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<li><a href="./">Disease Surveillance</a></li>
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<li><a href="index.html#section"></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Introduction</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.1" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#passive-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.1</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.2" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#climate-change"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.2</b> Climate change</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.3" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#the-report"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.3</b> The report</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1</b> Diseases of Cattle Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#neonatal-calves-birth-to-one-month-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.1</b> Neonatal Calves (birth to one month of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.2" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#calves-one-to-five-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.2</b> Calves (one to five months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.3" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#weanlings-six-months-to-one-year-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.3</b> Weanlings (six months to one year of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.4" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#adult-cattle-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.4</b> Adult Cattle (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2</b> Johne’s Disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-transmission"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.1</b> JD transmission</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.2</b> JD Diagnostics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.3" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#post-mortem-examination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.3</b> Post mortem examination</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#control-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4</b> Control Programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#acknowledgement"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4.1</b> Acknowledgement</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3</b> Clostridial disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.1" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#blackleg"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.1</b> Blackleg</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.2" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#botulism"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.2</b> Botulism</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#malignant-oedema"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.3</b> Malignant Oedema</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.4" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#enterotoxaemia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.4</b> Enterotoxaemia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.5" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#black-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.5</b> Black Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.6" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#braxy"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.6</b> Braxy</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.7" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-abomasitis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.7</b> Clostridial abomasitis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.8" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-vaccination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.8</b> Clostridial Vaccination</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4</b> Bovine Neonatal Enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#neonatal-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1</b> Neonatal enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#rotavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.1</b> Rotavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.2" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#cryptosporidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.2</b> <em>Cryptosporidiosis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.3" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coronavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.3</b> Coronavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#escherichia-coli-k99"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.4</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em> K99</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.5" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#salmonella-dublin"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.5</b> <em>Salmonella</em> Dublin</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.6" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#campylobacter-jejuni"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.6</b> <em>Campylobacter jejuni</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.7" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#giardia-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.7</b> <em>Giardia spp.</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.8" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coccidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.8</b> Coccidiosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5</b> Zinc Sulphate Turbidity (ZST) Test</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.1" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-test-and-the-importance-of-colostrum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.1</b> ZST test and the importance of colostrum</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.2" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#outline-of-2018-figures"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.2</b> Outline of 2018 figures</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.3" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#shortcomings-in-submission-practices"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.3</b> Shortcomings in submission practices</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.4" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-and-immunoglobulin-classes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.4</b> ZST and immunoglobulin classes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#post-mortem-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.5</b> <em>Post mortem</em> samples</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.6" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#ovine-submissions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.6</b> Ovine submissions</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6</b> Bovine Abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#primary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.1</b> Primary Pathogens</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#salmonella-dublin-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2</b> <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#listerial-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.1</b> Listerial abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#leptospiral-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.2</b> Leptospiral abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#minor-primary-abortifacients-sporadic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.3</b> Minor Primary Abortifacients (sporadic abortions)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#protoozoal-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.3</b> Protoozoal abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#secondary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4</b> Secondary Pathogens</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#mycotic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4.1</b> Mycotic abortions</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7</b> Bovine Mastitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#milk-culture-in-rvls"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1</b> Milk Culture in RVLs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#staphylococcus-aureus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#streptococcus-uberis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.3" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#truperella-pyogenes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.3</b> <em>Truperella pyogenes</em></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#contaminated-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.2</b> Contaminated samples</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8</b> Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD)</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.1" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#bacterial-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.1</b> Bacterial Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.2" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#viral-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.2</b> Viral Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.3" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#trends"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.3</b> Trends</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.4" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#parasitic-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.4</b> Parasitic Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9</b> Antimicrobial Resistance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#staphylococcus-aureus-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#streptococcus-uberis-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.3" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#pasteurella-multocida"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.3</b> <em>Pasteurella multocida</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.4" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#mannheimia-haemolytica"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.4</b> <em>Mannheimia haemolytica</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#escherichia-coli"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em></a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#maldi-tof"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.1</b> Maldi-ToF</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#whole-genome-sequencing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.2</b> Whole Genome Sequencing</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10</b> Bovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1</b> Trichostrongylidae</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1.1</b> Nematodirus spp.