C. PLINIUS SECUNDUS TO HIS FRIEND TITUS VESPASIAN.

THIS treatise on Natural History, a novel work in Roman literature, which I have just completed, I have taken the liberty to dedicate to you, most gracious"Jucundissime;" it is not easy to find an epithet in our language which will correctly express the meaning of the original, affectionate and familiar, at the same time that it is sufficiently dignified and respectful. Emperor, an appellation peculiarly suitable to you, while, on account of his age, that of great is more appropriate to your Father;— "For still thou ne'er wouldst quite despise The trifles that I writeLamb's trans.; Carm. i. 4. of the original.;" if I may be allowed to shelter myself under the example of Catullus, my fellow-countryman"Conterraneus;" we have no word in English which expresses the idea intended by the original, and which is, at the same time, a military term. There is indeed some reason to doubt, whether the word now inserted in the text was the one employed by the author: see the remarks of M. Alexandre, in Lem. i. 3; also an observation in Cigalino's dissertation on the native country of Pliny; Valpy, 8., a military term, which you well understand. For he, as you know, when his napkins had been changed"Permutatis prioribus sætabis;" Carm. xii. 14; xxv. 7; see the notes in Lamb's trans. pp. 135 & 149., expressed himself a little harshly, from his anxiety to show his friendship for his dear little Veranius and FabiusThese names in the original are Varaniolus and Fabullus, which are supposed to have been changed from Veranius and Fabius, as terms of familiarity and endearment; see Poinsinet, i. 24, and Lemaire, i. 4.. At the same time this my importunity may effect, what you complained of my not having done in another too forward epistle of mine; it will put upon record, and let all the world know, with what kindness you exercise the imperial dignity. You, who have had the honour of a triumph, and of the censorship, have been six times consul, and have shared in the tribunate; and, what is still more honourable, whilst you held them in conjunction with your Father, you have presided over the Equestrian order, and been the Prefect of the PrætoriansThe narrative of Suetonius may serve to illustrate the observation of Pliny: "Triumphavit (Titus) cum patre, censuramque gessit una. Eidem collega et in tribunicia potestate, et in septem consulatibus fuit. Receptaque ad se prope omnium officiorum cura, cum patris nomine et epistolas ipse dictaret, et edicta conscriberet, orationesque in Senatu recitaret etiam quæstoris vice, præfecturam quoque prætorii suscepit, nunquam ad id tempus, nisi ab Equite Romano, administratum." (viii. 5.): all this you have done for the service of the Republic, and, at the same time, have regarded me as a fellow-soldier and a messmate. Nor has the extent of your prosperity produced any change in you, except that it has given you the power of doing good to the utmost of your wishes. And whilst all these circumstances increase the veneration which other persons feel for you, with respect to myself, they have made me so bold, as to wish to become more familiar. You must, therefore, place this to your own account, and blame yourself for any fault of this kind that I may commit.

But, although I have laid aside my blushes"Perfricui faciem." This appears to have been a proverbial expression among the Romans; Cicero, Tusc. Quæes. iii. 41, employs "os perfricuisti" and Martial, xi. 27. 7, "perfricuit frontem," in the same sense., I have not gained my object; for you still awe me, and keep me at a distance, by the majesty of your understanding. In no one does the force of eloquence and of tribunitian oratory blaze out more powerfully! With what glowing language do you thunder forth the praises of your Father! How dearly do you love your Brother! How admirable is your talent for poetry! What a fertility of genius do you possess, so as to enable you to imitate your BrotherSuetonius speaks of Domitian's taste for poetry, as a part of his habitual dissimulation, viii. 2; see also the notes of Poinsinet, i. 26, and of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 351.! But who is there that is bold enough to form an estimate on these points, if he is to be judged by you, and, more especially, if you are challenged to do so? For the case of those who merely publish their works is very different from that of those who expressly dedicate them to you. In the former case I might say, Emperor! why do you read these things? They are written only for the common people, for farmers or mechanics, or for those who have nothing else to do; why do you trouble yourself with them? Indeed, when I undertook this work, I did not expect that you would sit in judgement upon me"Non eras in hoc albo;" see the note of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 8. A passage in Quintilian, xii. 4, may serve to illustrate this use of the term 'album'; "...quorum alii se ad album ac rubricas transtulerunt..."; I considered your situation much too elevated for you to descend to such an office. Besides, we possess the right of openly rejecting the opinion of men of learning. M. Tullius himself, whose genius is beyond all competition, uses this privilege; and, remarkable as it may appear, employs an advocate in his own defence:—"I do not write for very learned people; I do not wish my works to be read by Manius Persius, but by Junius CongusIt appears that the passage in which Cicero makes this quotation from Lucilius, is not in the part of his treatise De Republica which was lately discovered by Angelus Maius; Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 9. Cicero refers to this remark of Lucilius in two of his other works, although with a variation in the expression and in the individuals specified; De Orat. ii. 6, and De Fin. i. 3.." And if Lucilius, who first introduced the satirical style"Qui primus condidit styli nasum.", applied such a remark to himself, and if Cicero thought proper to borrow it, and that more especially in his treatise "De Republica," how much reason have I to do so, who have such a judge to defend myself against! And by this dedication I have deprived myself of the benefit of challenge"Sed hæc ego mihi nunc patrocinia ademi nuncupatione."; for it is a very different thing whether a person has a judge given him by lot, or whether he voluntarily selects one; and we always make more preparation for an invited guest, than for one that comes in unexpectedly.

When the candidates for office, during the heat of the canvass, deposited the fine"Pecunias deponerent." Ajasson, i. 11, remarks on these words, "Qui videri volebant ambitu alienissimi, pecuniam apud sanctum aliquem virum deponebant, qua scilicet multarentur, si unquam hujus criminis manifesti fierent." in the hands of Cato, that determined opposer of bribery, rejoicing as he did in his being rejected from what he considered to be foolish honours, they professed to do this out of respect to his integrity; the greatest glory which a man could attain. It was on this occasion that Cicero uttered the noble ejaculation, "How happy are you, Marcus Porcius, of whom no one dares to ask what is dishonourableThis expression is not found in any of the works of Cicero which are now extant, nor, indeed, is it certain that it was anything more than a remark made in conversation.!" When L. Scipio Asiaticus appealed to the tribunes, among whom was Gracchus, he expressed full confidence that he should obtain an acquittal, even from a judge who was his enemy. Hence it follows, that he who appoints his own judge must absolutely submit to the decision; this choice is therefore termed an appeal"Provocatio," calling forth..

I am well aware, that, placed as you are in the highest station, and gifted with the most splendid eloquence and the most accomplished mind, even those who come to pay their respects to you, do it with a kind of veneration: on this account I ought to be careful that what is dedicated to you should be worthy of you. But the country people, and, indeed, some whole nations offer milk to the GodsHorace, Epist. ii. 1. 143; Ovid, Fast. iv. 746 and v. 121, and Tibullus, i. 1. 26 and ii. 5. 37, refer to the offerings of milk made by the country people to their rural deities., and those who cannot procure frankincense substitute in its place salted cakes; for the Gods are not dissatisfied when they are worshiped by every one to the best of his ability. But my temerity will appear the greater by the consideration, that these volumes, which I dedicate to you, are of such inferior importance. For they do not admit of the display of genius, nor, indeed, is mine one of the highest order; they admit of no excursions, nor orations, nor discussions, nor of any wonderful adventures, nor any variety of transactions, nor, from the barrenness of the matter, of anything particularly pleasant in the narration, or agreeable to the reader. The na- ture of things, and life as it actually exists, are described in them; and often the lowest department of it; so that, in very many cases, I am obliged to use rude and foreign, or even barbarous terms, and these often require to be introduced by a kind of preface. And, besides this, my road is not a beaten track, nor one which the mind is much disposed to travel over. There is no one among us who has ever attempted it, nor is there any one individual among the Greeks who has treated of all the topics. Most of us seek for nothing but amusement in our studies, while others are fond of subjects that are of excessive subtilty, and completely involved in obscurity. My object is to treat of all those things which the Greeks include in the Encyclopædia"...id est, artium et doctrinarum omnium circulus;" Alexandre in Lem. i. 14., which, however, are either not generally known or are rendered dubious from our ingenious conceits. And there are other matters which many writers have given so much in detail that we quite loathe them. It is, indeed, no easy task to give novelty to what is old, and authority to what is new; brightness to what is become tarnished, and light to what is obscure; to render what is slighted acceptable, and what is doubtful worthy of our confidence; to give to all a natural manner, and to each its peculiar nature. It is sufficiently honourable and glorious to have been willing even to make the attempt, although it should prove unsuccessful. And, indeed, I am of opinion, that the studies of those are more especially worthy of our regard, who, after having overcome all difficulties, prefer the useful office of assisting others to the mere gratification of giving pleasure; and this is what I have already done in some of my former works. I confess it surprises me, that T. Livius, so celebrated an author as he is, in one of the books of his history of the city from its origin, should begin with this remark, "I have now obtained a sufficient reputation, so that I might put an end to my work, did not my restless mind require to be supported by employmentThese words are not found in any of the books of Livy now extant; we may conclude that they were introduced into the latter part of his work.." Certainly he ought to have composed this work, not for his own glory, but for that of the Roman name, and of the people who were the conquerors of all other nations. It would have been more meritorious to have persevered in his labours from his love of the work, than from the gratification which it afforded himself, and to have accomplished it, not for his own sake, but for that of the Roman people.

I have included in thirty-six"Quem nunc primum historiæ Plinianæ librum vocamus, hic non unmeratur, quod sit operis index." Hardouin in Lem. i. 16. books 20,000 topics, all worthy of attention, (for, as Domitius PisoNothing is known of Domitius Piso, either as an author or an individual. says, we ought to make not merely books, but valuable collections,) gained by the perusal of about 2000 volumes, of which a few only are in the hands of the studious, on account of the obscurity of the subjects, procured by the careful perusal of 100 select authorsThe names of these authors will be found, arranged by Hardouin alphabetically, with a brief account of them and their works, in Lem. i. 157 et seq.; we have nearly the same list in Valpy, p. 4903.; and to these I have made considerable additions of things, which were either not known to my predecessors, or which have been lately discovered. Nor can I doubt but that there still remain many things which I have omitted; for I am a mere mortal, and one that has many occupations. I have, therefore, been obliged to compose this work at interrupted intervals, indeed during the night, so that you will find that I have not been idle even during this period. The day I devote to you, exactly portioning out my sleep to the necessity of my health, and contenting myself with this reward, that while we are musing"Musinamur." We learn from Hardouin, Lem. i. 17, that there is some doubt as to the word employed by our author, whether it was mu- sinamur or muginamur; I should be disposed to adopt the former, as being, according to the remark of Turnebus, "verbum a Musis deductum." on these subjects (according to the remark of Varro), we are adding to the length of our lives; for life properly consists in being awake.

In consideration of these circumstances and these difficulties, I dare promise nothing; but you have done me the most essential service in permitting me to dedicate my work to you. Nor does this merely give a sanction to it, but it determines its value; for things are often conceived to be of great value, solely because they are consecrated in temples.

I have given a full account of all your family—your Father, yourself, and your Brother, in a history of our own times, beginning where Aufidius Bassus concludes"A fine Aufidii Bassi;" as Alexandre remarks, "Finis autem Aufidii Bassi intelligendus est non mors ejus, sed tempus ad quod suas ipse perduxerat historias. Quodnam illud ignoramus." Lem. i. 18. For an account of Aufidius Bassus we are referred to the catalogue of Hardouin, but his name does not appear there. Quintilian (x. 1) informs us, that he wrote an account of the Germanic war.. You will ask, Where is it? It has been long completed and its accuracy confirmed"Jam pridem peracta sancitur."; but I have determined to commit the charge of it to my heirs, lest I should have been suspected, during my lifetime, of having been unduly influenced by ambition. By this means I confer an obligation on those who occupy the same ground with myself; and also on posterity, who, I am aware, will contend with me, as I have done with my predecessors.

You may judge of my taste from my having inserted, in the beginning of my book, the names of the authors that I have consulted. For I consider it to be courteous and to indicate an ingenuous modesty, to acknowledge the sources whence we have derived assistance, and not to act as most of those have done whom I have examined. For I must inform you, that in comparing various authors with each other, I have discovered, that some of the most grave and of the latest writers have transcribed, word for word, from former works, without making any acknowledgement; not avowedly rivalling them, in the manner of Virgil, or with the candour of Cicero, who, in his treatise "De RepublicaThis sentiment is not found in that portion of the treatise which has been lately published by Angelus Maius. Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 19.," professes to coincide in opinion with Plato, and in his Essay on Consolation for his Daughter, says that he follows Crantor, and, in his OfficesThe following is probably the passage in the Offices to which Pliny refers: "Panæcius igitur, qui sine controversia de officiis accuratissime disputavit, quemque nos, correctione quadam exhibita, potissimum secuti sums..." (iii. 2.), Panæcius; volumes, which, as you well know, ought not merely to be always in our hands, but to be learned by heart. For it is indeed the mark of a perverted mind and a bad disposition, to prefer being caught in a theft to returning what we have borrowed, especially when we have acquired capital, by usurious interest"Cum præsertim sors fiat ex usura." The commentators and translators have differed respecting the interpretation of this passage; I have given what appears to me the obvious meaning of the words..

