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<li><a href="./">Disease Surveillance</a></li>
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<li><a href="index.html#section"></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Introduction</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.1" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#passive-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.1</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.2" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#climate-change"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.2</b> Climate change</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.3" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#the-report"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.3</b> The report</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1</b> Diseases of Cattle Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#neonatal-calves-birth-to-one-month-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.1</b> Neonatal Calves (birth to one month of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.2" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#calves-one-to-five-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.2</b> Calves (one to five months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.3" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#weanlings-six-months-to-one-year-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.3</b> Weanlings (six months to one year of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.4" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#adult-cattle-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.4</b> Adult Cattle (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2</b> Johne’s Disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-transmission"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.1</b> JD transmission</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.2</b> JD Diagnostics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.3" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#post-mortem-examination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.3</b> Post mortem examination</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#control-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4</b> Control Programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#acknowledgement"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4.1</b> Acknowledgement</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3</b> Clostridial disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.1" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#blackleg"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.1</b> Blackleg</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.2" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#botulism"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.2</b> Botulism</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#malignant-oedema"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.3</b> Malignant Oedema</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.4" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#enterotoxaemia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.4</b> Enterotoxaemia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.5" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#black-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.5</b> Black Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.6" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#braxy"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.6</b> Braxy</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.7" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-abomasitis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.7</b> Clostridial abomasitis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.8" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-vaccination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.8</b> Clostridial Vaccination</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4</b> Bovine Neonatal Enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#neonatal-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1</b> Neonatal enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#rotavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.1</b> Rotavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.2" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#cryptosporidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.2</b> <em>Cryptosporidiosis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.3" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coronavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.3</b> Coronavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#escherichia-coli-k99"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.4</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em> K99</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.5" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#salmonella-dublin"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.5</b> <em>Salmonella</em> Dublin</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.6" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#campylobacter-jejuni"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.6</b> <em>Campylobacter jejuni</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.7" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#giardia-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.7</b> <em>Giardia spp.