</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2</b> Coccidia</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2.1</b> Treatment and control</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#rumen-and-liver-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3</b> Rumen and Liver Fluke</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3.1</b> Treatment and Control</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11</b> Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD) Eradication Programme and Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1</b> Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) eradication programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#negative-herd-status-nhs"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.1</b> Negative herd status (NHS)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#targeted-advisory-service-on-animal-health-tasah"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.2</b> Targeted Advisory Service on Animal Health (TASAH)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.2</b> Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis eradication programme</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12</b> Sheep Diseases Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.1" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#diseases-of-sheep"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.1</b> Diseases of Sheep</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.2" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#lambs-birth-to-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.2</b> Lambs (birth to 12 months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.3" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#adult-sheep-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.3</b> Adult Sheep (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13</b> Ovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.1" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#agents-of-parasitic-gastroenteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.1</b> Agents of Parasitic Gastroenteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.2" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.2</b> Trichostrongylidae</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.3" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.3</b> Nematodirus</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.4" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.4</b> Coccidia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.5" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#liver-and-rumen-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.5</b> Liver and rumen fluke</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.6" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#sarcocystosis-cysticercosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.6</b> Sarcocystosis & Cysticercosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14</b> Disease of Pigs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#post-mortem-diagnoses"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1</b> Post mortem diagnoses</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#gastrointestinal-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.1</b> Gastrointestinal disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#systemic-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.2</b> Systemic disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.3" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.3</b> Respiratory disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#notifiable-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2</b> Notifiable disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#african-swine-fever-awareness"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2.1</b> African swine fever awareness</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15</b> Poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-influenza-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1</b> Avian Influenza Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-mycoplasma-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2</b> Avian Mycoplasma Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-salmonella-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.3</b> Avian Salmonella surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#newcastle-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.4</b> Newcastle Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#disease-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.5</b> DISEASE DIAGNOSTICS</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#case-reports-in-poultry"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6</b> Case reports in poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#tetratrichomonas-gallinarum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.1</b> <em>Tetratrichomonas gallinarum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#gallibacterium-anatis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.2</b> <em>Gallibacterium anatis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#enterococcus-caecorum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.3</b> <em>Enterococcus caecorum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#chronic-cholera"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.4</b> Chronic cholera</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#ornithobacterium-rhinotracheale"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.5</b> Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16" data-path="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><a href="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16</b> TB and Deer in Ireland</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17" data-path="r-packages.html"><a href="r-packages.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17</b> R packages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="references.html"><a href="references.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>References</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie" target="blank"> DAFM webpage</a></li>
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<div id="bovine-parasitic-diseases" class="section level1">
<h1><span class="header-section-number">Section 10</span> Bovine Parasitic Diseases</h1>
<p><br><br></p>
<blockquote>
<ul>
<li>Rebecca Froehlich
<ul>
<li>Research Officer, Sligo Regional Veterinary Laboratory, Doonally, Sligo, Ireland</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>
</blockquote>
<hr />
<p><br><br></p>
<p>Parasitic disease is consistently one of the most frequent <em>post-mortem</em> diagnosis in Regional Veterinary Laboratories. In addition, faecal samples are submitted for clinical diagnosis; the majority of these samples come from herds or flocks with animals showing clinical signs of diarrhoea and/or weight loss. <em>Fasciola hepatica</em> (Fasciolosis),Trichostrongylidae (Parasitic Gastro-Enteritis) and <em>Dictocaulus viviparus</em> (Parasitic Pneumonia) are the most important organisms responsible for parasitic disease in cattle and sheep.</p>
<p>Faecal samples submitted to DAFM laboratories are routinely examined for eggs (Trichostrongylidae,<a href="#fn1" class="footnoteRef" id="fnref1"><sup>1</sup></a> <em>Fasciola hepatica</em> and <em>C. daubneyi</em>), lungworm larvae (<em>Dictyocaulus viviparus</em>), and coccidial oocysts (Figure <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#fig:parasites">10.1</a>).</p>
<div id="trichostrongylidae" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">10.1</span> Trichostrongylidae</h2>
<p><em>Ostertagia ostertagi</em> and <em>Cooperia oncophora</em> are the most prevalent nematodes affecting cattle in the Republic of Ireland <span class="citation">(Murphy et al. <a href="#ref-Murphy2006a">2006</a>)</span>. These parasites can cause parasitic gastro-enteritis with acute clinical disease significantly reducing productivity of affected animals. <em>O. ostertagi</em> triggers two different syndromes in weanlings: Ostertagiosis <em>Type 1</em> which typically occurs in late summer or autumn after a mass emergence of larvae on fields.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:Rebecca1">Table 10.1: </span>Charateristic comparison of the two most prevalent nematodes affecting cattle in the Republic of Ireland.