The Greeks were wonderfully happy in their titles. One work they called Khri/on, which means that it was as sweet as a honeycomb; another Ke/ras )Amalqei/as, or Cornu copiæ, so that you might expect to get even a draught of pigeon's milk from it"Lac gallinaceum;" "Proverbium de re singulari et admodum rara," according to Hardouin, who quotes a parallel passage from Petronius; Lemaire, i. 21.. Then they have their Flowers, their Muses, Magazines, Manuals, Gardens, Pictures, and SketchesThe titles in the original are given in Greek; I have inserted in the text the words which most nearly resemble them, and which have been employed by modern authors., all of them titles for which a man might be tempted even to forfeit his bail. But when you enter upon the works, O ye Gods and Goddesses! how full of emptiness! Our duller countrymen have merely their Antiquities, or their Examples, or their Arts. I think one of the most humorous of them has his Nocturnal Studies"Lucubratio.", a term employed by Bibaculus; a name which he richly deservedThe pun in the original cannot be preserved in the translation; the English reader may conceive the name Bibaculus to correspond to our surname Jolly.. Varro, indeed, is not much behind him, when he calls one of his satires A Trick and a Half, and another Turning the Tables"Sesculvsses" and "Flextabula;" literally, Ulysses and a Half and Bend-table.. Diodorus was the first among the Greeks who laid aside this trifling manner and named his history The LibraryBiblioqh/kh.. Apion, the grammarian, indeed—he whom Tiberius Cæsar called the Trumpeter of the World, but would rather seem to be the Bell of the Town-crier"Cymbalum mundi" and "publicæ famæ tympanum.",—supposed that every one to whom he inscribed any work would thence acquire immortality. I do not regret not having given my work a more fanciful title.

That I may not, however, appear to inveigh so completely against the Greeks, I should wish to be considered under the same point of view with those inventors of the arts of painting and sculpture, of whom you will find an account in these volumes, whose works, although they are so perfect that we are never satisfied with admiring them, are inscribed with a temporary title"Pendenti titulo;" as Hardouin explains it, "qui nondum absolutum opus significaret, verum adhuc pendere, velut imperfectum." Lemaire, i. 26., such as "Apelles, or Polycletus, was doing this;" implying that the work was only commenced and still imperfect, and that the artist might benefit by the criticisms that were made on it and alter any part that required it, if he had not been prevented by death. It is also a great mark of their modesty, that they inscribed their works as if they were the last which they had executed, and as still in hand at the time of their death. I think there are but three works of art which are inscribed positively with the words "such a one executed this;" of these I shall give an account in the proper place. In these cases it appears, that the artist felt the most perfect satisfaction with his work, and hence these pieces have excited the envy of every one.

I, indeed, freely admit, that much may be added to my works; not only to this, but to all which I have published. By this admission I hope to escape from the carping critics"Homeromastigæ.", and I have the more reason to say this, because I hear that there are certain Stoics and Logicians"Dialectici." By this term our author probably meant to designate those critics who were disposed to dwell upon minute verbal distinctions; "dialecticarum captionum amantes," according to Hardouin; Lem. i. 28., and also Epicureans (from the Grammarians"Quod argutiarum amantissimi, et quod æmulatio inter illos acerbissima." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 28. I expected as much), who are big with something against the little work I published on GrammarPliny the younger, in one of his letters (iii. 5), where he enumerates all his uncle's publications, informs us, that he wrote "a piece of criticism in eight books, concerning ambiguity of expression." Melmoth's Pliny, i. 136.; and that they have been carrying these abortions for ten years together—a longer pregnancy this than the elephant'sThe ancients had very exaggerated notions respecting the period of the elephant's pregnancy; our author, in a subsequent part of his work (viii. 10), says, "Decem annis gestarevulgus existimat; Aristoteles biennio.". But I well know, that even a woman once wrote against Theophrastus, a man so eminent for his eloquence that he obtained his name, which signifies the Divine speakerHis real name was Tyrtamus, but in consequence of the beauty of his style, he acquired the appellation by which he is generally known from the words qei=os fra/sis. Cicero on various occasions refers to him; Brutus, 121; Orator, 17, et alibi., and that from this circumstance originated the proverb of choosing a tree to hang oneself"Suspendio jam quærere mortem oportere homines vitæque renunciare, cum tantum licentiæ, vel feminæ, vel imperiti homines sumant, ut in doctissimos scribant;" Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 29. We learn from Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 33, that the name of this female was Leontium; "...sed meretricula etiam Leontium contra Theophrastun scribere ausa sit.".

I cannot refrain from quoting the words of Cato the censor, which are so pertinent to this point. It appears from them, that even Cato, who wrote commentaries on military disciplineA. Gellius (vii. 4) refers to this work and gives an extract from it., and who had learned the military art under Africanus, or rather under Hannibal (for he could not endure AfricanusThe hostility which Cato bore to Scipio Africanus is mentioned by Livy, xxxviii. 54, and by Corn. Nepos, Cato, i., who, when he was his general, had borne away the triumph from him), that Cato, I say, was open to the attacks of such as caught at reputation for themselves by detracting from the merits of others. And what does he say in his book? "I know, that when I shall publish what I have written, there will be many who will do all they can to depreciate it, and, especially, such as are themselves void of all merit; but I let their harangues glide by me." Nor was the remark of PlancusLucius Munatius Plancus took a conspicuous part in the political intrigues of the times and was especially noted for his follies and extravagance. a bad one, when Asinius PollioAsinius Pollio is a name which stands high in Roman literature; according to the remark of Alexandre, "Vir magnus fuit, prono tamen ad obtrectandum ingenio, quod arguunt ejus cum Cicerone simultates," Lemaire, i. 30. This hostile feeling towards Cicero is supposed to have proceeded from envy and mortification, because he was unable to attain the same eminence in the art of oratory with his illustrious rival. See Hardouin's Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 168. was said to be preparing an oration against him, which was to be published either by himself or his children, after the death of Plancus, in order that he might not be able to answer it: "It is only ghosts that fight with the dead." This gave such a blow to the oration, that in the opinion of the learned generally, nothing was ever thought more scandalous. Feeling myself, therefore, secure against these vile slanderers"Vitiligatores.", a name elegantly composed by Cato, to express their slanderous and vile disposition (for what other object have they, but to wrangle and breed quarrels?), I will proceed with my projected work.

And because the public good requires that you should be spared as much as possible from all trouble, I have subjoined to this epistle the contents of each of the following booksThe table of contents, which occupies no less than 124 pages in Lemaire's edition, I have omitted, in consequence of its length; the object which the author proposed to effect by the table of contents will be gained more completely by an alphabetical index., and have used my best endeavours to prevent your being obliged to read them all through. And this, which was done for your benefit, will also serve the same purpose for others, so that any one may search for what he wishes, and may know where to find it. This has been already done among us by Valerius Soranus, in his work which he entitled "On Mysteries")Epopti/wn." For an account of Valerius Soranus see Hardouin's Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 217.."

The 1st book is the Preface of the Work, dedicated to Titus Vespasian Cæsar.

The 2nd is on the World, the Elements, and the Heavenly BodiesTo the end of each book of the Natural History is appended, in the original, a copious list of references to the sources from which the author derived his information. These are very numerous; in the second book they amount to 45, in the third to 35, in the 4th to 53, in the fifth to 60, in the sixth to 54, and they are in the same proportion in the remaining books..

The 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th books are on Geography, in which is contained an account of the situation of the different countries, the inhabitants, the seas, towns, harbours, mountains, rivers, and dimensions, and the various tribes, some of which still exist and others have disappeared.

The 7th is on Man, and the Inventions of Man.

The 8th on the various kinds of Land Animals.

The 9th on Aquatic Animals.

The 10th on the various kinds of Birds.

The 11th on Insects.

The 12th on Odoriferous Plants.

The 13th on Exotic Trees.

The 14th on Vines.

The 15th on Fruit Trees.

The 16th on Forest Trees.

The 17th on Plants raised in nurseries or gardens.

The 18th on the nature of Fruits and the Cerealia, and the pursuits of the Husbandman.

The 19th on Flax, Broom"Spartum;" this plant was used to make bands for the vines and cables for ships., and Gardening.

The 20th on the Cultivated Plants that are proper for food and for medicine.

The 21st on Flowers and Plants that are used for making Garlands.

The 22nd on Garlands, and Medicines made from Plants.

The 23rd on Medicines made from Wine and from cultivated Trees.

The 24th on Medicines made from Forest Trees.

The 25th on Medicines made from Wild Plants.

The 26th on New Diseases, and Medicines made, for certain Diseases, from Plants.

The 27th on some other Plants and Medicines.

The 28th on Medicines procured from Man and from large Animals.

The 29th on Medical Authors, and on Medicines from other Animals.

The 30th on Magic, and Medicines for certain parts of the Body.

The 31st on Medicines from Aquatic Animals.

The 32nd on the other properties of Aquatic Animals.

The 33rd on Gold and Silver.

The 34th on Copper and Lead, and the workers of Copper.

The 35th on Painting, Colours, and Painters.

The 36th on Marbles and Stones.

The 37th on Gems.

The world"Mundus." In translating from one language into another, it is proper, as a general principle, always to render the same word in the original by the same word in the translation. But to this rule there are two exceptions; where the languages do not possess words which precisely correspond, and where the original author does not always use the same word in the same sense. Both these circumstances, I apprehend, apply to the case in question. The term Mundus is used by Pliny, sometimes to mean the earth and its immediate appendages, the visible solar system; and at other times the universe; while I think we may venture to assert, that in some instances it is used in rather a vague manner, without any distinct reference to either one or other of the above designations. I have, in almost all cases, translated it by the term world, as approaching nearest to the sense of the original. The word mundus is frequently employed by Lucretius, especially in his fifth book, and seems to be almost always used in the more extended sense of universe. There are, indeed, a few passages where either meaning would be equally appropriate, and in one line it would appear to be equivalent to firmament or heavens; "et mundi speciem violare serenam," iv. 138. Cicero, in his treatise De Natura Deorum, generally uses the term mundus in the sense of universe, as in ii. 22, 37, 58 and 154; while in one passage, ii. 132, it would appear to be employed in the more limited sense of the earth. It occasionally occurs in the Fasti of Ovid, but it is not easy to ascertain its precise import; as in the line "Post chaos, ut primum data sunt tria corpora mundo," v. 41, where from the connexion it may be taken either in the more confined or in the more general sense. Manilius employs the word very frequently, and his commentators remark, that he uses it in two distinct senses, the visible firmament and the universe; and I am induced to think that he attaches still more meaning to the term. It occurs three times in the first eleven lines of his poem. In the third line, "deducere mundo aggredior," mundus may be considered as equivalent to the celestial regions as opposed to the earth. In the ninth line, "concessumque patri mundo," we may consider it as signifying the celestial regions generally; and in the eleventh, "Jamque favet mundus," the whole of the earth, or rather its inhabitants. We meet with it again in the sixty-eighth line, "lumina mundi," where it seems more properly to signify the visible firmament; again in the 139th, "Et mundi struxere globum," it seems to refer especially to the earth, synonymous with the general sense of the English term world; while in the 153rd line, "per inania mundi," it must be supposed to mean the universe. Hyginus, in his Poeticon Astronomicon, lib. i. p. 55, defines the term as follows: "Mundus appellatur is qui constat in sole et luna et terra et omnibus stellis;" and again, p. 57, "Terra mundi media regione collocata." We may observe the different designations of the term mundus in Seneca; among other passages I may refer to his Nat. Quæst. vii. 27 & iii. 30; to his treatise De Consol. § 18 and De Benef. iv. 23, where I conceive the precise meanings are, respectively, the universe, the terrestrial globe, the firmament, and the heavenly bodies. The Greek term ko/smos, which corresponds to the Latin word mundus, was likewise employed to signify, either the visible firmament or the universe. In illustration of this, it will be sufficient to refer to the treatise of Aristotle Peri\ Ko/smou, cap. 2. p. 601. See also Stephens's Thesaurus, in loco. In Apuleius's treatise De Mundo, which is a free translation of Aristotle's Peri\ Ko/smou, the term may be considered as synonymous with universe. It is used in the same sense in various parts of Apuleius's writings: see Metam. ii. 23; De Deo Socratis, 665, 667; De Dogmate Platonis, 574, 575, et alibi., and whatever that be which we otherwise call the heavensCicero, in his Timæus, uses the same phraseology; "Omne igitur cœlum, sive mundus, sive quovis alio vocabulo gaudet, hoc a nobis nuncupatum est," § 2. Pomponius Mela's work commences with a similar expression; "Omne igitur hoc, quidquid est, cui mundi cœlique nomen indideris, unum id est." They were probably taken from a passage in Plato's Timæus, "Universum igitur hoc, Cœlum, sive Mundum, sive quo alio vocabulo gaudet, cognominemus," according to the translation of Ficinus; Platonis Op. ix. p. 302. The word cœlum, which is employed in the original, in its ordinary acceptation, signifies the heavens, the visible firmament; as in Ovid, Met. i. 5, "quod tegit omnia, cœlum." It is, in most cases, employed in this sense by Lucretius and by Manilius, as in i. 2. of the former and in i. 14. of the latter. Occasionally, however, it is employed by both of these writers in the more general sense of celestial regions, in opposition to the earth, as by Lucretius, i. 65, and by Manilius, i. 352. In the line quoted by Cicero from Pacuvius, it would seem to mean the place in which the planets are situated; De Nat. Deor. ii. 91. The Greek word ou)rano\s may be regarded as exactly corresponding to the Latin word cœlum, and employed with the same modifications; see Aristotle, De Mundo and De Cœlo, and Ptolemy, Mag. Const. lib. i. passim; see also Stephens's Thesaurus, in loco. Aratus generally uses it to designate the visible firmament, as in 1. 10, while in 1. 32 it means the heavenly regions. Gesner defines cœlum, "Mundus exclusa terra," and mundus, "Cœlum et quidquid cceli ambitu continetur." In the passage from Plato, referred to above, the words which are translated by Ficinus cœlum and mundus, are in the original ou)rano\s and ko/smos; Ficinus, however, in various parts of the Timæus, translates ou)ranbo\s by the word mundus: see t. ix. p. 306, 311, et alibi., by the vault of which all things are enclosed, we must conceive to be a DeityThe following passage from Cicero may serve to illustrate the doctrine of Pliny: "Novem tibi orbibus, vel potius globis, connexa sunt omnia: quorum unus est ccelestis, extimus, qui reliquos omnes complectitur, summus ipse Deus, arcens et continens cœlum;" Som. Scip. § 4. I may remark, however, that the term here employed by our author is not Deus but Numen., to be eternal, without bounds, neither created, nor subject, at any time, to destructionWe have an interesting account of the opinions of Aristotle on this subject, in a note in M. Ajasson's translation, ii. 234 et seq., which, as well as the greater part of the notes attached to the second book of the Natural History, were written by himself in conjunction with M. Marcus.. To inquire what is beyond it is no concern of man, nor can the human mind form any conjecture respecting it. It is sacred, eternal, and without bounds, all in all; indeed including everything in itself; finite, yet like what is infinite; the most certain of all things, yet like what is uncertain, externally and internally embracing all things in itself; it is the work of nature, and itself constitutes natureThe philosophers of antiquity were divided in their opinions respecting the great question, whether the active properties of material bodies, which produce the phenomena of nature, are inherent in them, and necessarily attached to them, or whether they are bestowed upon them by some superior power or being. The Academics and Peripatetics generally adopted the latter opinion, the Stoics the former: Pliny adopts the doctrine of the Stoics; see Enfield's Hist. of Phil. i. 229, 283, 331..

