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<li><a href="./">Disease Surveillance</a></li>
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<li><a href="index.html#section"></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>Introduction</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.1" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#passive-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.1</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.2" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#climate-change"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.2</b> Climate change</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="0.3" data-path="introduction.html"><a href="introduction.html#the-report"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>0.3</b> The report</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1</b> Diseases of Cattle Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.1" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#neonatal-calves-birth-to-one-month-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.1</b> Neonatal Calves (birth to one month of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.2" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#calves-one-to-five-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.2</b> Calves (one to five months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.3" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#weanlings-six-months-to-one-year-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.3</b> Weanlings (six months to one year of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="1.4" data-path="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html"><a href="diseases-of-cattle-overview.html#adult-cattle-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>1.4</b> Adult Cattle (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2</b> Johne’s Disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-transmission"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.1</b> JD transmission</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.2" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#jd-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.2</b> JD Diagnostics</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.3" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#post-mortem-examination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.3</b> Post mortem examination</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#control-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4</b> Control Programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="2.4.1" data-path="johnes-disease.html"><a href="johnes-disease.html#acknowledgement"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>2.4.1</b> Acknowledgement</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3</b> Clostridial disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.1" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#blackleg"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.1</b> Blackleg</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.2" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#botulism"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.2</b> Botulism</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.3" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#malignant-oedema"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.3</b> Malignant Oedema</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.4" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#enterotoxaemia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.4</b> Enterotoxaemia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.5" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#black-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.5</b> Black Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.6" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#braxy"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.6</b> Braxy</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.7" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-abomasitis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.7</b> Clostridial abomasitis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="3.8" data-path="clostridial-disease.html"><a href="clostridial-disease.html#clostridial-vaccination"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>3.8</b> Clostridial Vaccination</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4</b> Bovine Neonatal Enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#neonatal-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1</b> Neonatal enteritis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.1" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#rotavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.1</b> Rotavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.2" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#cryptosporidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.2</b> <em>Cryptosporidiosis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.3" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coronavirus-enteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.3</b> Coronavirus enteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.4" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#escherichia-coli-k99"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.4</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em> K99</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.5" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#salmonella-dublin"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.5</b> <em>Salmonella</em> Dublin</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.6" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#campylobacter-jejuni"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.6</b> <em>Campylobacter jejuni</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.7" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#giardia-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.7</b> <em>Giardia spp.</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="4.1.8" data-path="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html"><a href="bovine-neonatal-enteritis.html#coccidiosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>4.1.8</b> Coccidiosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5</b> Zinc Sulphate Turbidity (ZST) Test</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.1" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-test-and-the-importance-of-colostrum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.1</b> ZST test and the importance of colostrum</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.2" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#outline-of-2018-figures"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.2</b> Outline of 2018 figures</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.3" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#shortcomings-in-submission-practices"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.3</b> Shortcomings in submission practices</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.4" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#zst-and-immunoglobulin-classes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.4</b> ZST and immunoglobulin classes</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.5" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#post-mortem-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.5</b> <em>Post mortem</em> samples</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="5.6" data-path="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html"><a href="zinc-sulphate-turbidity-zst-test.html#ovine-submissions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>5.6</b> Ovine submissions</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6</b> Bovine Abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#primary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.1</b> Primary Pathogens</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#salmonella-dublin-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2</b> <em>Salmonella Dublin</em> abortion</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#listerial-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.1</b> Listerial abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.2" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#leptospiral-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.2</b> Leptospiral abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.2.