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Cooperia oncophora
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Ostertagia ostertagi
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 15em; ">
Small intestine
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 15em; ">
Glands of abomasum
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 15em; ">
Adult stage 15-18 days PI*
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 15em; ">
Adult stage 18-21 days PI
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 15em; ">
Immunity develops after first grazing season
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 15em; ">
Immunity develops after second grazing season
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
<tfoot>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<sup>*</sup> Post-Infection
</td>
</tr>
</tfoot>
</table>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:parasites"></span>
<img src="images/Parasites.jpg" alt="Modified McMaster fecal egg counting. Microscopic appearance of parasitic eggs and oocysts in a faecal smear: *Trichostrongyles* (blue arrow), *Nematodirus* (red arrow), Larvated *strongyloid* egg (yellow arrow) and *coccidial* oocysts (green arrow). Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel." width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.1: Modified McMaster fecal egg counting. Microscopic appearance of parasitic eggs and oocysts in a faecal smear: <em>Trichostrongyles</em> (blue arrow), <em>Nematodirus</em> (red arrow), Larvated <em>strongyloid</em> egg (yellow arrow) and <em>coccidial</em> oocysts (green arrow). Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel.
</p>
</div>
<p>Ostertagiosis <em>Type 2</em>, observed especially in late winter and early spring and caused by larvae which experienced a delayed development in abomasal mucosa (hypobiosis). Ostertagiosis <em>Type 2</em> usually shows poor response to treatment; however, it can be prevented by appropriate treatment at time of housing. In general, cattle develop immunity to parasites (Table <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#tab:Rebecca1">10.1</a>); this immunity does not prevent infection but halts development of clinical disease.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:trycotabdos">Table 10.2: </span>Number of bovine faecal samples tested for Trichostrongylidae eggs in 2018 and results by percentage (n= 4530 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Result
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of samples
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Negative
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3625
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
80.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Low (50-500 epg)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
683
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
15.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Medium (500-1200 epg)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
132
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
High (>1200 epg)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
90
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2.0
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p>In the last decade, it has been shown that cows can develop a subclinical parasitic infection with <em>O. ostertagi</em> which can lead to significant production losses linked to reduced milk yields, weight loss, non-specific immune suppression and mortality <span class="citation">(Delafosse <a href="#ref-Delafosse2013">2013</a>)</span>.</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:trycofiguno"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/trycofiguno-1.png" alt="Stacked count of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested per month for Trichostrongylidae during 2018. The percentage in each bar represents positive samples (n= 4530 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.2: Stacked count of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested per month for Trichostrongylidae during 2018. The percentage in each bar represents positive samples (n= 4530 ).
</p>
</div>
<p>Faecal samples for investigation of parasitic burden in cattle were received throughout the year with peaks from May to August and in November (Figures <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#fig:trycofiguno">10.2</a> and <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#fig:trycofigdos">10.3</a>). The peak during summer months covers the traditional grazing season and is most likely due to monitoring efforts. The high number of submissions in November coincides with the beginning of housing, which commonly associates with antiparasitical treatment. The highest amount of samples yielding positive results occurred in spring, late autumn and early winter (Figures <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#fig:trycofiguno">10.2</a> and <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#fig:trycofigdos">10.3</a>).</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:trycofigdos"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/trycofigdos-1.png" alt="Percentage of positive bovine faecal samples for Trichostrongylidae eggs in 2018 (n= 4530 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.3: Percentage of positive bovine faecal samples for Trichostrongylidae eggs in 2018 (n= 4530 ).