</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.8" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coccidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.8</b> Coccidiosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5</b> Zinc Sulphate Turbidity (ZST) Test</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.1" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-test-and-the-importance-of-colostrum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.1</b> ZST test and the importance of colostrum</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.2" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#outline-of-2018-figures"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.2</b> Outline of 2018 figures</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.3" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#shortcomings-in-submission-practices"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.3</b> Shortcomings in submission practices</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.4" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-and-immunoglobulin-classes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.4</b> ZST and immunoglobulin classes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#post-mortem-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.5</b> <em>Post mortem</em> samples</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.6" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#ovine-submissions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.6</b> Ovine submissions</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6</b> Bovine Abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#primary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.1</b> Primary Pathogens</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#salmonella-dublin-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2</b> <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#listerial-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.1</b> Listerial abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#leptospiral-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.2</b> Leptospiral abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#minor-primary-abortifacients-sporadic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.3</b> Minor Primary Abortifacients (sporadic abortions)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#protoozoal-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.3</b> Protoozoal abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#secondary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4</b> Secondary Pathogens</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#mycotic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4.1</b> Mycotic abortions</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7</b> Bovine Mastitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#milk-culture-in-rvls"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1</b> Milk Culture in RVLs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#staphylococcus-aureus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#streptococcus-uberis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.3" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#truperella-pyogenes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.3</b> <em>Truperella pyogenes</em></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#contaminated-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.2</b> Contaminated samples</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8</b> Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD)</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.1" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#bacterial-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.1</b> Bacterial Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.2" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#viral-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.2</b> Viral Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.3" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#trends"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.3</b> Trends</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.4" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#parasitic-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.4</b> Parasitic Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9</b> Antimicrobial Resistance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#staphylococcus-aureus-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#streptococcus-uberis-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.3" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#pasteurella-multocida"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.3</b> <em>Pasteurella multocida</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.4" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#mannheimia-haemolytica"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.4</b> <em>Mannheimia haemolytica</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#escherichia-coli"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em></a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#maldi-tof"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.1</b> Maldi-ToF</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#whole-genome-sequencing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.2</b> Whole Genome Sequencing</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10</b> Bovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1</b> Trichostrongylidae</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1.1</b> Nematodirus spp.</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2</b> Coccidia</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2.1</b> Treatment and control</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#rumen-and-liver-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3</b> Rumen and Liver Fluke</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3.1</b> Treatment and Control</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11</b> Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD) Eradication Programme and Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1</b> Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) eradication programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#negative-herd-status-nhs"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.1</b> Negative herd status (NHS)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#targeted-advisory-service-on-animal-health-tasah"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.2</b> Targeted Advisory Service on Animal Health (TASAH)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.2</b> Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis eradication programme</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12</b> Sheep Diseases Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.1" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#diseases-of-sheep"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.1</b> Diseases