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#minor-primary-abortifacients-sporadic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.2.3</b> Minor Primary Abortifacients (sporadic abortions)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.3" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#protoozoal-abortion"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.3</b> Protoozoal abortion</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#secondary-pathogens"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4</b> Secondary Pathogens</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="6.4.1" data-path="bovine-abortion.html"><a href="bovine-abortion.html#mycotic-abortions"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>6.4.1</b> Mycotic abortions</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7</b> Bovine Mastitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#milk-culture-in-rvls"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1</b> Milk Culture in RVLs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.1" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#staphylococcus-aureus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#streptococcus-uberis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.1.3" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#truperella-pyogenes"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.1.3</b> <em>Truperella pyogenes</em></a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="7.2" data-path="bovine-mastitis.html"><a href="bovine-mastitis.html#contaminated-samples"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>7.2</b> Contaminated samples</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8</b> Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD)</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.1" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#bacterial-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.1</b> Bacterial Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.2" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#viral-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.2</b> Viral Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.3" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#trends"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.3</b> Trends</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="8.4" data-path="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html"><a href="bovine-respiratory-disease-brd.html#parasitic-bovine-respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>8.4</b> Parasitic Bovine Respiratory Disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9</b> Antimicrobial Resistance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#staphylococcus-aureus-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.1</b> <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#streptococcus-uberis-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.2</b> <em>Streptococcus uberis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.3" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#pasteurella-multocida"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.3</b> <em>Pasteurella multocida</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.4" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#mannheimia-haemolytica"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.4</b> <em>Mannheimia haemolytica</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#escherichia-coli"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5</b> <em>Escherichia coli</em></a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.1" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#maldi-tof"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.1</b> Maldi-ToF</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="9.5.2" data-path="antimicrobial-resistance.html"><a href="antimicrobial-resistance.html#whole-genome-sequencing"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>9.5.2</b> Whole Genome Sequencing</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10</b> Bovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1</b> Trichostrongylidae</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.1.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus-spp."><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.1.1</b> Nematodirus spp.</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2</b> Coccidia</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.2.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.2.1</b> Treatment and control</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#rumen-and-liver-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3</b> Rumen and Liver Fluke</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="10.3.1" data-path="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="bovine-parasitic-diseases.html#treatment-and-control-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>10.3.1</b> Treatment and Control</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11</b> Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD) Eradication Programme and Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1</b> Bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) eradication programme</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.1" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#negative-herd-status-nhs"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.1</b> Negative herd status (NHS)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.1.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#targeted-advisory-service-on-animal-health-tasah"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.1.2</b> Targeted Advisory Service on Animal Health (TASAH)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="11.2" data-path="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html"><a href="bovine-viral-diarrhoea-bvd-eradication-programme-and-infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis.html#infectious-bovine-rhinotracheitis-eradication-programme"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>11.2</b> Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis eradication programme</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12</b> Sheep Diseases Overview</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.1" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#diseases-of-sheep"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.1</b> Diseases of Sheep</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.2" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#lambs-birth-to-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.2</b> Lambs (birth to 12 months of age)</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="12.3" data-path="sheep-diseases-overview.html"><a href="sheep-diseases-overview.html#adult-sheep-over-12-months-of-age"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>12.3</b> Adult Sheep (over 12 months of age)</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13</b> Ovine Parasitic Diseases</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.1" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#agents-of-parasitic-gastroenteritis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.1</b> Agents of Parasitic Gastroenteritis</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.2" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#trichostrongylidae-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.2</b> Trichostrongylidae</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.3" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#nematodirus"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.3</b> Nematodirus</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.4" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#coccidia-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.4</b> Coccidia</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.5" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#liver-and-rumen-fluke"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.5</b> Liver and rumen fluke</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="13.6" data-path="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html"><a href="ovine-parasitic-diseases.html#sarcocystosis-cysticercosis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>13.6</b> Sarcocystosis & Cysticercosis</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14</b> Disease of Pigs</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#post-mortem-diagnoses"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1</b> Post mortem diagnoses</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#gastrointestinal-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.1</b> Gastrointestinal disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#systemic-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.2</b> Systemic disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.1.3" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#respiratory-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.1.3</b> Respiratory disease</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#notifiable-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2</b> Notifiable disease</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="14.2.1" data-path="disease-of-pigs.html"><a href="disease-of-pigs.html#african-swine-fever-awareness"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>14.2.1</b> African swine fever awareness</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15</b> Poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-influenza-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1</b> Avian Influenza Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.1.