Occasionally, locally extensive circular skin lesions may be present on foetuses. Microscopically, there is a severe suppurative placental vasculitis with intralesional fungi . Inflammatory lesions associated with fungal invasion may be present in foetal respiratory and digestive systems. Direct identification of fungi using a potassium hydroxide wet-mount examination of lesion scrapings may facilitate diagnosis.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<h3>References</h3>
<div id="refs" class="references">
<div id="ref-Sanchez-Miguel2018">
<p>Sánchez-Miguel, C, J Crilly, J Grant, and J F Mee. 2018. “Sensitivity, Specificity and Predictive Probability Values of Serum Agglutination Test Titres for the Diagnosis of Salmonella Dublin Culture-Positive Bovine Abortion and Stillbirth.” <em>Transboundary and Emerging Diseases</em> 65 (3): 676–86. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.12784">10.1111/tbed.12784</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<hr />
<p style="text-align: center;font-size: medium">A cooperative effort between the VLS and the SAT Section of the <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/">DAFM</a></p>
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