of Sheep</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.2" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#lambs-birth-to-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.2</b> Lambs (birth to 12 months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.3" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#adult-sheep-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.3</b> Adult Sheep (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13</b> Ovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.1" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#agents-of-parasitic-gastroenteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.1</b> Agents of Parasitic Gastroenteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.2" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.2</b> Trichostrongylidae</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.3" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.3</b> Nematodirus</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.4" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.4</b> Coccidia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.5" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#liver-and-rumen-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.5</b> Liver and rumen fluke</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.6" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#sarcocystosis-cysticercosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.6</b> Sarcocystosis & Cysticercosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14</b> Disease of Pigs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#post-mortem-diagnoses"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1</b> Post mortem diagnoses</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#gastrointestinal-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.1</b> Gastrointestinal disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#systemic-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.2</b> Systemic disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.3" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.3</b> Respiratory disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#notifiable-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2</b> Notifiable disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#african-swine-fever-awareness"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2.1</b> African swine fever awareness</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15</b> Poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-influenza-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1</b> Avian Influenza Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-mycoplasma-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2</b> Avian Mycoplasma Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-salmonella-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.3</b> Avian Salmonella surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#newcastle-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.4</b> Newcastle Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#disease-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.5</b> DISEASE DIAGNOSTICS</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#case-reports-in-poultry"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6</b> Case reports in poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#tetratrichomonas-gallinarum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.1</b> <em>Tetratrichomonas gallinarum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#gallibacterium-anatis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.2</b> <em>Gallibacterium anatis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#enterococcus-caecorum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.3</b> <em>Enterococcus caecorum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#chronic-cholera"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.4</b> Chronic cholera</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#ornithobacterium-rhinotracheale"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.5</b> Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16" data-path="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><a href="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16</b> TB and Deer in Ireland</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17" data-path="r-packages.html"><a href="r-packages.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17</b> R packages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="references.html"><a href="references.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>References</a></li>
<li class="divider"></li>
<li><a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie" target="blank"> DAFM webpage</a></li>
</ul>
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<h1>
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<img src="images/logo.png" align="right" height="130">
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<div id="poultry" class="section level1">
<h1><span class="header-section-number">Section 15</span> Poultry</h1>
<hr />
<p><br><br></p>
<blockquote>
<ul>
<li>Laura Garza Cuartero</li>
<li>Olwen Golden</li>
<li>Ann Sharpe
<ul>
<li>Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, DAFM, Backweston, Co. Kildare, Ireland</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>
</blockquote>
<hr />
<p><br><br></p>
<div id="avian-influenza-surveillance" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">15.1</span> Avian Influenza Surveillance</h2>
<p>Avian influenza type A is a contagious disease caused by viruses which are naturally found in, and adapted to, populations of wild birds. Avian influenza viruses can also affect poultry and mammalian species including rodents, pigs, cats, dogs, horses and humans.</p>
<p>Based on the severity of the disease, Avian Influenza is divided into low pathogenic (LPAI) and high pathogenic (HPAI) strains. LPAI may present with mild or no clinical signs in poultry. On the other hand, HPAI strains can cause severe clinical signs such as respiratory signs, reduced food intake, diarrhoea and nervous signs. In some cases, HPAI strains can cause sudden death with no other symptoms; in layers, drop in egg production and poor egg quality has been reported.</p>