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.1.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-mycoplasma-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2</b> Avian Mycoplasma Surveillance</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#active-surveillance-1"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.1</b> Active surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.2.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#passive-surveillance-2"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.2.2</b> Passive surveillance</a></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#avian-salmonella-surveillance"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.3</b> Avian Salmonella surveillance</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#newcastle-disease"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.4</b> Newcastle Disease</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#disease-diagnostics"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.5</b> DISEASE DIAGNOSTICS</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#case-reports-in-poultry"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6</b> Case reports in poultry</a><ul>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.1" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#tetratrichomonas-gallinarum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.1</b> <em>Tetratrichomonas gallinarum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.2" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#gallibacterium-anatis"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.2</b> <em>Gallibacterium anatis</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.3" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#enterococcus-caecorum"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.3</b> <em>Enterococcus caecorum</em></a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.4" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#chronic-cholera"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.4</b> Chronic cholera</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="15.6.5" data-path="poultry.html"><a href="poultry.html#ornithobacterium-rhinotracheale"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>15.6.5</b> Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale</a></li>
</ul></li>
</ul></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="16" data-path="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><a href="tb-and-deer-in-ireland.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>16</b> TB and Deer in Ireland</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="17" data-path="r-packages.html"><a href="r-packages.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i><b>17</b> R packages</a></li>
<li class="chapter" data-level="" data-path="references.html"><a href="references.html"><i class="fa fa-check"></i>References</a></li>
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<li><a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie" target="blank"> DAFM webpage</a></li>
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<div id="sheep-diseases-overview" class="section level1">
<h1><span class="header-section-number">Section 12</span> Sheep Diseases Overview</h1>
<hr />
<p><br><br></p>
<blockquote>
<ul>
<li>Margaret Wilson
<ul>
<li>Senior Research Officer, Central Veterinary Research Laboratory, DAFM, Backweston, Co. Kildare, Ireland</li>
</ul></li>
</ul>
</blockquote>
<hr />
<p><br><br></p>
<p>The Regional Veterinary Laboratories (RVLs) of the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine (DAFM) are engaged primarily in scanning (passive) surveillance by gathering data from <em>post-mortem</em> and clinical sample submissions. Analysis of this data provides an insight into trends of disease incidence and causes of mortality on Irish farms, thereby informing decision-making relevant to disease control at a national level. Tables and charts are generated with test results and <em>post-mortem</em> diagnoses from voluntary submissions of material (carcasses and clinical samples) to RVLs by farmers through their private veterinary practitioners (PVPs). Therefore, it should be noted that data reflects only those cases where the PVPs considered it appropriate to request a laboratory investigation and the herdowner was motivated to deliver the carcass to an RVL.</p>
<div id="diseases-of-sheep" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">12.1</span> Diseases of Sheep</h2>
<p>In 2018, approximately 1368 ovine carcases were submitted for post-mortem examination. This comprised 798 lambs (from birth to one year of age) and 570 adult sheep (over one year of age).</p>
<p>The range of diagnoses varies according to age of the animal. Thus results in this section are presented by age category. In order to facilitate presentation and comparison, conditions which affect given systems have been grouped together.</p>
</div>
<div id="lambs-birth-to-12-months-of-age" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">12.2</span> Lambs (birth to 12 months of age)</h2>
<p>Conditions affecting the digestive system were the most frequent diagnosis in lambs, with approximately 21 <em>per cent</em> of all lamb submissions being categorised thus. Within this category, parasitic gastroenteritis accounted for 44 <em>per cent</em> of diagnoses and infectious enteritis accounting for 43 <em>per cent</em>. <em>Strongyle spp.</em> and <em>Nematodirus spp.</em> were the most common parasites detected. Within the infectious enteritis category, there were a great variety of agents identified with <em>Coccidia spp.</em> and <em>Cryptosporidium spp.</em> being most commonly detected. Other conditions affecting the digestive system included; watery mouth, rumenitis and colitis.</p>
<table class="table" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:unnamed-chunk-112">Table 12.1: </span>Conditions most frequently diagnosed (top 15 categories) on post-mortem examinations of lambs in 2018 (n= 798 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Category
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of Cases
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
GIT Infections
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
170
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
21.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Systemic Infections
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
97
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
12.2
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Respiratory Infections
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
94
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
11.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Clostridial disease
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
86
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
10.8
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Diagnosis not reached
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
55
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
6.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Nutritional/metabolic conditions
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
47
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
5.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
GIT torsion/obstruction
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
37
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
4.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Navel Ill/Joint Ill
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
32
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
4.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
CNS
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
27
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
3.4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Urinary Tract conditions
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
18
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Liver disease
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
17
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Perinatal Mortality
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
16
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Cardiac/circulatory conditions
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
15
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
1.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Hereditary and developmental abnormality
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
13
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
1.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Integument/Musculoskeletal
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
9
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
1.1
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:lambfig"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/lambfig-1.png" alt="Conditions most frequently diagnosed on post-mortem examinations of lambs (from birth to one year of age) in 2018 (n= 798 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 12.1: Conditions most frequently diagnosed on post-mortem examinations of lambs (from birth to one year of age) in 2018 (n= 798 ).
