---
name: bio-vcf-manipulation
description: Combine, split, sort, intersect, and subset VCF/BCF files with bcftools merge, concat, isec, sort, view, and reheader. Use when merging different samples into a cohort VCF, concatenating per-chromosome or per-region call sets for the same samples, intersecting or complementing call sets from different callers, subsetting samples/regions, harmonizing sample names and ##contig headers, or recomputing AC/AN/AF after subsetting. Covers the normalize-before-combine rule, the single-sample-merge 0/0-fabrication trap (merge is not joint genotyping), merge vs concat vs isec selection, and the --naive concat and -R-vs-T region caveats. Not for structural-variant merging by breakpoint fuzz (see variant-calling/structural-variant-calling) or joint genotyping of gVCFs (see variant-calling/joint-calling).
tool_type: cli
primary_tool: bcftools
---

## Version Compatibility

Reference examples tested with: bcftools 1.19+, cyvcf2 0.30+

Before using code patterns, verify installed versions match. If versions differ:
- Python: `pip show <package>` then `help(module.function)` to check signatures
- CLI: `<tool> --version` then `<tool> --help` to confirm flags

The `+fill-tags` plugin ships with bcftools; `--naive-force` and `-m snp-ins-del` are recent additions -- confirm with `bcftools concat --help` / `bcftools merge --help` on the installed build.

If code throws ImportError, AttributeError, or TypeError, introspect the installed
package and adapt the example to match the actual API rather than retrying.

# VCF Manipulation

Combine, split, sort, intersect, and subset VCF/BCF files with bcftools.

**"Combine, compare, or restructure my VCFs"** -> Pick the operation from what changes (samples vs regions vs set membership), and normalize first so the same biological variant is recognized as the same row.
- CLI: `bcftools merge` (add samples), `bcftools concat` (add regions), `bcftools isec` (set operations), `bcftools view` (subset), `bcftools sort` / `bcftools reheader` (order and header fixes)

## The governing principle: normalize BEFORE combining

Every combine operation here -- merge, concat `-d` dedup, isec, and downstream annotate -- keys on the `(CHROM, POS, REF, ALT)` tuple, and `bcftools isec` defaults to `-c none` (an ALT must match exactly to count as the same variant). An indel that is not left-aligned + parsimonious, an un-split multiallelic, or an un-decomposed MNP is a **structurally valid** VCF line carrying a *different* tuple for the *same* biological event. The combine then silently mis-joins: isec reports false discordance, merge emits duplicate rows and splits the allele frequency, dedup misses the duplicate. Nothing errors -- the counts are simply wrong.

Decision: **normalize (left-align + parsimony against the SAME reference, split multiallelics) every input before any merge/concat-dedup/isec/annotate.** This matters most for indels in homopolymers/STRs, where callers legitimately disagree on POS. It is safe to skip only when a single caller produced all inputs and no cross-file matching or database lookup follows. The canonical incantation is `bcftools norm -m-any -f ref.fa`; see variant-calling/variant-normalization for the full pipeline, MNP atomization, and the vt-vs-bcftools discordance -- do NOT re-derive that here, cross-reference it.

## merge vs concat vs isec (choose by what differs)

| Operation | Inputs differ in | Produces | Requires index | Fails / misused when |
|-----------|------------------|----------|----------------|----------------------|
| `bcftools merge` | **samples** (same sites) | one multi-sample VCF (columns unioned) | yes | given the SAME sample split by region -> use concat; given single-sample VCFs and treated as joint genotyping -> fabricates 0/0 (see trap below) |
| `bcftools concat` | **regions** (same samples, e.g. per-chromosome) | one VCF spanning all regions (rows appended) | only with `-a` | inputs from DIFFERENT samples -> use merge; inputs overlap without `-a`; `--naive` used when headers/sample-order differ |
| `bcftools isec` | neither -- same cohort, compare membership | per-input private/shared partition dirs | yes | inputs not normalized to identical representation -> false discordance |

Common confusion: `concat -a` (`--allow-overlaps`) resolves duplicate records from the SAME sample across overlapping region files; it does NOT union genotypes across different samples -- that is merge. If bcftools reports a "different samples" error, the operation is inverted.

## The merge trap: `bcftools merge` is not joint genotyping

When merging single-sample VCFs, a site called in sample A but simply **absent** from sample B's file is ambiguous: was B confidently homozygous reference there, or was B never covered/called? A project VCF cannot answer this. `bcftools merge` fills B's genotype with `./.` (missing) by default, and `-0/--missing-to-ref` overrides it to `0/0` -- but **both are guesses**, because merge has no evidence for the unseen site. `-0` therefore **fabricates** hom-ref genotypes and inflates the reference-allele count (see the vcf-basics `./.`-is-not-`0/0` distinction). Use `-0` only when every input truly covered every site (e.g. gVCF-derived, or a shared target with confirmed coverage), never as a convenience to remove `./.`.

Decision: to build a multi-sample callset with correct hom-ref-vs-no-data resolution, **joint-genotype gVCFs** (`GenomicsDBImport`/`CombineGVCFs` -> `GenotypeGVCFs`), do not `bcftools merge` single-sample project VCFs -- see variant-calling/joint-calling. Reserve `bcftools merge` for combining already-jointly-genotyped cohorts, or samples that share a target with known coverage.