<p>Avian Influenza viruses are classified into subtypes based on two surface proteins: haemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). H5 and H7 subtypes have been associated with acute clinical disease in chickens, turkeys and other birds of economic importance.</p>
<div id="active-surveillance" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.1.1</span> Active surveillance</h3>
<p>DAFM carries out two types of active surveillance for avian influenza.</p>
<div id="serology-testing-in-poultry-for-the-national-poultry-health-programme-php" class="section level4">
<h4><span class="header-section-number">15.1.1.1</span> Serology testing in poultry for the national Poultry Health Programme (PHP)</h4>
<p>The Poultry Health Programme is a DAFM surveillance programme supporting poultry trade and complying with EU regulations and ‘Council Directive 2009/158/EC of 30 November 2009 on animal health conditions governing intra-Community trade in, and imports from third countries of, poultry and hatching eggs’. PHP also includes testing for <em>Mycoplasma</em> and <em>Salmonella arizonae</em>. Last year, 13301 poultry species were tested through this programme (Table <a href="poultry.html#tab:ptabuno">15.1</a>).</p>
</div>
<div id="h5-and-h7-serology-testing-of-poultry-under-the-eu-poultry-surveillance-scheme" class="section level4">
<h4><span class="header-section-number">15.1.1.2</span> H5 and H7 serology testing of poultry under the EU Poultry Surveillance Scheme</h4>
<p>Ireland uses the representative sampling method described in the Commission Implementing Decision 2010/367/EU of 25 June 2010 on the implementation by Member States of surveillance programmes for avian influenza in poultry and wild birds. In 2018, 10263 samples were tested for H5 and H7 HAI. Up to 2018, results have been reported to the European Commission; from 2019 onwards, results will be submitted to EFSA. Categories sampled for the EU Poultry Surveillance Scheme include:</p>
<ul>
<li>Broilers - Free Range</li>
<li>Chicken Breeders</li>
<li>Layers - Free Range</li>
<li>Layers - Non-Free Range</li>
<li>Fattening Turkeys</li>
<li>Turkey Breeders</li>
<li>Fattening Ducks</li>
<li>Fattening Geese</li>
</ul>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:chicken"></span>
<img src="images/chicken2.jpg" alt="Group of hens. Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel" width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 15.1: Group of hens. Photo: Cosme Sánchez-Miguel
</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="passive-surveillance-1" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.1.2</span> Passive surveillance</h3>
<div id="pcr-testing-of-wild-birds" class="section level4">
<h4><span class="header-section-number">15.1.2.1</span> PCR testing of wild birds</h4>
<p>Wild bird surveillance for avian influenza in Ireland is risk-based. It is implemented as a passive surveillance scheme; dead, moribund or sick birds are reported to DAFM by members of the public or the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) by ringing the Avian Influenza Hotline (076 1064403) or the after-hours number (1850 200456). Birds are collected by trained personnel and submitted to <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/animalhealthwelfare/laboratoryservices/regionalveterinarylaboratories/">Regional Veterinary Laboratories (RVL)</a> for sampling. Samples are then submitted to the Central Veterinary Research Laboratory (CVRL) where Avian Influenza testing is carried out. A list of species of wild birds to be targeted for surveillance for avian influenza is provided by the Commission Implementing Decision 2010/367/EU in accordance with the scientific opinion provided by EFSA. <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/media/migration/animalhealthwelfare/diseasecontrols/avianinfluenzabirdflu/informationonwildbirds/ListOfWildBirdSpeciesForTargetedAIsurveillance170118.pdf">The list of wild birds to be targeted for AI surveillance (H5 HPAI)</a> is amended according to the demographics of each country.</p>
<p>Until 2018, results of wild bird surveillance were submitted to the European Commission; from 2019 onwards, results will be submitted to EFSA. In 2018, 148 wild birds were tested. Of these, two white-tailed sea-eagles and one common buzzard were Avian influenza positive (H5N6), one mute swan was AI positive but not H5, H7, N1 or N8 (Table <a href="poultry.html#tab:ptabuno">15.1</a>).</p>
</div>
<div id="pcr-testing-of-poultry" class="section level4">
<h4><span class="header-section-number">15.1.2.2</span> PCR testing of poultry</h4>
<p>Avian influenza is a notifiable disease in Ireland, meaning that anyone who suspects that an animal may have the disease is legally obliged to notify DAFM. Poultry samples and carcasses are submitted routinely to RVLs and CVRL by private veterinary practitioners (PVPs) and backyard flocks owners for PCR testing for the purposes of diagnosis, screening and exports/imports. Farmers are encouraged to report suspect avian influenza cases to their local Regional Veterinary Office and to make use of their local Regional Veterinary Laboratory to aid with diagnosis of disease conditions. All data on Avian Influenza surveillance must be provided to the European Reference Laboratory (EURL) annually. Last year, 696 poultry birds were submitted and tested for AI PCR.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:ptabuno">Table 15.1: </span>Avian influenza surveillance testing during 2018 in Ireland
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Type
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Animals
</th>
<th style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Positive
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 20em; font-weight: bold;">
Poultry Health Programme (AGID test)
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
13301
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 20em; font-weight: bold;">
H5 and H7-EU Surveillance (HI test)
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
10263
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 20em; font-weight: bold;">
Poultry - PCR
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
696
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;width: 20em; font-weight: bold;">
Wild birds - PCR