</p>
</div>
<p>The next most frequently diagnosed conditions were systemic conditions, affecting approximately 12 <em>per cent</em> of cases and respiratory conditions affecting approximately 11.8 <em>per cent</em> of cases.</p>
<p><br><br></p>
<style>
div.blue { background-color:#e6f0ff; border-radius: 5px; padding: 20px;}
</style>
<div class="blue">
Vaccination for clostridial diseases remains an important part of on-farm disease control programmes.
</div>
<p><br><br></p>
<p>Within systemic conditions, bacteraemia/septicaemia, at 65 <em>per cent</em>, represents the largest diagnostic subcategory. Bacteraemia arises when bacterial infections succeed in overwhelming immune defences, is present in circulatory blood and can then result in embolic infection of multiple organs such as meninges, kidney,lung or liver. Septicaemia occurs where both pathogenic bacteria and their toxins are present in circulatory blood, toxins damage organs as they flow around the body resulting in toxaemia. Colloquially, this syndrome is known as <em>blood poisoning</em> and is characterised clinically by high temperature, shivering, weakness and inappetence. The most common agents identified in systemic infections were: <em>E. coli</em>, <em>Bibersteinia trehalosi</em> and <em>Mannheimia haemolytica</em>.</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:whitespottedkidney"></span>
<img src="images/Pulpy-Kidney.jpg" alt="Lamb. White-spotted kidney: miliary 1--2 mm pus-filled white spots on renal cortical surface as a consequence of bacteraemia in a young lamb. Staphylococcus aureus isolated. Photo: Margaret Wilson." width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 12.2: Lamb. White-spotted kidney: miliary 1–2 mm pus-filled white spots on renal cortical surface as a consequence of bacteraemia in a young lamb. Staphylococcus aureus isolated. Photo: Margaret Wilson.
</p>
</div>
<p>Clostridial disease was diagnosed in one hundred and six cases. Eighty-six cases were in lambs, which are typically the most frequently affected age group. Pulpy kidney disease and enterotoxaemia were diagnosed most frequently. Both types of clostridial disease are associated with lamb stress and changes or increases of feed to lambs. Both result in rapid, often sudden, death and typically occur in well growing lambs. A breakdown of detected agents is presented in the <em>Bovine and Ovine Clostridial Diseases</em> section of this report.</p>
<p>Thirty-two cases of navel ill/joint ill were detected in lambs. Navel ill/joint ill is associated with poor umbilical hygiene, low colostrum intake and high environmental contamination in lambing area, allowing bacterial introduction via umbilical stump within the first few hours of life. Infections may remain localised and develop into an umbilical abscess, extend locally to cause peritonitis, ascend to infect the liver or become generalised involving joints and/or other organs.</p>
</div>
<div id="adult-sheep-over-12-months-of-age" class="section level2">
<h2><span class="header-section-number">12.3</span> Adult Sheep (over 12 months of age)</h2>
<p>Liver disease was the most frequent diagnosis in adult sheep with 77 cases, of which 74 were liver fluke (<em>Fasciola hepatica</em>). Liver fluke remains a common and serious threat to sheep health and welfare.</p>
<table class="table" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
<caption>
<span id="tab:unnamed-chunk-114">Table 12.2: </span>Conditions most frequently diagnosed on post-mortem examinations of adult sheep in 2018 (n= 570 ).
</caption>
<thead>
<tr>
<th style="text-align:left;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Category
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
No. of Cases
</th>
<th style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;color: pnasbluetext;">
Percentage
</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Liver disease
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
77
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
13.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Respiratory Infections
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
63
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
11.1
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Systemic Infections
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
51
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
8.9
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Nutritional/metabolic conditions
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
49
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
8.6
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Diagnosis not reached
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
48
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
8.4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
CNS
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
44
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
7.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
GIT Infections
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
40
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
7.0
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Reproductive Tract Conditions
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
36
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
6.3
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Poisoning
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
31
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
5.4
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
GIT torsion/obstruction
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
21
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
3.7
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Clostridial disease
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
20
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
3.5
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="text-align:left;font-style: italic;">
Cardiac/circulatory conditions
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;">
13
</td>
<td style="text-align:right;font-weight: bold;">
2.3
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:oadultfig"></span>
<img src="Surveillance_files/figure-html/oadultfig-1.png" alt="Conditions most frequently diagnosed (top 10 categories) on post-mortem examinations of adult sheep (over one year of age) in 2018 (n= 570 )." width="576" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 12.3: Conditions most frequently diagnosed (top 10 categories) on post-mortem examinations of adult sheep (over one year of age) in 2018 (n= 570 ).