</p>
</div>
<div id="nematodirus-spp." class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">10.1.1</span> Nematodirus spp.</h3>
<p>Also called <em>thread necked worms</em> are a species of nematodes which mainly affect small ruminants, but have been reported to cause disease in cattle.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:nematabuno">Table 10.3: </span>Number of bovine faecal samples for Nematodirus eggs in 2018 and results by percentage (n= 4529 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Result
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of samples
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Negative
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
4441
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
98.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Low (50-500 epg)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
77
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
1.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Medium (500-1200 epg)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
8
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0.2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
High (>1200 epg)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
0.1
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><em>Nematodirus battus</em> is the most significant species in Ireland and affects mainly naive young lambs. <em>N. helvetianus</em>, which is more likely to infect cattle, has been noted across Europe but appears to be more common across Australia and Asia <span class="citation">(McMahon et al. <a href="#ref-McMahon2017">2017</a>)</span>.</p>
<p>In 2018, there was an an insignificant number of bovine faecal samples were <em>Nematodirus</em> eggs were present (Table <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#tab:nematabuno">10.3</a>).</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="coccidia" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">10.2</span> Coccidia</h2>
<p>Coccidia (<em>Eimeria spp.</em>) are protozoa (Figure <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#fig:coccidia">10.4</a> which can cause significant clinical disease in calves and lambs from 3 <em>weeks</em> to 9 <em>months</em> of age. Diarrhoea and dysentery are common signs of clinical coccidiosis. While there is a wide range of coccida species, only three species are considered pathogenic in cattle: <em>Eimeria bovis</em>, <em>Eimeria zuerni</em> and <em>Eimeria alabamensis</em>. Coccidia are host specific.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:Rebeca2">Table 10.4: </span>Comparison of the pre-patent periods of Eimeria spp.
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Eimeria
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Pre-patent period*
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 10em; font-style: italic;">
Eimeria bovis
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 10em; ">
21 days
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 10em; font-style: italic;">
Eimeria zuerni
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 10em; ">
21 days
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 10em; font-style: italic;">
Eimeria alabamensis
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 10em; ">
8-12 days
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
<tfoot>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<span style="font-style: italic;">Note: </span>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<sup></sup> * Time between infection of the animal and
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<sup></sup> the first appearance of oocysts in faeces
</td>
</tr>
</tfoot>
</table>
<p><br><br></p>
<style>
div.blue { background-color:#e6f0ff; border-radius: 5px; padding: 20px;}
</style>
<div class="blue">
<ul>
<li>Coccidia have a life cycle of 21 <em>days</em>. Examining calf faeces for oocysts before 21 <em>days</em> of age will produce a false negative result.</li>
<li>Oocyst production in clinical cases of coccidiosis may be low. Therefore, it is a good idea to sample comrades which are as yet unaffected.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
<p>Clinical disease in adults is rather uncommon as immunity to the disease can develop quickly. Disease is usually self-limiting lasting 3–4 <em>weeks</em>, the time frame for parasites to complete their life cycle in host. Infection occurs after ingestion of sporulated oocysts, these release sporozoites that penetrate the epithelial cells of small and large intestine. Further development continues within epithelial cells where coccidia mature and produce oocysts for excretion in faeces; affected epithelial cells are destroyed leading to rapid and severe damage of intestinal epithelium.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:coccitabuno">Table 10.5: </span>Number of bovine faecal samples submitted in 2018 (all ages) for detection of coccidial oocysts and results by percentage, (n= 4506 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Result
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of samples
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Not Detected
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3536
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
78
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Light Infection
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
712
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
16
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Moderate Infection
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
148
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Heavy Infection
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
71
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Severe Infection
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
39
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
1
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:coccidia"></span>
<img src="images/CoccidiosisSmall.jpg" alt="Microscopic appearance of coccidial oocyst in a faecal smear (light microscope at 100x-Oil). Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel." width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.4: Microscopic appearance of coccidial oocyst in a faecal smear (light microscope at 100x-Oil). Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel.
</p>
</div>
<p>As in previous years, in 2018 the majority of positive samples contained low numbers of oocysts and would not be considered of clinical significance (Table <a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#tab:coccitabuno">10.5</a>).</p>
<p><br><br></p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:unnamed-chunk-94"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-94-1.png" alt="Stacked number of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested for coccidial oocysts in 2018. The percentage in each bar represents the number of positives (n= 4506 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.5: Stacked number of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested for coccidial oocysts in 2018. The percentage in each bar represents the number of positives (n= 4506 ).