It is madness to harass the mind, as some have done, with attempts to measure the world, and to publish these attempts; or, like others, to argue from what they have made out, that there are innumerable other worlds, and that we must believe there to be so many other natures, or that, if only one nature produced the whole, there will be so many suns and so many moons, and that each of them will have immense trains of other heavenly bodies. As if the same question would not recur at every step of our inquiry, anxious as we must be to arrive at some termination; or, as if this infinity, which we ascribe to nature, the former of all things, cannot be more easily comprehended by one single formation, especially when that is so extensive. It is madness, perfect madness, to go out of this world and to search for what is beyond it, as if one who is ignorant of his own dimensions could ascertain the measure of any thing else, or as if the human mind could see what the world itself cannot contain.

That it has the form of a perfect globe we learn from the name which has been uniformly given to it, as well as from numerous natural arguments. For not only does a figure of this kind return everywhere into itselfThis doctrine was maintained by Plato in his Timæus, p. 310, and adopted by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 14, and by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii 47. The spherical form of the world, ou)rano\s, and its circular motion are insisted upon by Ptolemy, in the commencement of his astronomical treatise Mega/lh Su/ntacis, Magna Constructio, frequently referred to by its Arabic title Almagestum, cap. 2. He is supposed to have made his observations at Alexandria, between the years 125 and 140 A.D. His great astronomical work was translated into Arabic in the year 827; the original Greek text was first printed in 1538 by Grynæus, with a commentary by Theon. George of Trebisond published a Latin version of it in 1541, and a second was published by Camerarius in 1551, along with Ptolemy's other works. John Muller, usually called Regiomontanus, and Purback published an abridgement of the Almagest in 1541. For an account of Ptolemy I may refer to the article in the Biog. Univ. xxxv. 263 et seq., by Delambre, also to Hutton's Math. Diet., in loco, and to the high character of him by Whewell, Hist. of the Inductive Sciences, p. 214. and sustain itself, also including itself, requiring no adjustments, not sensible of either end or beginning in any of its parts, and is best fitted for that motion, with which, as will appear hereafter, it is continually turning round; but still more, because we perceive it, by the evidence of the sight, to be, in every part, convex and central, which could not be the case were it of any other figure.

The rising and the setting of the sun clearly prove, that this globe is carried round in the space of twenty-four hours, in an eternal and never-ceasing circuit, and with in- credible swiftnessSee Ptolemy, ubi supra.. I am not able to say, whether the sound caused by the whirling about of so great a mass be excessive, and, therefore, far beyond what our ears can perceive, nor, indeed, whether the resounding of so many stars, all carried along at the same time and revolving in their orbits, may not produce a kind of delightful harmony of incredible sweetnessThis opinion, which was maintained by Pythagoras, is noticed and derided by Aristotle, De Cœlo, lib. ii. cap. 9. p. 462–3. A brief account of Pythagoras's doctrine on this subject is contained in Enfield's Philosophy, i. 386.. To us, who are in the interior, the world appears to glide silently along, both by day and by night.

Various circumstances in nature prove to us, that there are impressed on the heavens innumerable figures of animals and of all kinds of objects, and that its surface is not perfectly polished like the eggs of birds, as some celebrated authors assertPliny probably here refers to the opinion which Cicero puts into the mouth of one of the interlocutors in his treatise De Nat. Deor. ii. 47, "Quid enim pulchrius ea figura, quæ sola omnes alias figuras complexa continet, quæque nihil asperitatis habere, nihil offensionis potest, nihil incisum angulis, nihil anfractibus, nihil eminens, nihil lacunosum?". For we find that the seeds of all bodies fall down from it, principally into the ocean, and, being mixed together, that a variety of monstrous forms are in this way frequently produced. And, indeed, this is evident to the eye; for, in one part, we have the figure of a wain, in another of a bear, of a bull, and of a letterThe letter D, in the constellation of the triangle; it is named Deltwto\n by Aratus, 1. 235; also by Manilius, i. 360. We may remark, that, except in this one case, the constellations have no visible resemblance to the objects of which they bear the name.; while, in the middle of them, over our heads, there is a white circle"Locum hunc Plinii de Galaxia, sive Lactea via, interpretantur omnes docti." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 227. It may be remarked, that the word vertex is here used in the sense of the astronomical term zenith, not to signify the pole..

(4.) With respect to the name, I am influenced by the unanimous opinions of all nations. For what the Greeks, from its being ornamented, have termed ko/smos, we, from its perfect and complete elegance, have termed mundus. The name cœlum, no doubt, refers to its being engraven, as it were, with the stars, as Varro suggestsDe Ling. Lat. lib. iv. p. 7, 8. See also the remarks on the derivation of the word in Gesner, Thes., in loco.. In confirmation of this idea we may adduce the Zodiac"Signifer." The English term is taken from the Greek word Zwdiako\s, derived from Zw=on; see Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 2. p. 602. The word Zodiacus does not occur in Pliny, nor is it employed by Ptolemy; he names it loco(s ku/klos, obliquus circulus; Magn. Const. i. 7, 13, et alibi. It is used by Cicero, but professedly as a Greek term; Divin. ii. 89, and Arati Phænom. 1. 317. It occurs in Hyginus, p. 57 et alibi, and in A. Gellius, 13. 9. Neither signifer taken substantively, nor zodiacus occur in Lucretius or in Manilius., in which are twelve figures of animals; through them it is that the sun has continued its course for so many ages.

I do not find that any one has doubted that there are four elements. The highest of these is supposed to be fire, and hence proceed the eyes of so many glittering stars. The next is that spirit, which both the Greeks and ourselves call by the same name, air"Aër." "Circumfusa undique est (terra) hac animabili spirabilique natura, cui nomen est aër; Græcum illud quidem, sed perceptum jam tamen usu a nobis;" Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 91.. It is by the force of this vital principle, pervading all things and mingling with all, that the earth, together with the fourth element, water, is balanced in the middle of space. These are mutually bound together, the lighter being restrained by the heavier, so that they cannot fly off; while, on the contrary, from the lighter tending upwards, the heavier are so suspended, that they cannot fall down. Thus, by an equal tendency in an opposite direction, each of them remains in its appropriate place, bound together by the never-ceasing revolution of the world, which always turning on itself, the earth falls to the lowest part and is in the middle of the whole, while it remains suspended in the centre"universi cardine." "Revolutionis, ut aiunt, centro. Idem Plinius, hoc ipso libro, cap. 64, terram cœli cardinem esse dicit; "Alexandre, in Lem. i. 228. On this subject I may refer to Ptolemy, Magn. Const. lib. i. cap. 3, 4, 6. See also Apuleius, near the commencement of his treatise De Mundo., and, as it were, balancing this centre, in which it is suspended. So that it alone remains immoveable, whilst all things revolve round it, being connected with every other part, whilst they all rest upon it.

(6.) Between this body and the heavens there are suspended, in this aërial spirit, seven stars"Sidera." The word sidus is used, in most cases, for one of the heavenly bodies generally, sometimes for what we term a constellation, a particular assemblage of them, and sometimes specially for an individual star. Manilius employs the word in all these senses, as will appear by the three following passages respectively; the first taken from the opening of his poem, "Carmine divinas artes, et conscia fati Sidera...." The second, "Hæc igitur texunt æquali sidera tractu Ignibus in varias cœlum laqueantia formas." i. 275, 276. The third "....pectus, fulgenti sidere clarius;"i. 356.

In the Fasti of Ovid, we have examples of the two latter of these significations:— "Ex Ariadnæo sidere nosse potes;" v. 346. "Et canis (Icarium dicunt) quo sidere noto Tosta sitit tellus;" iv. 939, 940. Lucretius appears always to employ the term in the general sense. J. Obsequens applies the word sidus to a meteor; "sidus ingens cœlo demissum," cap. 16. In a subsequent part of this book, chap. 18 et seq., our author more particularly restricts the term sidus to the planets.

I consider it, therefore, an indication of human weakness to inquire into the figure and form of God. For whatever God be, if there be any other God"Si alius est Deus quam sol," Alexandre in Lem. i. 230. Or rather, if there be any God distinct from the world; for the latter part of the sentence can scarcely apply to the sun. Poinsinet and Ajasson, however, adopt the same opinion with M. Alexandre; they translate the passage, "s'il en est autre que le soleil," i. 17 and ii. 11., and wherever he exists, he is all sense, all sight, all hearing, all life, all mind"totus animæ, totus animi;" "Anima est qua vivinus, animus quo sapimus." Hard. in Lem. i. 230, 231. The distinction between these two words is accurately pointed out by Lucretius, iii. 137 et seq., and all within himself. To believe that there are a number of Gods, derived from the virtues and vices of man"fecerunt (Athenienses) Contumeliæ fanum et Impudentiæ." Cicero, De Leg. ii. 28. See also Bossuet, Discours sur l'Histoire univ. i. 250., as Chastity, Concord, Understanding, Hope, Honour, Clemency, and Fidelity; or, according to the opinion of Democritus, that there are only two, Punishment and RewardThe account which Cicero gives us of the opinions of Democritus scarcely agrees with the statement in the text; see De Nat. Deor. i. 120., indicates still greater folly. Human nature, weak and frail as it is, mindful of its own infirmity, has made these divisions, so that every one might have recourse to that which he supposed himself to stand more particularly in need of"In varios divisit Deos numen unicum, quod Plinio cœlum est aut mundus; ejusque singulas partes, aut, ut philosophi aiunt, attributa, separatim coluit; "Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 231.. Hence we find different names employed by different nations; the inferior deities are arranged in classes, and diseases and plagues are deified, in consequence of our anxious wish to propitiate them. It was from this cause that a temple was dedicated to Fever, at the public expense, on the Palatine Hill"Febrem autem ad minus nocendum, templis celebrant, quorum adhue unum in Palafio...." Val. Max. ii. 6; see also Ælian, Var. Hist. xii. 11. It is not easy to ascertain the precise meaning of the terms Fanum, Ædes, and Templum, which are employed in this place by Pliny and Val. Maximus. Gesner defines Fanum "area templi et solium, templum vero ædificium;" but this distinction, as he informs us, is not always accurately observed; there appears to be still less distinction between Ædes and Templum; see his Thesaurus in loco, also Bailey's Facciolati in loco., and to Orbona"Orbona est Orbitalis dea." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 231., near the Temple of the Lares, and that an altar was elected to Good Fortune on the Esquiline. Hence we may understand how it comes to pass that there is a greater population of the Celestials than of human beings, since each individual makes a separate God for himself, adopting his own Juno and his own Genius"Appositos sibi statim ab ortu custodes credebant, quos viri Genios, Junones fœminæ vocabant." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 232. See Tibullus, 4. 6. 1, and Seneca, Epist. 110, sub init.. And there are nations who make Gods of certain animals, and even certain obscene thingsWe may suppose that our author here refers to the popular mythology of the Egyptians; the "fœtidi cibi" are mentioned by Juvenal; "Porrum et cæpe nefas violare et frangere morsu," xv. 9; and Pliny, in a subsequent part of his work, xix. 32, remarks, "Allium ceepeque inter Deos in jurejurando habet Ægyptus.", which are not to be spoken of, swearing by stinking meats and such like. To suppose that marriages are contracted between the Gods, and that, during so long a period, there should have been no issue from them, that some of them should be old and always grey- headed and others young and like children, some of a dark complexion, winged, lame, produced from eggs, living and dying on alternate days, is sufficiently puerile and foolish. But it is the height of impudence to imagine, that adultery takes place between them, that they have contests and quarrels, and that there are Gods of theft and of various crimesSee Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 42 et alibi, for an illustration of these remarks of Pliny.. To assist man is to be a God; this is the path to eternal glory. This is the path which the Roman nobles formerly pursued, and this is the path which is now pursued by the greatest ruler of our age, Vespasian Augustus, he who has come to the relief of an exhausted empire, as well as by his sons. This was the ancient mode of remunerating those who deserved it, to regard them as GodsThis sentiment is elegantly expressed by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 62, and by Horace, Od. iii. 3. 9 et seq. It does not appear, however, that any of the Romans, except Romulus, were deified, previous to the adulatory period of the Empire.. For the names of all the Gods, as well as of the stars that I have mentioned above"Planetarum nempe, qui omnes nomina mutuantur a diis." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 234., have been derived from their services to mankind. And with respect to Jupiter and Mercury, and the rest of the celestial nomenclature, who does not admit that they have reference to certain natural phænomenaThis remark may be illustrated by the following passage from Cicero, in the first book of his treatise De Nat. Deor. Speaking of the doctrine of Zeno, he says, "neque enim Jovem, neque Junonem, neque Vestam, neque quemquam, qui ita appelletur, in deorum habet numero: sed rebus manimis, atque mutis, per quandam significationem, hæc docet tributa nomina." "Idemque (Chrysippus) disputat, æthera esse eum, quem homines Jovem appellant: quique aër per maria manaret, eum esse Nep- tunum: terramque eam esse, quæ Ceres diceretur: similique ratione persequitur vocabula reliquorum deorum."? But it is ridiculous to suppose, that the great head of all things, whatever it be, pays any regard to human affairsThe following remarks of Lucretius and of Cicero may serve to illustrate the opinion here expressed by our author:— "Omnis enim per se Divum natura necesse est Immortal ævo summa cum pace fruatur, Semota ab nostris rebus, sejunctaque longe; "Lucretius, i. 57–69. "Quod æternum beatumque sit, id nec habere ipsum negotii quidquam, nec exhibere alteri; itaque neque ira neque gratia teneri, quod, quæ talia essent, imbecilla essent omnia." Cicero, De Nat. Deor. i. 45.. Can we believe, or rather can there be any doubt, that it is not polluted by such a disagreeable and complicated office? It is not easy to determine which opinion would be most for the advantage of mankind, since we observe some who have no respect for the Gods, and others who carry it to a scandalous excess. They are slaves to foreign ceremonies; they carry on their fingers the Gods and the monsters whom they worshipThe author here alludes to the figures of the Egyptian deities that were engraven on rings.; they condemn and they lay great stress on certain kinds of food; they impose on themselves dreadful ordinances, not even sleeping quietly. They do not marry or adopt children, or indeed do anything else, without the sanction of their sacred rites. There are others, on the contrary, who will cheat in the very Capitol, and will forswear themselves even by Jupiter TonansHis specific office was to execute vengeance on the impious., and while these thrive in their crimes, the others torment themselves with their superstitions to no purpose.