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
148
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
4*
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
<tfoot>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<sup>*</sup> Three H5N6 and one non-HPAI
</td>
</tr>
</tfoot>
</table>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<div id="avian-mycoplasma-surveillance" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">15.2</span> Avian Mycoplasma Surveillance</h2>
<div id="active-surveillance-1" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.2.1</span> Active surveillance</h3>
<p>The Poultry Health Programme operated by DAFM includes surveillance for poultry mycoplasmosis. <em>Mycoplasma spp.</em> in poultry, whilst of no public health concern, can present significant problems, both commercially and, potentially, for bird welfare. Therefore, poultry are screened for <em>Mycoplasma gallisepticum</em> and/or <em>Mycoplasma meleagridis</em>.</p>
<p>-<em>Mycoplasma gallisepticum</em> (MG)This mycoplasma is associated with chronic respiratory disease. Typically, it is slow in onset and can result in significant commercial losses. This mycoplasma can infect chickens, turkeys and game birds. Ducks and geese can also become infected, particularly when associated with infected chickens. -<em>Mycoplasma meleagridis</em> (MM) With this mycoplasma vertical transmission through eggs can be a significant factor. It is a disease of breeding turkeys with clinical signs possible in progeny chicks. Respiratory symptoms are the main cause of economic loss.</p>
<p>DAFM Poultry Health Programme seeks to provide a surveillance platform for MG and MM. As part of this programme, breeding flocks are routinely tested for serological evidence of MG (turkeys and chickens) or MM (turkeys only). The plan for each poultry subgroup varies but, typically, flocks are subject to serological testing at pre-movement (from rearing), point of lay and during production (typically every 12 <em>weeks</em>).</p>
<p>Frequency of sampling is set out in the <em>Council Directive 2009/158/EC of 30 November 2009 on animal health conditions governing intra-Community trade in, and imports from third countries of, poultry and hatching eggs</em>, and the <em>EU commission Decision 2011/214/EU</em>. Sample size is based on a representative sampling strategy: 60 birds per house in houses of 1000 birds or more, with design prevalence of 5 <em>per cent</em>.</p>
<p>In 2018, 30620 and 1730 serum samples were screened for <em>M. gallisepticum</em> and <em>M. meleagridis</em>, respectively, at CVRL as part of DAFM official sampling (Table <a href="poultry.html#tab:official">15.2</a>).</p>
</div>
<div id="passive-surveillance-2" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.2.2</span> Passive surveillance</h3>
<p>In addition to <em>M. meleagridids</em> and <em>M. gallisepticum</em>, <em>M. synoviae</em> is also tested as passive surveillance. In Ireland, these three serotypes are notifiable diseases, meaning that anyone who suspects an animal may have this disease is legally obliged to notify DAFM.</p>
<p>Beyond disease reporting, DAFM operates a network of RVLs, strategically located around the country. Farmers and PVPs are encouraged to report suspects to their local Regional Veterinary Office and to make use of their local RVL to aid with diagnosis of disease conditions.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:official">Table 15.2: </span>Official sampling for Poultry Health Programme and EU AI Surveillance during 2018 in Ireland
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Submission type
</th>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Test
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Tests
</th>
<th style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Positive
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;vertical-align: middle !important;" rowspan="4">
Poultry Health Program
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
M. gallisepticum SPAT
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
30620
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Avian Influenza AGID
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
13301
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
M. meleagridis SPAT
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
1730
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Salmonella arizonae H SAT
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
1400
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;vertical-align: middle !important;" rowspan="2">
EU-H5 H7 HI-Surveillance
</td>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Avian Influenza H5
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
10263
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;">
Avian Influenza H7
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
10263
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;">
0
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
</div>
<div id="avian-salmonella-surveillance" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">15.3</span> Avian Salmonella surveillance</h2>
<p>As part of the national Poultry Health Programme, serological testing for screening of <em>Salmonella enterica</em> subsp. <em>arizonae</em> is carried out in turkey flocks (Table <a href="poultry.html#tab:salmonella">15.3</a>). Last year, 1400 serum samples were screened for <em>S. arizonae</em>.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:salmonella">Table 15.3: </span>Number of Salmonella culture tests from on-farm samples during 2018 in Ireland
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Avian Production Type
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Animals
</th>
<th style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Positive
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Broiler Breeder
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
826
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Layer
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
413
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Broiler
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
127
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
2*
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Turkey Fattener
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