</p>
</div>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:unnamed-chunk-95"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-95-1.png" alt="Count of bovine faecal samples exmined for coccidial oocysts in 2018 (n= 4506 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.6: Count of bovine faecal samples exmined for coccidial oocysts in 2018 (n= 4506 ).
</p>
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
<style>
div.blue { background-color:#e6f0ff; border-radius: 5px; padding: 20px;}
</style>
<div class="blue">
<ul>
<li>Avoidance of faecal contamination of feed and water, maintenance of dry bedding, not mixing age groups and, if necessary, the use of prophylacric anticoccidian drugs help to protect calves from exposure to large amounts of coccidial oocysts. This enables calves to acquired immunity without development of clinical signs and loss in production.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
<div id="treatment-and-control" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">10.2.1</span> Treatment and control</h3>
<p>Anti-protozoal treatment at the occurrence of clinical signs is usually unrewarding as diarrrhoea indicates the end of coccidia life cycle in host and that severe intestinal damage is already present.</p>
<p>Consequently, where high environmental contamination is present, control is best achieved by hygiene and prophylactic treatment.</p>
<p>Currently, there a three anticoccidials registered for the use in bovine in the Republic of Ireland:</p>
<ul>
<li>Decoquinate: 60.6 <em>g/kg</em> premix for medicated feeding stuff</li>
<li>Diclazuril: 2.5 <em>mg/ml</em> oral suspension</li>
<li>Toltrazuril: 50 <em>mg/ml</em> oral suspension</li>
</ul>
<p>For further information please refer to the manufacturers’ advice.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div id="rumen-and-liver-fluke" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">10.3</span> Rumen and Liver Fluke</h2>
<p>The most relevant trematodes in Ireland are liver fluke species <em>Fasciola hepatica</em> and rumen fluke species <em>Calicophoron daubneyi</em>. If measured by the detection of eggs in faecal samples, in recent years the prevalence of <em>Fasciola hepatica</em> appears to have declined, whereas rumen fluke appears to stay static ( <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/animalhealthwelfare/labservice/rvlreports/AIDSRReport016230118.pdf">All-island Disease Surveillance Report,</a>, <span class="citation">(Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine <a href="#ref-AIDSR2016">2018</a>)</span>).</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:unnamed-chunk-97">Table 10.6: </span>Number of bovine faecal samples submitted in 2018 (all ages) for detection of liver fluke eggs and results by the percentage (n= 3853 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Result
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of samples
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Liver fluke eggs not detected
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3722
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
97
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Positive liver fluke eggs
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
131
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
3
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:unnamed-chunk-99"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-99-1.png" alt="Stacked number of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested for liver fluke in 2018. The percentage in each bar represents the number of positive samples per month (n= 3853 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.7: Stacked number of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested for liver fluke in 2018. The percentage in each bar represents the number of positive samples per month (n= 3853 ).
</p>
</div>
<p><em>Fasciola hepatica</em> causes disease in cattle mainly during the chronic phase of the infestation, when adults trematodes inhabit liver tissue. Clinical signs include weight loss, diarrhoea and hypoproteinaemia due to liver damage and epithelial loss in the intestine.</p>
<p>Risk of infection with both parasites varies from year to year depending on climatic conditions, especially rainfall and surface moisture. Wet ground conditions at moderate temperatures, as occurring in Ireland during spring and summer, particularly favour reproduction and spread of the mollusk intermediary host (<em>Galba trunculata</em>), development of fluke in intermediary host and shedding of the metacercaria on pasture.</p>
<p>Every autumn, to assist farmers and private veterinary practitioners, DAFM issues a fluke forecast based on analysis of meteorological data for the preceding 6 <em>months</em>.</p>
<p>In 2018, as in previous years, rumen fluke eggs were more often detected in bovine faecal samples than liver fluke eggs.</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:RumenFluke2"></span>
<img src="images/RumenFluke2.jpg" alt="Microphotography of a Rumen fluke (Calicophoron daubneyi) attached to the rumen wall by its oral sucker. Photo:Cosme Sánchez-Miguel." width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.8: Microphotography of a Rumen fluke (Calicophoron daubneyi) attached to the rumen wall by its oral sucker. Photo:Cosme Sánchez-Miguel.