Among these discordant opinions mankind have discovered for themselves a kind of intermediate deity, by which our scepticism concerning God is still increased. For all over the world, in all places, and at all times, Fortune is the only god whom every one invokes; she alone is spoken of, she alone is accused and is supposed to be guilty; she alone is in our thoughts, is praised and blamed, and is loaded with reproaches; wavering as she is, conceived by the generality of mankind to be blind, wandering, inconstant, uncertain, variable, and often favouring the unworthy. To her are referred all our losses and all our gains, and in casting up the accounts of mortals she alone balances the two pages of our sheet"sola utramque paginam facit." The words utraque pagina generally refer to the two sides of the same sheet, but, in this passage, they probably mean the contiguous portions of the same surface.. We are so much in the power of chance, that change itself is considered as a God, and the existence of God becomes doubtful.

But there are others who reject this principle and assign events to the influence of the stars"astroque suo eventu assignat;" the word astrum appears to be synonymous with sidus, generally signifying a single star, and, occasionally, a constellation; as in Manilius, i. 541, 2. "....quantis bis sena ferantur Finibus astra...." It is also used by synecdoche for the heavens, as is the case with the English word stars. See Gesner's Thesaurus., and to the laws of our nativity; they suppose that God, once for all, issues his decrees and never afterwards interferes. This opinion begins to gain ground, and both the learned and the unlearned vulgar are falling into it. Hence we have the admonitions of thunder, the warnings of oracles, the predictions of soothsayers, and things too trifling to be mentioned, as sneezing and stumbling with the feet reckoned among omens"Quæ si suscipiamus, pedis offensio nobis...et sternutamenta erunt observanda." Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 84.. The late Emperor Augustus"Divus Augustus." The epithet divus may be regarded as merely a term of court etiquette, because all the Emperors after death were deified ex officio. relates, that he put the left shoe on the wrong foot, the day when he was near being assaulted by his soldiersWe learn the exact nature of this ominous accident from Suetonius; "....si mane sibi calceus perperam, et sinister pro dextro induceretur;" Augustus, Cap. 92. From this passage it would appear, that the Roman sandals were made, as we term it, right and left.. And such things as these so embarrass improvident mortals, that among all of them this alone is certain, that there is nothing certain, and that there is nothing more proud or more wretched than man. For other animals have no care but to provide for their subsistence, for which the spontaneous kindness of nature is all-sufficient; and this one circumstance renders their lot more especially preferable, that they never think about glory, or money, or ambition, and, above all, that they never reflect on death.

The belief, however, that on these points the Gods superintend human affairs is useful to us, as well as that the punishment of crimes, although sometimes tardy, from the Deity being occupied with such a mass of business, is never entirely remitted, and that the human race was not made the next in rank to himself, in order that they might be degraded like brutes. And indeed this constitutes the great comfort in this imperfect state of man, that even the Deity cannot do everything. For he cannot procure death for himself, even if he wished it, which, so numerous are the evils of life, has been granted to man as our chief good. Nor can he make mortals immortal, or recall to life those who are dead; nor can he effect, that he who has once lived shall not have lived, or that he who has enjoyed honours shall not have enjoyed them; nor has he any influence over past events but to cause them to be forgotten. And, if we illustrate the nature of our connexion with God by a less serious argument, he cannot make twice ten not to be twenty, and many other things of this kind. By these considerations the power of Nature is clearly proved, and is shown to be what we call God. It is not foreign to the subject to have digressed into these matters, familiar as they are to every one, from the continual discussions that take place respecting GodIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that the opinions here stated respecting the Deity are taken partly from the tenets of the Epicureans, combined with the Stoical doctrine of Fate. The examples which are adduced to prove the power of fate over the Deity are, for the most part, rather verbal than essential..

Let us return from this digression to the other parts of nature. The stars which are described as fixed in the heavens"affixa mundo." The peculiar use of the word mundus in this passage is worthy of remark, in connexion with note1, ch. 1. page 13., are not, as the vulgar suppose, attached each of them to different individualsWe have many references in Pliny to the influence of the stars upon the earth and its inhabitants, constituting what was formerly regarded as so important a science, judicial astrology. Ptolemy has drawn up a regular code of it in his "Centum dicta," or "Centiloquiums." We have a highly interesting account of the supposed science, its origin, progress, and general principles, in Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences, p. 293 et seq. I may also refer to the same work for a sketch of the history of astronomy among the Greeks and the other nations of antiquity., the brighter to the rich, those that are less so to the poor, and the dim to the aged, shining according to the lot of the individual, and separately assigned to mortals; for they have neither come into existence, nor do they perish in connexion with particular persons, nor does a falling star indicate that any one is dead. We are not so closely connected with the heavens as that the shining of the stars is affected by our deathThere are certain metaphorical expressions, which have originated from this opinion, adopted by the moderns; "his star is set;" "the star of his fortune," &c.. When they are supposed to shoot or fallOvid, when he compares Phaëton to a falling star, remarks, concerning this meteor,— "Etsi non cecidit, potuit ceeidisse videri." Metam. ii. 322., they throw out, by the force of their fire, as if from an excess of nutriment, the superabundance of the humour which they have absorbed, as we observe to take place from the oil in our lamps, when they are burningManilius supposes that comets are produced and rendered luminous by an operation very similar to the one described in the text; i. 815 et seq. Seneca, in the commencement of his Nat. Quæst., and in other parts of the same treatise, refers to this subject. His remarks may be worth perusing by those who are curious to learn the hypotheses of the ancients on subjects of natural science. We may remark, that Seneca's opinions are, on many points, more correct than our author's.. The nature of the celestial bodies is eternal, being interwoven, as it were, with the world, and, by this union, rendering it solid; but they exert their most powerful influence on the earth. This, notwithstanding its subtilty, may be known by the clearness and the magnitude of the effect, as we shall point out in the proper placeThe author probably refers to that part of his work in which he treats on agriculture, particularly to the 17th and 18th books.. The account of the circles of the heavens will be better understood when we come to speak of the earth, since they have all a reference to it; except what has been discovered respecting the Zodiac, which I shall now detail.

Anaximander the Milesian, in the 58th olympiadThe æra of the Olympiads commenced in the year 776 before Christ; each olympiad consists of 4 years; the 58th olympiad will therefore include the interval 548 to 544 B.C. The 21st vol. of the "Universal History" consists entirely of a "chronological table," and we have a useful table of the same kind in Brewster's Encycl., article "Chronology.", is said to have been the first who understood its obliquity, and thus opened the road to a correct knowledge of the subject"rerum fores aperuisse....traditur." An account of the astronomy of Anaximander is contained in Brewster's Encycl., article "Astronomy," p. 587, and in the article "Anaximander" in the supplement to the same work by Scott of Aberdeen. I may remark, that these two accounts do not quite agree in their estimate of his merits; the latter author considers his opinions more correct. We have also an account of Anaximander in Stanley, pt. 2. p. 1 et seq., and in Enfield, i. 154 et seq.. Afterwards Cleostratus made the signs in it, first marking those of Aries and Sagittarius; Atlas had formed the sphere long before this timeIn the translation of Ajasson, ii. 261–7, we have some valuable observations by Marcus, respecting the origin and progress of astronomy among the Greeks, and the share which the individuals mentioned in the text respectively had in its advancement; also some interesting remarks on the history of Atlas. Diodorus Siculus says, that "he was the first that discovered the knowledge of the sphere; whence arose the common opinion, that he carried the world upon his shoulders." Booth's trans. p. 115.. But now, leaving the further consideration of this subject, we must treat of the bodies that are situated between the earth and the heavens"nune relicto mundi ipsius corpore, reliqua inter cœlum terrasque tractentur." I have already had occasion to remark upon the various modes in which the author uses the word mundius; by cœlum, in this passage, he means the body or region beyond the planets, which is conceived to contain the fixed stars. Sphœra, in the preceding sentence, may be supposed to mean the celestial globe..

It is certain that the star called Saturn is the highest, and therefore appears the smallest, that he passes through the largest circuit, and that he is at least thirty years in completing it"ac trigesimo anno ad brevissima sedis suæ principia regredi;" I confess myself unable to offer any literal explanation of this passage; nor do the remarks of the commentators appear to me satisfactory; see Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 241, 2. It is translated by Ajasson "en trente ans il reviens à l'espace minime d'où il est parti." The period of the sidereal revolutions of the planets, as stated by Mrs. Somerville, in her "Mechanism of the Heavens," and by Sir J. Herschel, in his "Treatise on Astronomy," are respectively as follows:— days.days.Mercury87ċ970587ċ9692580Venus224ċ7224ċ7007869Earth365ċ2564365ċ2563612Mars686ċ99686ċ9796458Jupiter4332ċ654332ċ5848212Saturn10759ċ410759ċ2198174Somerville, p. 358.Herschel, p. 416.. The course of all the planets, and among others of the Sun, and the Moon, is in the contrary direction to that of the heavens"'mundo;' hoc est, cælo inerrantium stellarum." Hardouin, in

Lemaire, ii. 242.

For it is evident that the sun is hid by the interventionThe terms here employed are respectively interventus, objectio, and interpositus; it may be doubted whether the author intended to employ them in the precise sense which is indicated by their etymology. of the moon, and the moon by the oppositionThe terms here employed are respectively interventus, objectio, and interpositus; it may be doubted whether the author intended to employ them in the precise sense which is indicated by their etymology. of the earth, and that these changes are mutual, the moon, by her interpositionThe terms here employed are respectively interventus, objectio, and interpositus; it may be doubted whether the author intended to employ them in the precise sense which is indicated by their etymology., taking the rays of the sun from the earth, and the earth from the moon. As she advances darkness is suddenly produced, and again the sun is obscured by her shade; for night is nothing more than the shade of the earth. The figure of this shade is like that of a pyramid or an inverted top"metæ et turbini inverso." The metæ were small pyramids placed at the two extremities of the spina, or central division of the circus: see Montfaucon, v. iii. p. 176; Adam, p. 341.; and the moon enters it only near its point, and it does not exceed the height of the moon, for there is no other star which is obscured in the same manner, while a figure of this kind always terminates in a point. The flight of birds, when very lofty, shows that shadows do not extend beyond a certain distance; their limit appears to be the termination of the air and the commencement of the æther. Above the moon everything is pure and full of an eternal light. The stars are visible to us in the night, in the same way that other luminous bodies are seen in the dark. It is from these causes that the moon is eclipsed during the nightThe eclipses of the moon are only visible when the spectator is so situated as to be able to observe the shadow of the earth, or is on that side of the earth which is turned from the sun.. The two kinds of eclipses are not, however, at the stated monthly periods, on account of the obliquity of the zodiac, and the irregularly wandering course of the moon, as stated above; besides that the motions of these stars do not always occur exactly at the same points"non semper in scrupulis partium congruente siderum motu." On the term scrupulus Hardouin remarks, "Scrupuli, nodi sunt, in quibus circuli, quos in suo cursu Sol et Luna efficiunt, se mutuo secant." Lemaire, ii. 251. Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6–11, gives a full and generally correct account of the principal phenomena of eclipses..

This kind of reasoning carries the human mind to the heavens, and by contemplating the world as it were from thence, it discloses to us the magnitude of the three greatest bodies in natureMarcus conceives that our author must here mean, not the actual, but the apparent size of these bodies; Ajasson, ii. 295; but I do not perceive that the text authorizes this interpretation.. For the sun could not be entirely concealed from the earth, by the intervention of the moon, if the earth were greater than the moonI have given the simple translation of the original as it now stands in the MSS.; whether these may have been corrupted, or the author reasoned incorrectly, I do not venture to decide. The commentators have, according to their usual custom, proposed various emendations and explanations, for which I may refer to the note of Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 252, with the judicious remarks of Alexandre, and to those of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 295–298, who appear to me to take a correct view of the subject.. And the vast size of the third body, the sun, is manifest from that of the other two, so that it is not necessary to scrutinize its size, by arguing from its visible appearance, or from any conjectures of the mind; it must be immense, because the shadows of rows of trees, extending for any number of miles, are disposed in right linesAlexandre remarks, "Hinc tamen potius distantia quam magnitudo Solis colligi potest." Lemaire, ii. 252. And the same remark applies to the two next positions of our author., as if the sun were in the middle of space. Also, because, at the equinox, he is vertical to all the inhabitants of the southern districts at the same timeAlexandre remarks on the argument of our author, perhaps a little too severely, "Absurde dictum; nam aliis oritur, aliis occidit, dum aliis est a vertice; quod vel pueri sentiunt." Lemaire, ii. 253. But we may suppose, that Pliny, in this passage, only meant to say, that as the sun became vertical to each successive part of the equinoctial district, no shadows were formed in it.; also, because the shadows of all the people who live on this side of the tropic fall, at noon, towards the north, and, at sunrise, point to the west. But this could not be the case unless the sun were much greater than the earth; nor, unless it much exceeded Mount Ida in breadth, could he be seen when he rises, passing considerably beyond it to the right and to the left, especially, considering that it is separated by so great an intervalThe commentators have thought it necessary to discuss the question, whether, in this passage, Pliny refers to the Ida of Crete or of Asia Minor. But the discussion is unnecessary, as the statement of the author is equally inapplicable to both of them. Mela appears to refer to this opinion in the following passage, where he is describing the Ida of Asia Minor; "ipse mens...orientem solem aiter quam in aliis terris solet aspici, ostentat." lib. i. cap. 18..