58
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
13**
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Broiler Grandparent
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
42
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Turkey Breeder
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
12
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Layer Breeder
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
4
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
<tfoot>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<sup>*</sup> S. Braenderup and S. Kentuky;
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<sup>†</sup> 11 cases of S. Derby in two sites and 2 of S. Senftenberg
</td>
</tr>
</tfoot>
</table>
<p>In parallel, every year, DAFM carries out the EU-<em>Salmonella</em> Surveillance by collecting samples on-farm and confirming detected serotypes by culture. Programme is as follows:</p>
<ul>
<li>In at least one flock of broilers on 10 <em>per cent</em> of commercial broiler premises with at least 5000 birds.</li>
<li>Three times a year for all broiler breeder premises with at least 250 birds</li>
<li>In at least one flock per year per layer holding comprising at least 1000 birds</li>
<li>Once a year in one flock on 10 <em>per cent</em> of holdings with at least 500 fattening turkeys</li>
<li>Once a year in all flocks on 10 <em>per cent</em> of holdings with at least 250 adult breeding turkeys between 30 and 45 weeks of age and all holdings with elite, great grandparents and grand-parent breeding turkeys.</li>
</ul>
<p>In 2018, 1482 samples from farms were analysed; of these, 2 cases were detected in broiler breeder farms and 13 in turkey fattener flocks by culture (Table <a href="poultry.html#tab:official">15.2</a>).</p>
</div>
<div id="newcastle-disease" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">15.4</span> Newcastle Disease</h2>
<p>Newcastle Disease is a notifiable disease that affects poultry, it is caused by virulent strains of <em>Avian Avulavirus 1</em> -AAvV-1- (prior called <em>Avian Paramixovirus type 1</em> -APMV1-). A similar variant, <em>Pigeon AvV-1</em> (PPMV1) infects pigeons and other wild birds. AAvV-1 infections present a wide range of clinical signs depending of strain virulence; from lethargy and mild respiratory signs, to egg drop production, neurological signs and sudden death. Every year, samples from suspected cases and carcasses from poultry are submitted to CVRL and RVLs for ND testing. In addition, wild bird carcasses are screened by PMV1 as a means of passive surveillance. In 2018, a total of 74 wild birds and 209 poultry were tested; of these, 7 pigeons were positive (high virulent strain) as well as 2 sparrow hawks and 1 Black-Headed Gull; they were confirmed by PPMV1 PCR.</p>
</div>
<div id="disease-diagnostics" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">15.5</span> DISEASE DIAGNOSTICS</h2>
<p>Beyond the active and passive surveillance of important notifiable diseases, DAFM carries out testing of other notifiable and non-notifiable diseases that have significant economic impact. Samples from suspect and healthy animals, the latter for monitoring purposes, are submitted directly to CVRL (Table <a href="poultry.html#tab:PCR">15.4</a>) and carcasses of animals are submitted to RVLs (Tables <a href="poultry.html#tab:diagnostic1">15.5</a> and <a href="poultry.html#tab:diagnostic2">15.6</a>, and Figure <a href="poultry.html#fig:figbirds">15.2</a>).</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:PCR">Table 15.4: </span>PCR testing of submitted samples during 2018 in Ireland
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Pathogen
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Tests
</th>
<th style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. Positive
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Avian pneumovirus
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
12
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Chlamidia psittaci*
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
41
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Infectious Bronchitis*
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
599
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
16
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Infectious largyngotracheitis*
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
21
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Mycoplasma synoviae*
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
621
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
128
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Mycoplasma gallisepticum*
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
661
</td>
<td style="text-align:center;font-weight: bold;">
4
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
<tfoot>
<tr>
<td style="padding: 0; border: 0;" colspan="100%">
<sup>*</sup> Notifiable diseases
</td>
</tr>
</tfoot>
</table>
<p>Last year, 3 birds were confirmed positive for <em>C. psittaci</em>, 16 for Infectious Bronchitis, 126 for <em>M. synoviae</em> and 4 for <em>M. gallisepticum</em> by PCR (Table 4). These diseases are notifiable and, when suspected, tissue samples or carcasses should be submitted to RVLs or CVRL. In addition, some agents such as <em>C. psittaci</em> have zoonotic potential (see textbox).</p>
<p><br><br></p>
<style>
div.blue { background-color:#e6f0ff; border-radius: 5px; padding: 20px;}
</style>
<div class="blue">
<p>C. psittaci</p>
<p>Psittacosis in humans is caused by <em>Chlamydia psittaci</em>, an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium whose natural reservoirs are bird pets, wild birds and poultry species (pigeons, turkeys, ducks). Psittacosis has worldwide distribution and infection in humans occurs by inhalation of aerosols or direct contact with respiratory secretions or faeces of infected birds.</p>
<p>In humans, symptoms include flu-like symptoms such as fever, headache, and cough. Complications have been described such as pneumonia, endocarditis, hepatitis, arthritis, keratoconjunctivits and encephalitis. In humans disease can be controlled by using of antibiotics. Incubation period varies from 1–30 <em>days</em>; however, spread among humans is rare. In suspect human cases, local GPs and HSE should be contacted for advice.</p>