</p>
</div>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:unnamed-chunk-101">Table 10.7: </span>Presence of Rumen fluke eggs in bovine faecal samples in 2018 (n= 3853 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Result
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of samples
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Rumen fluke eggs not detected
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2453
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
64
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Positive rumen fluke eggs
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1400
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
36
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><br><br></p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:unnamed-chunk-103"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/unnamed-chunk-103-1.png" alt="Stacked count of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested for rumen fluke. The percentage in each bar represents positive samples (n= 3853 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 10.9: Stacked count of bovine faecal samples (all ages) tested for rumen fluke. The percentage in each bar represents positive samples (n= 3853 ).
</p>
</div>
<p>Rumen fluke is mainly described to cause disease during the juvenile phase of the parasite, when it inhabits the duodenum from several weeks to months, attaching to duodenal wall. Severe disease outbreaks have been described when young animals were exposed to large number of metacercariae in the field <span class="citation">(O’Shaughnessy et al. <a href="#ref-oshaughnessy2018">2018</a>)</span>. However, cases of clinical disease are very rare with only 3–4 cases being reported annually in Ireland <span class="citation">(Toolan et al. <a href="#ref-Toolan2015">2015</a>)</span>.</p>
<p>To date, adult rumen fluke living in the rumen and attaching to ruminal mucosa are not thought to cause significant disease, however there is some evidence of inflammatory changes occurring in reticulum and rumen during infestation.</p>
<p>Both, liver and rumen fluke parasites, use the same molluscan intermediary host, the mud snail (<em>Galba trunculata</em>), possibly leading to an interspecific competition between larval stages of the two species, which might have an additional impact on the relative abundance of infection. Further research might be needed to elucidate this further <span class="citation">(Deplazes et al. <a href="#ref-Deplazes2016">2016</a>)</span>.</p>
<div id="treatment-and-control-1" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">10.3.1</span> Treatment and Control</h3>
<p>There is a variety of flukicides available for treatment and control of <em>Fasciola hepatica</em>. However, due to regulatory changes in recent years, restrictions apply for use in dairy cattle depending on the active ingredient and the reproductive stage of the animals. Further on, when choosing a suitable treatment, consideration of the developmental stage of the parasite is needed as only some products affect juvenile stages (e.g. Triclabendazole, Closantel, Nitroxinyl) whereas other products only affect the adult stage (>12 <em>weeks</em>) of the parasite. Depending on the product and the time of application (e.g. at housing) a repeat or delay in treatment might be appropriate.</p>
<p><br><br></p>
<style>
div.blue { background-color:#e6f0ff; border-radius: 5px; padding: 20px;}
</style>
<div class="blue">
<ul>
<li><p>Sedimentation method detects both eggs, <em>Fasciola hepatica</em> (liver fluke) and <em>Calicophoron daubneyi</em> (rumen fluke).</p></li>
<li><p>The significance of <em>rumen fluke</em> eggs in cattle faeces is difficult to determine, adults are not considered to be pathogenic while larvae are. If eggs are found in a number of animals with poor thriving, treatment may be warranted. Alternatively, if eggs are found in healthy cattle in good condition, it may be wise just to monitor thrive.</p></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
<p>Finally, there is also evidence that there is emerging resistance against some flukicides , in particular Triclabendazole, consequently, the choice of appropriate flukicide, needs to be prudent and circumspect <span class="citation">(Kelley et al. <a href="#ref-Kelley2016">2016</a>)</span>. A comprehensive list of available flukicides, including restrictions, is available from the Irish Health Products Regulatory Authority (<a href="https://www.hpra.ie/docs/default-source/Safety-Notices/flukicides-doc-updated-2013-11-26.pdf?sfvrsn=0">HPRA</a>). To date, there is no registered treatment for rumen fluke (<em>C. daubneyi</em>) available. However, there has been evidence that some products like oxyclozanide and closantel show good activity against adult rumen fluke infestation and lead to a reduction in faecal egg count. Dose rates and related side effects, as well as route of administration, appear to have an impact on treatment success <span class="citation">(Arias et al. <a href="#ref-Arias2013">2013</a>, <span class="citation">Malrait et al. (<a href="#ref-Malrait2015">2015</a>)</span>)</span>.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<h3>References</h3>