The eclipse of the moon affords an undoubted argument of the sun's magnitude, as it also does of the small size of the earth"Ut dictum est superiore capite, quo Plinius falso contendit Terram esse Luna minorem." Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 253. The words of the text, however, apply equally to the comparative size of the earth and the sun, as of the earth and the moon.. For there are shadows of three figures, and it is evident, that if the body which produces the shadow be equal to the light, then it will be thrown off in the form of a pillar, and have no termination. If the body be greater than the light, the shadow will be in the form of an inverted cone"turbo rectus;" literally an upright top., the bottom being the narrowest part, and being, at the same time, of an infinite length. If the body be less than the light, then we shall have the figure of a pyramid"meta.", terminating in a point. Now of this last kind is the shadow which produces the eclipse of the moon, and this is so manifest that there can be no doubt remaining, that the earth is exceeded in magnitude by the sun, a circumstance which is indeed indicated by the silent declaration of nature herself. For why does he recede from us at the winter half of the yearThis has been pointed out as one of our author's erroneous opinions on astronomy. The earth is really about 1/30 nearer the sun in our winters than in our summers. The greater degree of heat produced by his rays in the latter case depends upon their falling on the surface of the earth less obliquely. This is the principal cause of the different temperatures of the equatorial and polar regions.? That by the darkness of the nights the earth may be refreshed, which otherwise would be burned up, as indeed it is in certain parts; so great is his size.

The first among the Romans, who explained to the people at large the cause of the two kinds of eclipses, was Sulpicius Gallus, who was consul along with Marcellus; and when he was only a military tribune he relieved the army from great anxiety the day before king Perseus was conquered by PaulusThis eclipse is calculated to have occurred on the 28th of June, 168 B.C.; Brewster's Encyc. "Chronology," p. 415, 424. We have an account of this transaction in Livy, xliv. 37, and in Plutarch, Life of Paulus Æmilius, Langhorne's trans. ii. 279; he however does not mention the name of Gallus. See also Val. Maximus, viii. 11. 1, and Quintilian, i. 10. Val. Maximus does not say that Gallus predicted the eclipse, but explained the cause of it when it had occurred; and the same statement is made by Cicero, De Repub. i. 15. For an account of Sulpicius, see Hardouin's Index auctorum, Lemaire, i. 214.; for he was brought by the general into a public assembly, in order to predict the eclipse, of which he afterwards gave an account in a separate treatise. Among the Greeks, Thales the Milesian first investigated the subject, in the fourth year of the forty-eighth olympiad, predicting the eclipse of the sun which took place in the reign of Alyattes, in the 170th year of the CityAn account of this event is given by Herodotus, Clio, § 74. There has been the same kind of discussion among the commentators, respecting the dates in the text, as was noticed above, note 4, p. 29: see the remarks of Brotier and of Marcus in Lemaire and Ajasson, in loco. Astronomers have calculated that the eclipse took place May 28th, 585 B.C.; Brewster, ut supra, pp. 414,419.. After them Hipparchus calculated the course of both these stars for the term of 600 yearsHipparchus is generally regarded as the first astronomer who prosecuted the science in a regular and systematic manner. See Whewell, C. 3. p. 169 et seq., 177–179. He is supposed to have made his observations between the years 160 and 125 B.C. He made a catalogue of the fixed stars, which is preserved in Ptolemy's Magn. Const. The only work of his now extant is his commentary on Aratus; it is contained in Petau's Uranologie. We find, among the ancients, many traces of their acquaintance with the period of 600 years, or what is termed the great year, when the solar and lunar phenomena recur precisely at the same points. Cassini, Mem. Acad., and Bailly, Hist. Anc. Astron., have shown that there is an actual foundation for this opinion. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 302, 303., including the months, days, and hours, the situation of the different places and the aspects adapted to each of them; all this has been confirmed by experience, and could only be acquired by partaking, as it were, in the councils of nature. These were indeed great men, superior to ordinary mortals, who having discovered the laws of these divine bodies, relieved the miserable mind of man from the fear which he had of eclipses, as foretelling some dreadful events or the destruction of the stars. This alarm is freely acknowledged in the sublime strains of Stesichorus and Pindar, as being produced by an eclipse of the sunSeneca, the tragedian, refers to this superstitious opinion in some beautiful verses, which are given to the chorus at the termination of the fourth act of the Thyestes.. And with respect to the eclipse of the moon, mortals impute it to witchcraft, and therefore endeavour to aid her by producing discordant sounds. In consequence of this kind of terror it was that Nicias, the general of the Athenians, being ignorant of the cause, was afraid to lead out the fleet, and brought great distress on his troopsWe have an account of this event in Thucydides, Smith's trans. ii. 244, and in Plutarch, Langhorne's trans. iii. 406. It is calculated to have happened Aug. 27th, 413 B.C.; Brewster, ut supra, p. 415, 421.. Hail to your genius, ye interpreters of heaven! ye who comprehend the nature of things, and who have discovered a mode of reasoning by which ye have conquered both gods and menThe elegant lines of Ovid, in his Fasti, i. 297 et seq., express the same sentiment: "Felices animos, quibus hoc cognoscere primis," &c.! For who is there, in observing these things and seeing the laboursI have already remarked upon the use of this term as applied to the eclipses of the moon in note4, p. 31. which the stars are compelled to undergo (since we have chosen to apply this term to them), that would not cheerfully submit to his fate, as one born to die? I shall now, in a brief and summary manner, touch on those points in which we are agreed, giving the reasons where it is necessary to do so; for this is not a work of profound argument, nor is it less wonderful to be able to suggest a probable cause for everything, than to give a complete account of a few of them only.

It is ascertained that the eclipses complete their whole revolution in the space of 223 monthsAccording to the remarks of Marcus, it appears probable that this sol-lunar period, as it has been termed, was discovered by the Chaldeans; Ajasson, ii. 306, 307., that the eclipse of the sun takes place only at the conclusion or the commencement of a lunation, which is termed conjunction"coitus.", while an eclipse of the moon takes place only when she is at the full, and is always a little farther advanced than the preceding eclipse"Hoc enim periodo (223 mensium) plerumque redeunt eclipses, non multum differentes, denis tamen gradibus zodiaci antecedentes;" Kepler, as quoted by Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 238.. Now there are eclipses of both these stars in every year, which take place below the earth, at stated days and hours; and when they are above itThe terms "sub terra" and "superne" are interpreted, by most of the commentators, below and above the horizon respectively; see Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 307. they are not always visible, sometimes on account of the clouds, but more frequently, from the globe of the earth being opposed to the vault of the heavens"globo terræ obstante convexitatibus mundi." The term convexus, as applied to the heavens, or visible firmament, simply signifies arched; not opposed to concave, like the English word convex.. It was discovered two hundred years ago, by the sagacity of Hipparchus, that the moon is sometimes eclipsed after an interval of five months, and the sun after an interval of sevenThis point is discussed by Ptolemy, Magn. Const. vi. 6; "De distantia eclipticorum mensium." See also the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 260, 261; and of Poinsinet, i. 67.; also, that he becomes invisible, while above the horizon, twice in every thirty days, but that this is seen in different places at different times. But the most wonderful circumstance is, that while it is admitted that the moon is darkened by the shadow of the earth, this occurs at one time on its western, and at another time on its eastern side. And farther, that although, after the rising of the sun, that darkening shadow ought to be below the earth, yet it has once happened, that the moon has been eclipsed in the west, while both the luminaries have been above the horizonThese are styled horizontal eclipses; they depend on the refractive power of the atmosphere, causing the sun to be visible above the horizon, although it is actually below it. Brotier states, that eclipses of this description occurred on the 17th July, 1590, on the 30th November, 1648, and on the 16th January, 1660; Lemaire, ii. 260.. And as to their both being invisible in the space of fifteen days, this very thing happened while the Vespasians were emperors, the father being consul for the third time, and the son for the secondThis is supposed to have been in the year 72 of our æra, when it is said that the sun was eclipsed, in Italy, on the 8th, and the moon on the 22nd of February; see Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 261..

It is certain that the moon, having her horns always turned from the sun, when she is waxing, looks towards the east; when she is waning, towards the west. Also, that, from the second day after the change, she adds 47 1/2 minutesIn a subsequent part of the work, xviii. 75, the author gives a different rate of increase, viz. 51 1/2 minutes; neither of these numbers is correct; the mean rate of increase being, according to Alexandre, about 54′ or 55′; Lemaire, ii. 261, 262. See also Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 311–14. each day, until she is full, and again decreases at the same rate, and that she always becomes invisible when she is within 14 degrees of the sun. This is an argument of the greater size of the planets than of the moon, since these emerge when they are at the distance of 7 degrees onlyIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that the effect, as here stated, has no connexion with the supposed cause.. But their altitude causes them to appear much smaller, as we observe that, during the day, the brightness of the sun prevents those bodies from being seen which are fixed in the firmament, although they shine then as well as in the night: that this is the case is proved by eclipses, and by descending into very deep wells.

The three planets, which, as we have said, are situated above the sunMars, Jupiter, and Saturn., are visible when they come into conjunction with him. They rise visiblyThey are then said, in astronomical language, to rise heliacally. in the morning, when they are not more than 11 degrees from the sunIn the last chapter this distance was stated to be 7 degrees; see the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, ii. 263.; they are afterwards directed by the contact of his rays"radiorum ejus contactu reguntur." The doctrine of the ancient astronomers was, that the motions of the planets are always governed by the rays of the sun, according to its position, attracting or repelling them., and when they attain the trine aspect, at the distance of 120 degrees, they take their morning stationary positionsA planet appears to be stationary, i. e. to be referred to the same point of the zodiac, when it is so situated with respect to the earth, that a straight line passing through the two bodies forms a tangent to the smaller orbit. The apparent motion of the planets, sometimes direct and at other times retrograde, with their stationary positions, is occasioned by the earth and the planets moving in concentric orbits, with different velocities. One hundred and twenty degrees is the mean distance at which the three superior planets become stationary. We have an elaborate dissertation by Marcus, on the unequal velocities of the planets, and on their stations and retrogradations, as well according to the system of Aristotle as to that of Copernicus; Ajasson, ii. 316 et seq. He remarks, and, I conceive, with justice, "...ce n'est pas dans les traités d'astronomie de nos savans que l'on doit puiser les détails destinés à éclaircir le texte des chapitres xii, xiii, xiv et xv du second livre de Pline...Je ne dis rien des commentaires de Poinsinet, d'Hardouin et d'autres savans peu versés en matière d'astronomie, qui ont fait dire à Pline les plus grandes absurdités.", which are termed pri- mary; afterwards, when they are in opposition to the sun, they rise at the distance of 180 degrees from him. And again advancing on the other side to the 120th degree, they attain their evening stations, which are termed secondary, until the sun having arrived within 12 degrees of them, what is called their evening setting becomes no longer visible"Occasus planetæ vespertinus dicitur, quo die desinit post occasum sois supra horizontem oculis se præbere manifestum;" Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 265. It is then said to set heliacally.. Mars, as being nearer to the sun, feels the influence of his rays in the quadrature, at the distance of 90 degrees, whence that motion receives its name, being termed, from the two risings, respectively the first and the second nonagenarianThe interpretation of this passage has given rise to much discussion among the commentators and translators; I may refer the reader to the remarks of Poinsinet, i. 70, 71; of Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 266; and of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 328. I conceive the meaning of the author to be, that while the other planets become stationary, when at 120 degrees from the sun, Mars becomes so at 90 degrees, being detained by the rays, which act upon him more powerfully, in consequence of his being nearer to their source.. This planet passes from one station to another in six months, or is two months in each sign; the two other planets do not spend more than four months in passing from station to station.

The two inferior planets are, in like manner, concealed in their evening conjunction, and, when they have left the sun, they rise in the morning the same number of degrees distant from him. After having arrived at their point of greatest elongationI may refer to the remarks of Marcus on the respective distances from the sun at which Venus and Mercury become stationary, and when they attain their greatest elongations; Ajasson, ii. 328, 329. According to Ptolemy, Magn. Constr. lib. viii. cap. 7, the evening setting of Venus is at 5°40′ from the sun, and that of Mercury at 11°30′., they then follow the sun, and having overtaken him at their morning setting, they become invisible and pass beyond him. They then rise in the evening, at the distances which were mentioned above. After this they return back to the sun and are concealed in their evening setting. The star Venus becomes stationary when at its two points of greatest elongation, that of the morning and of the evening, according to their respective risings. The stationary points of Mercury are so very brief, that they cannot be correctly observed.

The above is an account of the aspects and the occultations of the planets, a subject which is rendered very complicated by their motions, and is involved in much that is wonderful; especially, when we observe that they change their size and colour, and that the same stars at one time approach the north, and then go to the south, and are now seen near the earth, and then suddenly approach the heavens. If on this subject I deliver opinions different from my predecessors, I acknowledge that I am indebted for them to those individuals who first pointed out to us the proper mode of inquiry; let no one then ever despair of benefiting future ages.