</p>
</div>
<p>The next most frequent diagnosis was respiratory infection, of which 63 cases, 65 <em>percent</em>, were pneumonia. The most commonly detected pneumonic agents were; <em>Mannheimia haemolytica</em>, <em>Pasteurella multocida</em> and <em>Bibersteinia trehalosi</em>.</p>
<div class="figure" style="text-align: center"><span id="fig:pasteurella"></span>
<img src="images/PasteurellaPneumonia.jpg" alt="Sheep Lung: Severe diffuse fibrinosuppurative pleuropneumonia. Pasteurella multocida isolated. Photo: Margaret Wilson." width="60%" />
<p class="caption">
Figure 12.4: Sheep Lung: Severe diffuse fibrinosuppurative pleuropneumonia. Pasteurella multocida isolated. Photo: Margaret Wilson.
</p>
</div>
<p>Six cases of Ovine Pulmonary Adenomatosis (OPA) were identified. OPA (Jaagsiekte) is a chronic incurable infectious lung tumor in sheep, caused by the Jaagsiekte sheep retrovirus. It has a long incubation period, therefore, it is most commonly detected in adult sheep. Clinical signs are of progressive respiratory illness and weight loss. Secondary bacterial pneumonia is common and often the ultimate cause of death. Post mortem examination of lungs remains the only means of accurately diagnosing Ovine Pulmonary Adenomatosis <span class="citation">(Lee et al. <a href="#ref-Lee2017">2017</a>)</span>.</p>
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<p>When it is necessary to carry out <em>post mortem</em> examinations in the field, it is essential that veterinary practitioners take the most appropriate samples for laboratory examination and also to preserve and package them properly. Pathologists at RVLs are available to give advice in this regard.</p>
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<p>Central Nervous System diseases accounted for approximately 7.7 <em>per cemt</em> of adult sheep conditions diagnosed. Most commonly, CNS disease was attributed to Listeriosis (<em>Listeria monocytogenes</em>), based on bacterial isolation or presence of characteristic histological lesions in the brain.</p>
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<img src="images/Pulpykidneyhisto2.jpg" alt="Lamb Kidney: Pulpy Kidney Disease: Severe acute proximal tubule necrosis and tubular protein casts. Clostrium perfringens epsilon toxin detected. H\&E 10x magnification. Photo: Margaret Wilson." width="60%" />
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Figure 12.5: Lamb Kidney: Pulpy Kidney Disease: Severe acute proximal tubule necrosis and tubular protein casts. Clostrium perfringens epsilon toxin detected. H&E 10x magnification. Photo: Margaret Wilson.
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<p>Thirty-one cases of poisoning were diagnosed in sheep, with copper toxicosis being most frequent. Sheep are predisposed to copper toxicity as the species, relative to other ruminants, has reduced capacity for copper excretion in bile. As a result, excess copper intake in sheep can be fatal.</p>
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<h3>References</h3>
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<div id="ref-Lee2017">
<p>Lee, Alison Marie, Alan Wolfe, Joseph P. Cassidy, Locksley L. McV. Messam, John P. Moriarty, Ronan O’Neill, Claire Fahy, et al. 2017. “First Confirmation by Pcr of Jaagsiekte Sheep Retrovirus in Ireland and Prevalence of Ovine Pulmonary Adenocarcinoma in Adult Sheep at Slaughter.” <em>Irish Veterinary Journal</em> 70 (1): 33. doi:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s13620-017-0111-z">10.1186/s13620-017-0111-z</a>.</p>
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<p style="text-align: center;font-size: medium">A cooperative effort between the VLS and the SAT Section of the <a href="https://www.agriculture.gov.ie/">DAFM</a></p>
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