<div id="refs" class="references">
<div id="ref-Murphy2006a">
<p>Murphy, T.M., K.N. Fahy, A. McAuliffe, A.B. Forbes, T.A. Clegg, and D.J. O’Brien. 2006. “A Study of Helminth Parasites in Culled Cows from Ireland.” <em>Preventive Veterinary Medicine</em> 76 (1): 1–10. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2006.04.005">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2006.04.005</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Delafosse2013">
<p>Delafosse, Arnaud. 2013. “The Association Between Ostertagia Ostertagi Antibodies in Bulk Tank Milk Samples and Parameters Linked to Cattle Reproduction and Mortality.” <em>Veterinary Parasitology</em> 197 (1): 212–20. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.05.023">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.05.023</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-McMahon2017">
<p>McMahon, Connor, Hillary W. J. Edgar, Jason P. Barley, Robert E. B. Hanna, Gerard P. Brennan, and Ian Fairweather. 2017. “Control of Nematodirus Spp. Infection by Sheep Flock Owners in Northern Ireland.” <em>Irish Veterinary Journal</em> 70 (1): 31. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13620-017-0109-6">10.1186/s13620-017-0109-6</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-AIDSR2016">
<p>Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine. 2018. “Policy on Highest Priority Critically Important Antimicrobials.” Dept. of Agriculture, Food; the Marine. <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/animalhealthwelfare/amr/PolicyHighestPriorityCriticallyImpAntimicrobials191118.pdf" class="uri">https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/animalhealthwelfare/amr/PolicyHighestPriorityCriticallyImpAntimicrobials191118.pdf</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-oshaughnessy2018">
<p>O’Shaughnessy, James, Andres Garcia-Campos, Conor G. McAloon, Seamus Fagan, Theo de Waal, Maire McElroy, Micheal Casey, et al. 2018. “Epidemiological Investigation of a Severe Rumen Fluke Outbreak on an Irish Dairy Farm.” <em>Parasitology</em> 145 (7). Cambridge University Press: 948–52. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182017002086">10.1017/S0031182017002086</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Toolan2015">
<p>Toolan, Dónal P., Gillian Mitchell, Kate Searle, Maresa Sheehan, Philip J. Skuce, and Ruth N. Zadoks. 2015. “Bovine and Ovine Rumen Fluke in Ireland—Prevalence, Risk Factors and Species Identity Based on Passive Veterinary Surveillance and Abattoir Findings.” <em>Veterinary Parasitology</em> 212 (3): 168–74. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.07.040">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.07.040</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Deplazes2016">
<p>Deplazes, Peter, Johannes Eckert, Alexander Mathis, G von Samson-Himmelstjern, and Horst Zahner. 2016. <em>Parasitology in Veterinary Medicine.</em> Wageningen Academic Publishers.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Kelley2016">
<p>Kelley, Jane M, Timothy P Elliott, Travis Beddoe, Glenn Anderson, Philip Skuce, and Terry W Spithill. 2016. “Current Threat of Triclabendazole Resistance in Fasciola Hepatica.” <em>Trends in Parasitology</em> 32 (6). Elsevier: 458–69.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Arias2013">
<p>Arias, MS, J Sanchís, I Francisco, R Francisco, P Piñeiro, C Cazapal-Monteiro, FJ Cortinas, JL Suarez, R Sanchez-Andrade, and A Paz-Silva. 2013. “The Efficacy of Four Anthelmintics Against Calicophoron Daubneyi in Naturally Infected Dairy Cattle.” <em>Veterinary Parasitology</em> 197 (1-2). Elsevier: 126–29.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Malrait2015">
<p>Malrait, Karen, Sien Verschave, Philip Skuce, Hans Van Loo, Jozef Vercruysse, and Johannes Charlier. 2015. “Novel Insights into the Pathogenic Importance, Diagnosis and Treatment of the Rumen Fluke (Calicophoron Daubneyi) in Cattle.” <em>Veterinary Parasitology</em> 207 (1): 134–39. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.10.033">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.10.033</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<div class="footnotes">
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<li id="fn1"><p>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.<a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#fnref1">↩</a></p></li>
</ol>
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<p style="text-align: center;font-size: medium">A cooperative effort between the VLS and the SAT Section of the <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/">DAFM</a></p>
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