But these things depend upon many different causes. The first cause is the nature of the circles described by the stars, which the Greeks term apsides"(Ayi\s, ligneus rotæ circulus, ab a(/ptw necto;" Hederic in loco. The term is employed in a somewhat different sense by the modern astronomers, to signify the point in the orbit of a planet, when it is either at the greatest or the least distance from the earth, or the body about which it revolves; the former being termed the apogee, aphelion, or the higher apsis; the latter the perigee, perhelion, or lower apsis; Jennings on the Globes, pp. 64, 65., for we are obliged to use Greek terms. Now each of the planets has its own circle, and this a different one from that of the world"mundo."; because the earth is placed in the centre of the heavens, with respect to the two extremities, which are called the poles, and also in that of the zodiac, which is situated obliquely between them. And all these things are made evident by the infallible results which we obtain by the use of the compasses"ratione circini semper indubitata.". Hence the apsides of the planets have each of them different centres, and consequently they have different orbits and motions, since it necessarily follows, that the interior apsides are the shortest.

(16.) The apsides which are the highest from the centre of the earth are, for Saturn, when he is in Scorpio, for Jupiter in Virgo, for Mars in Leo, for the Sun in Gemini, for Venus in Sagittarius, and for Mercury in Capricorn, each of them in the middle of these signs; while in the opposite signs, they are the lowest and nearest to the centre of the earthIn consequence of the precession of the equinoxes these points are continually advancing from W. to E., and are now about 30 degrees from the situation they were in when the observations were first made by the modern astronomers.. Hence it is that they appear to move more slowly when they are carried along the highest circuit; not that their actual motions are accelerated or retarded, these being fixed and determinate for each of them; but because it necessarily follows, that lines drawn from the highest apsis must approach nearer to each other at the centre, like the spokes of a wheel; and that the same motion seems to be at one time greater, and at another time less, according to the distance from the centre.

Another cause of the altitudes of the planets is, that their highest apsides, with relation to their own centres, are in different signs from those mentioned aboveOur author here probably refers to the motions of the planets through their epicycles or secondary circles, the centres of which were supposed to be in the peripheries of the primary circles. See Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 270.. Saturn is in the 20th degree of Libra, Jupiter in the 15th of Cancer, Mars in the 28th of Capricorn, the Sun in the 19th of Aries, Venus in the 27th of Pisces, Mercury in the 15th of Virgo, and the Moon in the 3rd of Taurus.

The third cause of the altitude depends on the form of the heavens, not on that of the orbits; the stars appearing to the eye to mount up and to descend through the depth of the airIt is to this visible appearance of convexity in the heavens that Ovid refers in the story of Phaëton, where he is describing the daily path of the sun; Metam. ii. 63–67.. With this cause is connected that which depends on the latitude of the planets and the obliquity of the zodiac. It is through this belt that the stars which I have spoken of are carried, nor is there any part of the world habitable, except what lies under it"quam quod illi subjacet;" under this designation the author obviously meant to include the temperate zones, although it technically applies only to the part between the tropics. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that modern discoveries have shown that this opinion respecting the Arctic zone is not strictly correct.; the remainder, which is at the poles, being in a wild desert state. The planet Venus alone exceeds it by 2 degrees, which we may suppose to be the cause why some animals are produced even in these desert regions of the earth. The moon also wanders the whole breadth of the zodiac, but never exceeds it. Next to these the planet Mercury moves through the greatest space; yet out of the 12 degrees (for there are so many degrees of latitude in the zodiacThe breadth of the zodiac, which was limited by the ancients to 12 degrees, has been extended by the modern astronomers to 18, and would require to be much farther extended to include the newly discovered planet. Herschel's Astronomy, § 254.), it does not pass through more than 8, nor does it go equally through these, 2 of them being in the middle of the zodiac, 4 in the upper part, and 2 in the lower partThere is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the meaning of the terms employed by our author in describing the course of the planet Mercury through the zodiac; "medio ejus," "supra," and "infra." Hardouin's comment is as follows: "Duas zodiaci partes seu gradus pererrat, quum ipse per medium incedit signiferum: supra, quum deflectit ad Aquilonem, per quatuor alias ejusdem partes vagatur: infra, quum descendit ad Austrum, discedit duabus." Lemaire, ii. 271, 272. But Marcus has shown that the opinion of Hardouin is inadmissible and inconsistent with the facts; Ajasson, ii. 338–341. He proposes one, which he conceives to be more correct, but we may probably be led to the conclusion, that the imperfect knowledge and incorrect opinions of our author on these subjects must render it impossible to afford an adequate explanation.. Next to these the Sun is carried through the middle of the zodiac, winding unequally through the two parts of his tortuous circuit"flexuoso draconum meatu;" Poinsinet remarks, "Les Grecs... appellaient dragons les bracelets, les hausse-cols, les chainettes, et généralement tout ce qui avait une figure armillaire;" i. 79, 80.. The star Mars occupies the four middle degrees; Jupiter the middle degree and the two above it; Saturn, like the sun, occupies twoAs this remark appears to contradict what was said in the last sentence respecting the sun, we may suspect some error in the text; see Poinsinet, Alexandre, and Marcus, in loco.. The above is an account of the latitudes as they descend to the south or ascend to the northThe following comparative statement is given by Alexandre of the geocentric latitudes of the planets, as assigned by Pliny, and as laid down by the moderns. Lemaire, ii. 273:— Pliny.Moderns.Venus8 °9°22′Moon66 0Mercury56 54Mars2°0′1°51′Jupiter1 301 30Saturn1 (or 2 °)2 30. Hence it is plain that the generality of persons are mistaken in supposing the third cause of the apparent altitude to depend on the stars rising from the earth and climbing up the heavens. But to refute this opinion it is necessary to consider the subject with very great minuteness, and to embrace all the causes.

It is generally admitted, that the starsIt appears from the remark at the end of this chapter, that this explanation applies to the superior planets alone., at the time of their evening setting, are nearest to the earth, both with respect to latitude and altitudeIt is not easy, as Marcus observes, Ajasson, ii. 344, 345, to comprehend the exact meaning of this passage, or to reconcile it with the other parts of our author's theory., that they are at the commencement of both at their morning risings, and that they become stationary at the middle points of their latitudes, what are called the ecliptics"Ecliptica," called by the moderns the nodes; i. e. the two points where the orbits of the planets cut the ecliptic. See the remarks of Marcus on this term; Ajasson, ii. 345, 346.. It is, moreover, acknowledged, that their motion is increased when they are in the vicinity of the earth, and diminished when they are removed to a greater altitudeWe may presume that our author here refers to the apparent motion of the planets, not to their actual acceleration or retardation.; a point which is most clearly proved by the different altitudes of the moon. There is no doubt that it is also increased at the morning risingsThe editors have differed in the reading of this passage; I have followed that of Lemaire., and that the three superior planets are retarded, as they advance from the first station to the second. And since this is the case, it is evident, that the latitudes are increased from the time of their morning risings, since the motions afterwards appear to receive less addition; but they gain their altitude in the first station, since the rate of their motion then begins to diminish"incipit detrahi numerus." According to the explanation of Alexandre, "numerus nempe partium quas certo temporis intervallo emetiuntur." Lemaire, ii. 275. Marcus remarks in this place, "Dans tout ce chapitre et dans le suivant, Pline a placé dans une correlation de causité, tout ce qu'il croit arriver en même temps; mais il n'a pas prouvé par-là que les phénomènes célestes qui sont contemporains sont engendrés les uns par les autres." Ajasson, ii. 349., and the stars to recede.

And the reason of this must be particularly set forth. When the planets are struck by the rays of the sun, in the, situation which I have described, i. e. in their quadrature, they are prevented from holding on their straight forward course, and are raised on high by the force of the fireThe hypothesis of Pliny appears to be, that the planets are affected by the rays of the sun, and that according to the angle at which they receive the impulse, they are either accelerated or retarded in their course.. This cannot be immediately perceived by the eye, and therefore they seem to be stationary, and hence the term station is derived. Afterwards the violence of the rays increases, and the vapour being beaten back forces them to recede.

This exists in a greater degree in their evening risings, the sun being then turned entirely from them, when they are drawn into the highest apsides; and they are then the least visible, since they are at their greatest altitude and are carried along with the least motion, as much less indeed as this takes place in the highest signs of the apsides. At the time of the evening rising the latitude decreases and becomes less as the motion is diminished, and it does not increase again until they arrive at the second station, when the altitude is also diminished; the sun's rays then coming from the other side, the same force now therefore propels them towards the earth which before raised them into the heavens, from their former triangular aspect"ex priore triquetro.". So different is the effect whether the rays strike the planets from below or come to them from above. And all these circumstances produce much more effect when they occur in the evening setting. This is the doctrine of the superior planets; that of the others is more difficult, and has never been laid down by any one before meAlexandre supposes, as I conceive justly, that our author, in this passage, only refers to the writings of his own countrymen; Lemaire, ii. 276..

I must first state the cause, why the star Venus never recedes from the sun more than 46 degrees, nor Mercury more than 23According to Ptolemy, these numbers are respectively 47°51′ and 24°3′; the modern astronomers have ascertained them to be 48°and 29 °. The least elongations of the planets are, according to Ptolemy, 44°7′ and 18°50′, and according to the observations of the moderns, 45°and 16 °; Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 354., while they frequently return to the sun within this distanceI have not translated the clause, "quum sint diversæ stellæ," as, according to Hardouin, it is not found "in probatissimis codd.," and appears to have little connexion with the other parts of the sentence; it is omitted by Valpy and Lemaire, but is retained by Poinsinet and Ajasson.. As they are situated below the sun, they have both of them their apsides turned in the contrary direction; their orbits are as much below the earth as those of the stars above mentioned are above it, and therefore they cannot recede any farther, since the curve of their apsides has no greater longitudeWhen these inferior planets have arrived at a certain apparent distance from the sun, they are come to the extent of their orbits, as seen from the earth.. The extreme parts of their apsides therefore assign the limits to each of them in the same manner, and compensate, as it were, for the small extent of their longitudes, by the great divergence of their latitudes"Quum ad illam Solis distantiam pervenerunt, ultra procedere non possunt, deficiente circuli longitudine, id est, amplitudine." Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 277.. It may be asked, why do they not always proceed as far as the 46th and the 23rd degrees respectively? They in reality do so, but the theory fails us here. For it would appear that the apsides are themselves moved, as they never pass over the sunThe transits of the inferior planets had not been observed by the ancients.. When therefore they have arrived at the extremities of their orbits on either side, the stars are then supposed to have proceeded to their greatest distance; when they have been a certain number of degrees within their orbits, they are then supposed to return more rapidly, since the extreme point in each is the same. And on this account it is that the direction of their motion appears to be changed. For the superior planets are carried along the most quickly in their evening setting, while these move the most slowly; the former are at their greatest distance from the earth when they move the most slowly, the latter when they move the most quickly. The former are accelerated when nearest to the earth, the latter when at the extremity of the circle; in the former the rapidity of the motion begins to diminish at their morning risings, in the latter it begins to increase; the former are retrograde from their morning to their evening station, while Venus is retrograde from the evening to the morning station. She begins to increase her latitude from her morning rising, her altitude follows the sun from her morning station, her motion being the quickest and her altitude the greatest in her morning setting. Her latitude decreases and her altitude diminishes from her evening rising, she becomes retrograde, and at the same time decreases in her altitude from her evening station.

Again, the star Mercury, in the same way, mounts up in both directions"utroque modo;" "latitudine et altitudine;" Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 279. from his morning rising, and having followed the sun through a space of 15 degrees, he becomes almost stationary for four days. Presently he diminishes his altitude, and recedes from his evening setting to his morning rising. Mercury and the Moon are the only planets which descend for the same number of days that they ascend. Venus ascends for fifteen days and somewhat more; Saturn and Jupiter descend in twice that number of days, and Mars in four times. So great is the variety of nature! The reason of it is, however, evident; for those planets which are forced up by the vapour of the sun likewise descend with difficulty.

There are many other secrets of nature in these points, as well as the laws to which they are subject, which might be mentioned. For example, the planet Mars, whose course is the most difficult to observe"....quæ (stella Martis) ut maxime excentrica volvitur, motus etiam maxime dissonos habere diu visa est....;" Alexandre in Lemaire, ii. 180., never becomes stationary when Jupiter is in the trine aspect, very rarely when he is 60 degrees from the sun, which number is one-sixth of the circuit of the heavens"....qui numerus sexangulas mundi efficit formas."; nor does he ever rise in the same sign with Jupiter, except in Cancer and Leo. The star Mercury seldom has his evening risings in Pisces, but very frequently in Virgo, and his morning risings in Libra; he has also his morning rising in Aquarius, very rarely in Leo. He never becomes retrograde either in Taurus or in Gemini, nor until the 25th degree of Cancer. The Moon makes her double conjunction with the sun in no other sign except Gemini, while Sagittarius is the only sign in which she has sometimes no conjunction at all. The old and the new moon are visible on the same day or night in no other sign except Aries, and indeed it has happened very seldom to any one to have witnessed it. From this circumstance it was that the tale of Lynceus's quick-sightedness originatedLynceus was one of the Argonauts and was celebrated for the acuteness of his vision; Val. Flaccus, i. 462 et seq.. Saturn and Mars are invisible at most for 170 days; Jupiter for 36, or, at the least, for 10 days less than this; Venus for 69, or, at the least, for 52; Mercury for 13, or, at the most, for 18The relative situation of these astronomical phænomena has changed since the time of Pliny, in consequence of the precession of the equinoxes. For an illustration and explanation of the various statements in this chapter I may refer to the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 368–370..