<p>In birds, symptoms can vary from unapparent to sudden death. It typically causes respiratory and/or liver problems or gastrointestinal symptoms, depending on species, age of birds and virulence of bacterial strain. In some cases, disease is carried by birds in a latent state, while still shedding bacteria, and then re-activated under immunosuppression or stressful conditions. When handling infected birds, high biosafety measures should be used such as gloves, protective eyewear and fitted respiratory mask.</p>
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
<p>In 2018, the most common diagnosis in poultry carcasses was enteritis (23 cases) followed by bacteraemia-septicemia, arthritis and blackhead (Table 5). In wild birds, however, poisoning and PPMV1 infection were the most common diagnosis (Table 6). In a number of carcasses the cause of death was not determined.</p>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:diagnostic1">Table 15.5: </span>Diagnoses in poultry carcasses during 2018
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Diagnosis
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Count
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Enteritis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
23
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
No Diagnosis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
19
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Bacteraemia-septicaemia
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
18
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Arthritis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
15
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Blackhead
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Egg peritonitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Pneumonia
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Pericarditis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Marek’s Disease
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Parasitic Gastro-enteritis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Sinusitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Myopathy
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Trauma
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Air sacculitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Fatty liver
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome of layers
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
TB (M. Avium)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Cellulitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Intestinal obstruction
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Parasitic Bronchitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Tumour
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Impactations of crop, gizzard or duodenum
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Poisoning
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Cardiac tamponade
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Abscessation
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Anaemia
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Bronchitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Dermatitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Encephalitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Heart failure
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Impaction-prolapse of the oviduct
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Intussusception
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Nephritis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:figbirds"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/figbirds-1.png" alt="Diagnoses recorded in poultry post-mortem examinations" width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 15.2: Diagnoses recorded in poultry post-mortem examinations
</p>
</div>
<table class="table table-striped table-hover table-condensed" style="width: auto !important; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:diagnostic2">Table 15.6: </span>Diagnoses in wild bird carcasses during 2018
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Diagnosis
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Count
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
No Diagnosis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
39
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Poisoning
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
18
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
PPMV-1
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
10
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Trauma
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Parasitic gastro-enteritis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Avian Influenza
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Amyloidosis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Malnutrition
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Peritonitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Bacteraemia-septicaemia
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
TB (M. Avium)
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Cardiac tamponade
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Enteritis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Oesophagitis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Arthritis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Pneumonia
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Psittacosis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Fungal infection
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;">
Megabacteriosis
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
1
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
</div>
<div id="case-reports-in-poultry" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">15.6</span> Case reports in poultry</h2>
<div id="tetratrichomonas-gallinarum" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.6.1</span> <em>Tetratrichomonas gallinarum</em></h3>