Merge also requires two harmonizations, or it silently drops or mis-collapses records:
- **Consistent representation.** All inputs must be normalized and split the same way first. If cohort A is split biallelic and cohort B keeps multiallelics, merge mis-collapses the shared site. Normalize all inputs identically (governing principle above).
- **Matching `##contig` headers and sample names.** Merge unions sample columns; duplicate sample names abort unless `--force-samples` renames them, and mismatched contig naming (`chr1` vs `1`) prevents sites from aligning. Fix names/contigs with `bcftools reheader` first.

## bcftools merge (combine different samples)

```bash
# Union samples across per-sample (already joint-genotyped or shared-target) VCFs
bcftools merge -l files.txt -Oz -o cohort.vcf.gz    # -l: one VCF path per line
bcftools index cohort.vcf.gz
```

- `-m, --merge` controls multiallelic collapse at shared sites (default `both`): `-m none` keeps a SNP and an indel at one POS as separate records; `-m snps`/`-m indels` restrict which types collapse. Leave the default unless a downstream tool needs types kept apart.
- `--force-samples` disambiguates colliding sample names; `-r chr:beg-end` restricts to a region (inputs must be indexed).

## bcftools concat (stitch regions for the same samples)

```bash
# Genome-wide file from per-chromosome calls (same samples, disjoint regions)
bcftools concat chr{1..22}.vcf.gz chrX.vcf.gz -Oz -o genome.vcf.gz
```

- `-a, --allow-overlaps` is needed when region files overlap (e.g. windowed calling); pair with `-d/--rm-dups <snps|indels|both|all|exact>` to output a duplicate once. `-a` requires indexed inputs.
- `-n, --naive` concatenates BCF/VCF blocks WITHOUT recompression -- very fast for a large per-chromosome set, but it does only a header-compatibility check and requires identical headers and identical sample order across all files; it cannot reorder or reconcile anything. `--naive-force` skips even the header check and will silently produce a corrupt file if headers differ -- avoid it unless the files were provably produced identically.
- concat does NOT sort across file boundaries; overlapping unsorted inputs need `-a`, and the final file may still need `bcftools sort`.

## bcftools sort (order by CHROM then POS)

```bash
bcftools sort -T /scratch/tmp -m 4G input.vcf.gz -Oz -o sorted.vcf.gz   # -T tempdir, -m spill threshold for large files
```

An unsorted VCF breaks everything downstream: `tabix`/`bcftools index` require coordinate-sorted input to build the index, and merge/isec/`view -r` all depend on that index for random access. Sort after any operation that can leave records out of order (naive concat of misordered files, some reheader edits). `-T`/`-m` bound memory for genome-scale files.

## bcftools isec (set operations on call sets)

```bash
# Normalize BOTH first (governing principle), then partition
bcftools norm -m-any -f ref.fa gatk.vcf.gz     -Oz -o gatk.norm.vcf.gz
bcftools norm -m-any -f ref.fa freebayes.vcf.gz -Oz -o fb.norm.vcf.gz
bcftools isec -p comparison -Oz gatk.norm.vcf.gz fb.norm.vcf.gz
```

`-p dir` writes the four-way partition (`-Oz` to compress):

| File | Contents |
|------|----------|
| `0000.vcf[.gz]` | private to file 1 |
| `0001.vcf[.gz]` | private to file 2 |
| `0002.vcf[.gz]` | shared, file-1 records (file-1 INFO/FORMAT) |
| `0003.vcf[.gz]` | shared, file-2 records (file-2 INFO/FORMAT) |

`0002` and `0003` are the SAME sites with each file's own annotations -- pick by which annotations are needed downstream. Select membership instead of the full partition with `-n` and route records with `-w` (1-based file indices):

| Flag | Meaning |
|------|---------|
| `-n=2 -w1` | present in exactly 2 files, output file-1 records |
| `-n+2 -w1` | present in >=2 files |
| `-n~10 -w1` | present in file1 but NOT file2 (boolean mask) |
| `-C` | complement: positions only in file1, missing in the rest |

`-c, --collapse` sets what counts as "the same record"; the default `none` demands an exact REF+ALT match (why normalization is mandatory first), whereas `-c all` matches on position alone and ignores ALT -- rarely what a caller comparison wants.

## Subsetting samples and regions (`bcftools view`)

```bash
bcftools view -s sample1,sample2 input.vcf.gz -Oz -o subset.vcf.gz   # -s ^s3 to EXCLUDE; -S file for a list
bcftools view -r chr1:1e6-2e6      input.vcf.gz -Oz -o region.vcf.gz  # -R file.bed for many regions
```

Two nuances that bite:
- **`-r`/`-R` (regions) vs `-t`/`-T` (targets).** `-r`/`-R` use the index to JUMP to regions (fast, require an index) and consider both POS and an indel's end; `-t`/`-T` STREAM the whole file filtering on POS (no index needed, slower). With `-R`, overlapping regions in the BED can emit a record MORE THAN ONCE and out of order -- deduplicate/sort after, or use non-overlapping regions.
- **Stale INFO counts after subsetting.** Dropping samples makes INFO `AC/AN/AF` wrong. `bcftools view -s` updates `AC/AN` by default (unless `-I/--no-update`), but recompute the full tag set explicitly: `bcftools +fill-tags subset.vcf.gz -Oz -o out.vcf.gz -- -t AC,AN,AF`.