The difference of their colour depends on the difference in their altitudes; for they acquire a resemblance to those planets into the vapour of which they are carried, the orbit of each tinging those that approach it in each direction. A colder planet renders one that approaches it paler, one more hot renders it redder, a windy planet gives it a lowering aspect, while the sun, at the union of their apsides, or the extremity of their orbits, completely obscures them. Each of the planets has its peculiar colourPtolemy's account of the colours of the planets is nearly similar to that of our author; "Candidus color Jovialis est, rutilus Martius, flavus Veneris, varius Mercurii;" De Jur. Astrol. ii. 9.; Saturn is white, Jupiter brilliant, Mars fiery, Lucifer is glowing, Vesper refulgent, Mercury sparkling, the Moon mild; the Sun, when he rises, is blazing, afterwards he becomes radiating. The appearance of the stars, which are fixed in the firmament, is also affected by these causes. At one time we see a dense cluster of stars around the moon, when she is only half-enlightened, and when they are viewed in a serene evening; while, at another time, when the moon is full, there are so few to be seen, that we wonder whither they are fled; and this is also the case when the rays of the sun, or of any of the above-mentioned bodiesThis effect cannot be produced by any of the planets, except perhaps, to a certain extent, by Venus., have dazzled our sight. And, indeed, the moon herself is, without doubt, differently affected at different times by the rays of the sun; when she is entering them, the convexity of the heavens"mundi." rendering them more feeble than when they fall upon her more directlyIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that the method which Pliny employs to explain the different phases of the moon betrays his ignorance, not only of the cause of these particular phenomena, but of the general principles which affect the appearance of the heavenly bodies.. Hence, when she is at a right angle to the sun, she is half-enlightened; when in the trine aspect, she presents an imperfect orb"seminani ambitur orbe." According to the interpretation of Hardouin, "Orbe non perfecto et absoluto;" "major dimidia, minor plena;" Lemaire, ii. 284., while, in opposition, she is full. Again, when she is waning, she goes through the same gradations, and in the same order, as the three stars that are superior to the sunAs Alexandre justly remarks, our author refers here to the aspects only of the planets, not to their phases; ii 284..

The Sun himself is in four different states; twice the night is equal to the day, in the Spring and in the Autumn, when he is opposed to the centre of the earth"centrum terræ;" the equator, the part equally distant from the two poles or extremities., in the 8th degree of Aries and LibraIt may be remarked, that the equinoxes did not actually take place at this period in the points mentioned by Pliny, but in the 28th degrees of Pisces and Virgo respectively; he appears to have conformed to the popular opinion, as we may learn from Columella, lib. ix. cap. 14. The degrees mentioned above were those fixed by the Greek astronomers who formed the celestial sphere, and which was about 138 years before the Christian æra. See the remarks of Marcus in Ajasson, ii. 246 & 373, 374.. The length of the day and the night is then twice changed, when the day increases in length, from the winter solstice in the 8th degree of Capricorn, and afterwards, when the night increases in length from the summer solstice in the 8th degree of CancerThe same remark applies to this as to the former observation.. The cause of this inequality is the obliquity of the zodiac, since there is, at every moment of time, an equal portion of the firmament above and below the horizon. But the signs which mount directly upwards, when they rise, retain the light for a longer space, while those that are more oblique pass along more quickly.

It is not generally known, what has been discovered by men who are the most eminent for their learning, in consequence of their assiduous observations of the heavens, that the fires which fall upon the earth, and receive the name of thunder-bolts, proceed from the three superior stars"siderum.", but principally from the one which is situated in the middle. It may perhaps depend on the superabundance of moisture from the superior orbit communicating with the heat from the inferior, which are expelled in this mannerThe hypothesis of the author is, that the excess of moisture in the orbit of Saturn, and the excess of heat in that of Mars, unite in the orbit of Jupiter and are discharged in the form of thunder.; and hence it is commonly said, the thunder-bolts are darted by Jupiter. And as, in burning wood, the burnt part is cast off with a crackling noise, so does the star throw off this celestial fire, bearing the omens of future events, even the part which is thrown off not losing its divine operation. And this takes place more particularly when the air is in an unsettled state, either because the moisture which is then collected excites the greatest quantity of fire, or because the air is disturbed, as if by the parturition of the pregnant star.

Many persons have attempted to discover the distance of the stars from the earth, and they have published as the result, that the sun is nineteen times as far from the moon, as the moon herself is from the earthAlexandre remarks, that Pliny mentions this, not as his own opinion, but that of many persons; for, in chap. 21, he attempts to prove mathematically, that the moon is situated at an equal distance between the sun and the earth; Lemaire, ii. 286.. Pythagoras, who was a man of a very sagacious mind, computed the distance from the earth to the moon to be 126,000 furlongs, that from her to the sun is double this distance, and that it is three times this distance to the twelve signsMarcus remarks upon the inconsistency between the account here given of Pythagoras's opinion, and what is generally supposed to have been his theory of the planetary system, according to which the sun, and not the earth, is placed in the centre; Enfield's Philosophy, i. 288, 289. Yet we find that Plato, and many others among the ancients, give us the same account of Pythagoras's doctrine of the respective distances of the heavenly bodies; Ajasson, ii. 374. Plato in his Timæus, 9. p. 312–315, details the complicated arrangement which he supposes to constitute the proportionate distances of the planetary bodies.; and this was also the opinion of our countryman, Gallus SulpiciusSulpicius has already been mentioned, in the ninth chapter of this book, as being the first among the Romans who gave a popular explanation of the cause of eclipses..

Pythagoras, employing the terms that are used in music, sometimes names the distance between the Earth and the Moon a tone; from her to Mercury he supposes to be half this space, and about the same from him to Venus. From her to the Sun is a tone and a half; from the Sun to Mars is a tone, the same as from the Earth to the Moon; from him there is half a tone to Jupiter, from Jupiter to Saturn also half a tone, and thence a tone and a half to the zodiac. Hence there are seven tones, which he terms the diapason harmony"Dia\ pasw=n, omnibus tonis contextam harmoniam." Hardouin in Lemaire, ii. 287., meaning the whole compass of the notes. In this, Saturn is said to move in the Doric time, Jupiter in the PhrygianThese appellations appear to have originated from different nations having assumed different notes as the foundation or commencement of their musical scale. The Abbé Barthelemi informs us, that "the Dorians executed the same air a tone lower than the Phrygians, and the latter a tone still higher than the Lydians; hence the denomination of the Dorian, Phrygian, and Lydian modes." It appears to have been a general practice to employ the lowest modes for the slowest airs; Anacharsis's Travels, iii. 73, 74., and so forth of the rest; but this is a refinement rather amusing than useful.

The stadium is equal to 125 of our Roman paces, or 625 feetHence the passus will be equal to 5 Roman feet. If we estimate the Roman foot at 11ċ6496 English inches, we shall have the miliare of 8 stadia equal to 1618 English yards, or 142 yards less than an English statute mile. See Adam's Roman Antiquities, p. 503; also the articles Miliare and Pes in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities; and for the varieties of the stadium, as employed at different periods and in different countries, see the article Stadium. The stadium which Herodotus employed in measurements of Babylon has been supposed to consist of 490 English feet, while that of Xenophon and Strabo has been estimated at 505; see Ed. Rev. xlviii. 190. The Abbé Barthelemi supposes the stadium to be equal to 604 English feet; Anach. Travels, vii. 284.. PosidoniusThere appears to have been two individuals of this name, who have been confounded with each other; the one referred to by Pliny was an astronomer of Alexandria, who flourished about 260 years B.C.; the other was a native of Apamea, a stoic philosopher, who lived about two centuries later; see Aikin's Biog. in loco; also Hardouin's Index Auctorum, Lemaire, i. 209. supposes that there is a space of not less than 40 stadia around the earth, whence mistsThe terms in the original are respectively nubila and nubes. The lexicographers and grammarians do not appear to have accurately discriminated between these two words., winds and cloudsThe terms in the original are respectively nubila and nubes. The lexicographers and grammarians do not appear to have accurately discriminated between these two words. proceed; beyond this he supposes that the air is pure and liquid, consisting of uninterrupted light; from the clouded region to the moon there is a space of 2,000,000 of stadia, and thence to the sun of 500,000,000The words in the text are "vicies centum millia "and "quinquies millia.". It is in consequence of this space that the sun, notwithstanding his immense magnitude, does not burn the earth. Many persons have imagined that the clouds rise to the height of 900 stadia. These points are not completely made out, and are difficult to explain; but we have given the best account of them that has been published, and if we may be allowed, in any degree, to pursue these investigations, there is one infallible geometrical principle, which we cannot reject. Not that we can ascertain the exact dimensions (for to profess to do this would be almost the act of a madman), but that the mind may have some estimate to direct its conjectures. Now it is evident that the orbit through which the sun passes consists of nearly 366 degrees, and that the diameter is always the third part and a little less than the seventh of the circumferenceArchimedes estimated that the diameter of a circle is to its circumference as 1 to 3ċ1416; Hutton's Diet. in loco. Ptolemy states it to be precisely as 1 to 3; Magn. Const. i. 12.. Then taking the half of this (for the earth is placed in the centre) it will follow, that nearly one-sixth part of the immense space, which the mind conceives as constituting the orbit of the sun round the earth, will compose his altitude. That of the moon will be one-twelfth part, since her course is so much shorter than that of the sun; she is therefore carried along midway between the sun and the earthThe author's reasoning is founded upon the supposition of the length of the sun's path round the earth being twelve times greater than that of the moon's; the orbit therefore would be twelve times greater and the radius in the same proportion.. It is astonishing to what an extent the weakness of the mind will proceed, urged on by a little success, as in the abovementioned instance, to give full scope to its impudence! Thus, having ventured to guess at the space between the sun and the earth, we do the same with respect to the heavens, because he is situated midway between them; so that we may come to know the measure of the whole world in inches. For if the diameter consist of seven parts, there will be twenty-two of the same parts in the circumference; as if we could measure the heavens by a plumb-line!

The Egyptian calculation, which was made out by Petosi- ris and Necepsos, supposes that each degree of the lunar orbit (which, as I have said, is the least) consists of little more than 33 stadia; in the very large orbit of Saturn the number is double; in that of the sun, which, as we have said, is in the middle"Non inter Lunam et Saturnum, sed inter Lunam et cœlum affixarum stellarum, medium esse Solem modo dixerat. Quam parum sui meminit! "Alexandre in Lem. i. 291., we have the half of the sum of these numbers. And this is indeed a very modest calculation"Qui computandi modus plurimum habet verecundiæ et modestiæ, quum ibi sistit, nec ulterius progreditur." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 292., since if we add to the orbit of Saturn the distance from him to the zodiac, we shall have an infinite number of degrees"....ad Saturni circulum addito Signiferi ipsius intervallo,...".

A few things still remain to be said concerning the world; for stars are suddenly formed in the heavens themselves; of these there are various kinds.

(25.) The Greeks name these stars cometsa ko/mh, coma.; we name them Crinitæ, as if shaggy with bloody locks, and surrounded with bristles like hair. Those stars, which have a mane hanging down from their lower part, like a long beard, are named Pogoniæa pwgwni/os, barbatus. Most of these terms are employed by Aristotle and by Seneca.. Those that are named Acontiæab a)ko/ntion, jaculum. vibrate like a dart with a very quick motion. It was one of this kind which the Emperor Titus described in his very excellent poem, as having been seen in his fifth consulship; and this was the last of these bodies which has been observed. When they are short and pointed they are named Xiphiæa ci/fos, ensis.; these are the pale kind; they shine like a sword and are without any rays; while we name those Disceia di/skos, orbis., which, being of an amber colour, in conformity with their name, emit a few rays from their margin only. A kind named Pitheusa pi/qos, dolium. Seneca describes this species as "magnitudo vasti rotundique ignis dolio similis;" Nat. Quæst. lib. i. § 14. p. 964. exhibits the figure of a cask, appearing convex and emitting a smoky light. The kind named Cerastiasa ke/ras, cornu. has the appearance of a horn; it is like the one which was visible when the Greeks fought at Salamis. Lampadiasa lampa)s, fax. is like a burning torch; Hippiasab i(/ppos, equus. Seneca mentions the fax, the jaculum, and the lampas among the prodigies that preceded the civil wars; Phars. i. 528 et seq. is like a horse's mane; it has a very rapid motion, like a circle revolving on itself. There is also a white comet, with silver hair, so brilliant that it can scarcely be looked at, exhibiting, as it were, the aspect of the Deity in a human form. There are some also that are shaggy, having the appearance of a fleece, surrounded by a kind of crown. There was one, where the appearance of a mane was changed into that of a spear; it happened in the 109th olympiad, in the 398th year of the CityAlexandre remarks, that these dates do not correspond, and adds, "Desperandum est de Pliniana chronologia; nec satis interdum scio, utrum librarios, an scriptorem ipsum incusem,...." Lemaire, i. 295. According to the most approved modern chronology, the middle of the 109th olympiad corresponds to the 211th year of the City.. The shortest time during which any one of them has been observed to be visible is 7 days, the longest 180 days.