<p><em>Tetratrichomonas gallinarum</em> infection was suspected in liver samples submitted from a 10 <em>week</em> old red legged partridge reared for game. Losses were low at about 10 birds/10000 birds. Caecal casts were noted on <em>post-mortem</em> examination. Multifocal lymphohistiocytic hepatitis was observed. Presence of trichomonads, which include <em>T gallinarum</em>, was confirmed using in situ hybridization. <span class="citation">Liebhart et al. (<a href="#ref-Liebhart2014">2014</a>)</span> reported <em>T. gallinarum</em> infection in a flock of 2500 red-legged partridges in United Kingdom and characterised by sudden death of 15 birds within 2 <em>days</em>; circulation of a virulent strain of <em>T. gallinarum</em> in reared red-legged partridges was demonstrated. It is thought that infection is by contaminated food and could be associated with unsanitary feeding places <span class="citation">(Amin et al. <a href="#ref-amin2014">2014</a>)</span>.</p>
</div>
<div id="gallibacterium-anatis" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.6.2</span> <em>Gallibacterium anatis</em></h3>
<p><em>G anatis</em> is a normal inhabitant of the upper respiratory tract and lower reproductive tract of chickens but is also considered to be a cause of salpingitis and peritonitis in laying hens <span class="citation">(Deplazes et al. <a href="#ref-Deplazes2016">2016</a>)</span>. Salpingitis due to <em>Gallibacterium anatis</em> was diagnosed in an eight <em>month</em> old backyard hen, from a flock of 50 where fifteen hens had died over a 2 month period. This hen also had hepatic amyloidosis (most likely secondary to chronic systemic inflammation), colisepticaemia and granulomatous typhlitis due to presence of invasive trichomonad protozoa. Ascending infection from cloaca is suspected.</p>
</div>
<div id="enterococcus-caecorum" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.6.3</span> <em>Enterococcus caecorum</em></h3>
<p>Over the past 15 <em>years</em>, pathogenic strains of <em>E. caecorum</em> have become a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in broiler breeders. Repeated outbreaks occur. An environmental reservoir for pathogenic E. caecorum has yet to be identified <span class="citation">(Jung et al. <a href="#ref-Jung2018">2018</a>)</span>. An outbreak of <em>Enterococcus caecorum</em> infection in 21 <em>day</em> old broilers was diagnosed. Birds presented with splayed legs and lameness, resulting in excess culling. They responded to antibiotics but when antibiotic administration ceased the problem returned. In some birds, the neck of the femur fractured easily on disarticulation. <em>E. caecorum</em> was cultured from pericardium, bone and joint. Affected birds had pyogranulomatous epicarditis, arthritis, tenosynovitis, osteomyelitis and chondritis.</p>
</div>
<div id="chronic-cholera" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.6.4</span> Chronic cholera</h3>
<p>Fowl cholera is more likely to occur in birds that are stressed by e.g. parasitism, poor hygiene, malnutrition and other diseases. Chronic cholera was diagnosed in 62 <em>week</em> old free range layers which were wasting and experiencing ongoing mortality. One bird, which presented with opisthotonus and twitching, had pyogranulomatous and fibrinous osteomyelitis at the base of the skull with adjacent cellulitis. Another bird had severe peritonitis and oophoritis with inspissated pus in ovaries. <em>Pasteurella multocida</em> was cultured from ovary, oviduct, liver and abdomen. A predisposing cause was not found in this outbreak.</p>
</div>
<div id="ornithobacterium-rhinotracheale" class="section level3">
<h3><span class="header-section-number">15.6.5</span> Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale</h3>
<p><em>Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale</em> (ORT) is of worldwide distribution in commercial poultry, in which it is associated with respiratory diseases, and is also found in wild birds. Airsacculitis and pneumonia are the most common features of infection with ORT. Infection can be transmitted horizontally by aerosol and vertically through eggs, which probably accounts for its rapid and worldwide spread <span class="citation">(Empel and Hafez <a href="#ref-VanEmpel1999">1999</a>)</span>. ORT was isolated from a 36 <em>day</em> old organic broiler from a group which had Marek’s disease. This bird had cheese like material in its air sac. Other infections in the birds examined, which were likely due to virus induced immunosuppression, included coccidiosis, cryptosporidiosis and <em>Gallibacterium anatis</em> associated pneumonia.</p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
<h3>References</h3>
<div id="refs" class="references">
<div id="ref-Liebhart2014">
<p>Liebhart, D., S. Neale, C. Garcia-Rueda, A. M. Wood, I. Bilic, P. Wernsdorf, B. Jaskulska, and M. Hess. 2014. “A Single Strain of Tetratrichomonas Gallinarum Causes Fatal Typhlohepatitis in Red-Legged Partridges (Alectoris Rufa) to Be Distinguished from Histomonosis.” <em>Avian Pathology</em> 43 (5). Taylor & Francis: 473–80. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03079457.2014.959435">10.1080/03079457.2014.959435</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-amin2014">
<p>Amin, Aziza, Ivana Bilic, Dieter Liebhart, and Michael Hess. 2014. “Trichomonads in Birds – a Review.” <em>Parasitology</em> 141 (6). Cambridge University Press: 733–47. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182013002096">10.1017/S0031182013002096</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Deplazes2016">
<p>Deplazes, Peter, Johannes Eckert, Alexander Mathis, G von Samson-Himmelstjern, and Horst Zahner. 2016. <em>Parasitology in Veterinary Medicine.</em> Wageningen Academic Publishers.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-Jung2018">
<p>Jung, Arne, Laura R. Chen, M. Mitsu Suyemoto, H. John Barnes, and Luke B. Borst. 2018. “A Review of Enterococcus Cecorum Infection in Poultry.” <em>Avian Diseases</em> 62 (3): 261–71. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1637/11825-030618-Review.1">10.1637/11825-030618-Review.1</a>.</p>
</div>
<div id="ref-VanEmpel1999">
<p>Empel, P. C. M. van, and H. M. Hafez. 1999. “Ornithobacterium Rhinotracheale: A Review.” <em>Avian Pathology</em> 28 (3). Taylor & Francis: 217–27. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/03079459994704">10.1080/03079459994704</a>.</p>
</div>
</div>
<hr />
<p style="text-align: center;font-size: medium">A cooperative effort between the VLS and the SAT Section of the <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/">DAFM</a></p>
</section>
</div>
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