## Header harmonization (`bcftools reheader`)

```bash
printf 'old_name\tnew_name\n' > rename.txt
bcftools reheader -s rename.txt input.vcf.gz -o renamed.vcf.gz   # -s renames samples only, no record rewrite
```

`reheader` rewrites only the header (fast, no record pass): `-s` maps sample names, `-h` swaps in a whole new header, `-f ref.fa.fai` fixes `##contig` lines to match a reference. Harmonize sample names and contigs BEFORE merge so columns and sites align.

## Structural variants merge differently -- do NOT use `bcftools merge`

For SVs (`<DEL>`/`<DUP>`/`<INV>`/BND), "the same event" is fuzzy: breakpoints disagree by CIPOS/CIEND margins, so tuple-exact bcftools operations treat one deletion called by two tools as two variants. SV merging needs coordinate-and-size (ideally sequence) aware tools -- Truvari, SURVIVOR, or Jasmine -- whose distance/size parameters ARE the result. Use bcftools here only for small variants; route SV consensus to variant-calling/structural-variant-calling.

## Quick Reference

| Task | Command |
|------|---------|
| Union samples | `bcftools merge -l files.txt -Oz -o cohort.vcf.gz` |
| Stitch regions | `bcftools concat chr{1..22}.vcf.gz -Oz -o genome.vcf.gz` |
| Fast stitch (identical headers) | `bcftools concat --naive chr*.bcf -Ob -o all.bcf` |
| Sort | `bcftools sort -T tmp input.vcf -Oz -o sorted.vcf.gz` |
| Compare callers | `bcftools isec -p dir a.norm.vcf.gz b.norm.vcf.gz` |
| Shared only | `bcftools isec -n=2 -w1 a.vcf.gz b.vcf.gz -Oz -o shared.vcf.gz` |
| Subset samples | `bcftools view -s s1,s2 in.vcf.gz -Oz -o out.vcf.gz` |
| Recompute AC/AN/AF | `bcftools +fill-tags in.vcf.gz -- -t AC,AN,AF` |
| Rename samples | `bcftools reheader -s names.txt in.vcf.gz` |

## Common Errors

| Symptom | Cause | Fix |
|---------|-------|-----|
| `different samples` on concat | merge/concat inverted (different samples given to concat) | Use merge for samples, concat for regions |
| False discordance in isec | inputs not normalized to one representation | `bcftools norm -m-any -f ref.fa` both first (see variant-normalization) |
| Duplicate rows / split AF after merge | inputs represented inconsistently, or un-normalized indels | Normalize + split all inputs identically before merge |
| Fabricated `0/0` genotypes, inflated ref-allele count | `-0/--missing-to-ref` on single-sample merge (not joint genotyping) | Drop `-0`; joint-genotype gVCFs instead (joint-calling) |
| `not sorted` / index build fails | unsorted records | `bcftools sort` then re-index |
| `--naive` output corrupt | headers or sample order differ across inputs | Reheader to a common header, or drop `--naive` |
| Records duplicated / out of order after `-R` | overlapping regions in the BED | Use non-overlapping regions, then sort/dedup |
| Sample-name conflict aborts merge | duplicate sample names across files | `--force-samples`, or `reheader -s` first |
| Stale `AF` after subsetting samples | INFO not fully recomputed | `bcftools +fill-tags -- -t AC,AN,AF` |

## Related Skills

- variant-calling/variant-normalization - Normalize (left-align, split, atomize) before any merge/isec -- the load-bearing prerequisite
- variant-calling/joint-calling - Joint-genotype gVCFs instead of merging single-sample VCFs (correct hom-ref vs no-data)
- variant-calling/vcf-basics - VCF fields, the `./.`-is-not-`0/0` distinction, sample/region query
- variant-calling/structural-variant-calling - SV merging by breakpoint fuzz (Truvari/SURVIVOR/Jasmine), not bcftools
- variant-calling/filtering-best-practices - Filter call sets before combining
- variant-calling/vcf-statistics - Sanity-check Ti/Tv and counts after manipulation
- variant-calling/variant-calling - Upstream variant discovery that produces input VCFs

## References

- Danecek P, Bonfield JK, Liddle J, et al. Twelve years of SAMtools and BCFtools. *GigaScience.* 2021;10(2):giab008. doi:10.1093/gigascience/giab008 (bcftools merge/concat/isec/norm/view/reheader reference implementation)
- Tan A, Abecasis GR, Kang HM. Unified representation of genetic variants. *Bioinformatics.* 2015;31(13):2202-2204. doi:10.1093/bioinformatics/btv112 (why normalization before tuple-keyed merge/isec is mandatory)