Some of them move about in the manner of planets"errantium modo;" this may mean, that they move in orbits like those of the planets and exhibit the same phænomena, or simply that they change their situation with respect to the fixed stars., others remain stationary. They are almost all of them seen towards the northSeneca remarks on this point, "Placet igitur nostris (Stoicis) cometas ....denso aëri creari. Ideo circa Septemtrionem frequentissime apparent, quia illic plurimi est aëris frigor." Qusest. Nat. i. 7. Aristotle, on the contrary, remarks that comets are less frequently produced in the northern part of the heavens; Meteor. lib. i. cap. 6. p. 535., not indeed in any particular portion of it, but generally in that white part of it which has obtained the name of the Milky Way. Aristotle informs us that several of them are to be seen at the same timeUbi supra., but this, as far as I know, has not been observed by any one else; also that they prognosticate high winds and great heatSee Aristotle, ut supra, p. 537.. They are also visible in the winter months, and about the south pole, but they have no rays proceeding from them. There was a dreadful one observed by the Æthiopians and the Egyptians, to which Typhon, a king of that period, gave his own name; it had a fiery appearance, and was twisted like a spiral; its aspect was hideous, nor was it like a star, but rather like a knot of fire"Videtur is non cometes fuisse, sed meteorus quidam ignis;" Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 296.. Sometimes there are hairs attached to the planets and the other stars. Comets are never seen in the western part of the heavens. It is generally regarded as a terrific star, and one not easily expiated; as was the case with the civil commotions in the consulship of Octavius, and also in the war of Pompey and CæsarVirgil, Geor. i. 488 et seq., Manilius, i. 904 et seq., and Lucan, i. 526 et seq., all speak of the comets and meteors that were observed previous to the civil wars between Pompey and Cæsar. In reference to the existence of a comet about the time of Julius Cæsar, Playfair remarks, that Halley supposed the great comet of 1680 to have been the same that appeared in the year 44 A.C., and again in Justinian's time, 521 P.C., and also in 1106; Elem. Nat. Phil. ii. 197, 198. See Ptolemy's Cent. Dict. no. 100, for the opinion, that comets presented an omen especially unfavourable to kings. To this opinion the following passage in the Paradise Lost obviously refers; "And with fear of change perplexes monarchs.". And in our own age, about the time when Claudius Cæsar was poisoned and left the Empire to Domitius Nero, and afterwards, while the latter was EmperorSeneca refers to the four comets that were seen, after the death of Cæsar, in the time of Augustus, of Claudius, and of Nero; Quæst. Nat. i. 7. Suetonius mentions the comet which appeared previous to the death of Claudius, cap. 46, and Tacitus that before the death of Nero, Ann. xiv. 22., there was one which was almost constantly seen and was very frightful. It is thought important to notice towards what part it darts its beams, or from what star it receives its influence, what it resembles, and in what places it shines. If it resembles a flute, it portends some- thing unfavourable respecting music; if it appears in the parts of the signs referred to the secret members, something respecting lewdness of manners; something respecting wit and learning, if they form a triangular or quadrangular figure with the position of some of the fixed stars; and that some one will be poisoned, if they appear in the head of either the northern or the southern serpent.

Rome is the only place in the whole world where there is a temple dedicated to a comet; it was thought by the late Emperor Augustus to be auspicious to him, from its appearing during the games which he was celebrating in honour of Venus Genetrix, not long after the death of his father Cæsar, in the College which was founded by him"A Julio Cæsare. Is enim paulo ante obitum collegium his ludis faciendis instituerat, confecto Veneris templo; "Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 299. Jul. Obsequens refers to a "stella crinita," which appeared during the celebration of these games, cap. 128.. He expressed his joy in these terms: "During the very time of these games of mine, a hairy star was seen during seven days, in the part of the heavens which is under the Great Bear. It rose about the eleventh hour of the day"Hoc est, hora fere integra ante solis occasum;" Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 299., was very bright, and was conspicuous in all parts of the earth. The common people supposed the star to indicate, that the soul of Cæsar was admitted among the immortal Gods; under which designation it was that the star was placed on the bust which was lately consecrated in the forumAll these circumstances are detailed by Suetonius, in Julio, § 88.p. 178.." This is what he proclaimed in public, but, in secret, he rejoiced at this auspicious omen, interpreting it as produced for himself; and, to confess the truth, it really proved a salutary omen for the world at large"terris.".

Some persons suppose that these stars are permanent, and that they move through their proper orbits, but that they are only visible when they recede from the sun. Others suppose that they are produced by an accidental vapour together with the force of fire, and that, from this circumstance, they are liable to be dissipatedSeneca remarks, "...quidam nullos esse cometas existimant, sed species illorum per repercussionem vicinorum siderum,....Quidam aiunt esse quidem, sed habere cursus suos et post certa lustra in conspectum mortalium exire." He concludes by observing, "Veniet tempus, quo ista quæ nune latent, in lucem dies extrahat, et longioris diei diligentia;" Nat. Quæst. lib. 7. § 19. p. 807..

This same Hipparchus, who can never be sufficiently commended, as one who more especially proved the relation of the stars to man, and that our souls are a portion of heaven, discovered a new star that was produced in his own age, and, by observing its motions on the day in which it shone, he was led to doubt whether it does not often happen, that those stars have motion which we suppose to be fixed. And the same individual attempted, what might seem presumptuous even in a deity, viz. to number the stars for posterity and to express their relations by appropriate names; having previously devised instrumentsNothing is known respecting the nature of these instruments, nor have we any means of forming even a conjecture upon the subject., by which he might mark the places and the magnitudes of each individual star. In this way it might be easily discovered, not only whether they were destroyed or produced, but whether they changed their relative positions, and likewise, whether they were increased or diminished; the heavens being thus left as an inheritance to any one, who might be found competent to complete his plan.

The faces shine brilliantly, but they are never seen excepting when they are fallingFrom this account it would appear, that the "fax" was what we term a falling star. "Meteora ista, super cervices nostras transeuntia, diversaque a stellis labentibus, modo aërolithis ascribenda sunt, modo vaporibus incensis aut electrica vi prognata videntur, et quamvis frequentissime recurrant, explicatione adhuc incerta indigent." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 302. one of these darted across the heavens, in the sight of all the people, at noon-day, when Germanicus Cæsar was exhibiting a show of gladiatorsSeneca refers to this meteor; "Vidimus non semel flammam ingenti pilæ specie, quæ tamen in ipso cursu suo dissipata est....nec Germanici mors sine tali demonstratione fuit;" Nat. Quæst. lib. i. cap. 1. p. 683.. There are two kinds of them; those which are called lampades and those which are called bolides, one of which latter was seen during the troubles at MutinaThis meteor is mentioned by Dion Cassius, lib. xlv. p. 278, but is described by him as a lampas.. They differ from each other in this respect, that the faces produce a long train of light, the fore-part only being on fire; while the bolides, being entirely in a state of combustion, leave a still longer track behind them.

The trabes also, which are named dokoi\We may presume that the trabes are, for the most part, to be referred to the aurora borealis. The chasma and the appearances described in the twenty-seventh chapter are probably varieties of this meteor. On these phænomena we have the following remarks by Seneca: "Lucem in aëre, seu quamdam albedinem, angustam quidem, sed oblongam, de noctu quandoque visam, sereno cælo, si parallelo situ sit, Trabem vocant; si perpendiculari, Columnam; si, cum cuspide Bolida, siveJaculum." Nat. Quæst. vii. 4, and again, vii. 5, "Trabes autem non transcurrunt nec prætervolant, ut faces, sed commorantur, et in eadem parte cceli collucent.", shine in the same manner; one of these was seen at the time when the Lacedæmonians, by being conquered at sea, lost their influence in Greece. An opening sometimes takes place in the firmament, which is named chasmaSeneca describes this meteor, ubi supra, i. 14. "Sunt chasmata, cum aliquando cœli spatium discedit, et flammam dehiscens velut in abdito ostentat. Colores quoque horum omnium plurimi sunt. Quidam ruboris acerrimi, quidam evanidæ et levis flammæ, quidam candidæ lucis, quidam micantes, quidam æquabiliter et sine eruptionibus aut radiis fulvi." Aristotle's account of chasmata is contained in his Meteor. lib. i. cap. 5. p. 534..

There is a flame of a bloody appearance (and nothing is more dreaded by mortals) which falls down upon the earthThe meteor here referred to is probably a peculiar form of the aurora borealis, which occasionally assumes a red colour. See the remarks of Fouché, in Ajasson, i. 382., such as was seen in the third year of the 103rd olympiad, when King Philip was disturbing Greece. But my opinion is, that these, like everything else, occur at stated, natural periods, and are not produced, as some persons imagine, from a variety of causes, such as their fine genius may suggest. They have indeed been the precursors of great evils, but I conceive that the evils occurred, not because the prodigies took place, but that these took place because the evils were appointed to occur at that periodThe doctrine of the author appears to be, that the prodigies are not the cause, but only the indication of the events which succeed them. This doctrine is referred to by Seneca; "Videbimus an certus omnium rerum ordo ducatur, et alia aliis ita complexa sint, ut quod antecedit, aut causa sit sequentium aut signum." Nat. Quæst. i. 1.. Their cause is obscure in consequence of their rarity, and therefore we are not as well acquainted with them as we are with the rising of the stars, which I have mentioned, and with eclipses and many other things.

Stars are occasionally seen along with the sun, for whole days together, and generally round its orb, like wreaths made of the ears of corn, or circles of various coloursIt would appear that, in this passage, two phenomena are confounded together; certain brilliant stars, as, for example, Venus, which have been occasionally seen in the day-time, and the formation of different kinds of halos, depending on certain states of the atmosphere, which affect its transparency.; such as occurred when Augustus, while a very young man, was entering the city, after the death of his father, in order to take upon himself the great name which he assumedThis occurrence is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 2; he enters into a detailed explanation of the cause; also by V. Paterculus, ii. 59, and by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 128. We can scarcely doubt of the reality of the occurrence, as these authors would not have ventured to relate what, if not true, might have been so easily contradicted.. (29.) The same coronæ occur about the moon and also about the principal stars, which are stationary in the heavens.

A bow appeared round the sun in the consulship of L. Opimius and L. FabiusThe term here employed is "arcus," which is a portion only of a circle or "orbis." But if we suppose that the sun was near the horizon, a portion only of the halo would be visible, or the condition of the atmosphere adapted for forming the halo might exist in one part only, so that a portion of the halo only would be obscured., and a circle in that of C. Porcius and M. Acilius. (30.) There was a little circle of a red colour in the consulship of L. Julius and P. Rutilius.

Eclipses of the sun also take place which are portentous and unusually long, such as occurred when Cæsar the Dictator was slain, and in the war against Antony, the sun remained dim for almost a whole yearThe dimness or paleness of the sun, which is stated by various writers to have occurred at the time of Cæsar's death, it is unnecessary to remark, was a phænomenon totally different from an eclipse, and depending on a totally different cause..

And again, many suns have been seen at the same timeAristotle, Meteor. lib. iii. cap. 2. p. 575, cap. 6. p. 582, 583, and Seneca, Quæst. Nat. lib. i. § 11, describe these appearances under the title which has been retained by the moderns of parh/lia. Aristotle remarks on their cause as depending on the refraction (a)na/klasis) of the sun's rays. He extends the remark to the production of halos (a(/lws) and the rainbow, ubi supra.; not above or below the real sun, but in an oblique direction, never near nor opposite to the earth, nor in the night, but either in the east or in the west. They are said to have been seen once at noon in the Bosphorus, and to have continued from morning until sunset. Our ancestors have frequently seen three suns at the same timeThis occurrence is referred to by Livy, xli. 21., as was the case in the consulship of Sp. Postumius and L. Mucius, of L. Marcius and M. Portius, that of M. Antony and Dolabella, and that of M. Lepidus and L. Plancus. And we have ourselves seen one during the reign of the late Emperor Claudius, when he was consul along with Corn. Orfitus. We have no account transmitted to us of more than three having been seen at the same time.

Three moons have also been seen, as was the case in the consulship of Cn. Domitius and C. Fannius; they have generally been named nocturnal sunsThis meteor has been named paraselh/nh; they are supposed to depend upon the same cause with the Parhelia. A phænomenon of this description is mentioned by Jul. Obsequens, cap. 92, and by Plutarch, in Marcellus, ii. 360. In Shakspeare's King John the death of Prince Arthur is said to have been followed by the ominous appearance of five moons..

A bright light has been seen proceeding from the heavens in the night time, as was the case in the consulship of C. Cæcilius and Cn. Papirius, and at many other times, so that there has been a kind of daylight in the nightThis phænomenon must be referred to the aurora borealis. See Livy, xxviii. 11. and xxix. 14..

A burning shield darted across at sunset, from west to east, throwing out sparks, in the consulship of L. Valerius and C. MariusProbably an aërolite. Jul. Obsequens describes a meteor as "orbis dypei similis," which was seen to pass from west to east, cap. 105..

We have an account of a spark falling from a star, and increasing as it approached the earth, until it became of the size of the moon, shining as through a cloud"ceu nubilo die."; it afterwards returned into the heavens and was converted into a lampas; this occurred in the consulship of Cn. Octavius and C. Scri- bonius. It was seen by Silanus, the proconsul, and his attendantsIt would be difficult to reconcile this phænomenon with any acknowledged atmospherical phænomenon..

Stars are seen to move about in various directions, but never without some cause, nor without violent winds proceeding from the same quarterPerhaps the phænomena here alluded to ought to be referred to some electric action; but they are stated too generally to admit of our forming more than a conjecture on the subject. Virgil refers to the occurrence of storms of wind after the appearance of a falling star; Geor. i. 265–6..

These stars occur both at sea and at land. I have seen, during the night-watches of the soldiers, a luminous appearance, like a star, attached to the javelins on the ramparts. They also settle on the yard-arms and other parts of ships while sailing, producing a kind of vocal sound, like that of birds flitting about. When they occur singly they are mischievous, so as even to sink the vessels, and if they strike on the lower part of the keel, setting them on firePerhaps this opinion may be maintained on the principle, that, when there is a single luminous appearance only, it depends upon the discharge of a quantity of electrical fluid in a condensed state; its effects are, hi this case, those that would follow from a stroke of lightning.. When there are two of them they are considered auspicious, and are thought to predict a prosperous voyage, as it is said that they drive away that dreadful and terrific meteor named Helena. On this account their efficacy is ascribed to Castor and Pollux, and they are invoked as gods. They also occasionally shine round the heads of men in the eveningThis is said by Livy to have occurred to Servius Tullius while he was a child; lib. i. cap. 39; and by Virgil to Ascanius, Æn. ii. 632–5., which is considered as predicting something very important. But there is great uncertainty respecting the cause of all these things, and they are concealed in the majesty of nature.

So far I have spoken of the world itself and of the stars. I must now give an account of the other remarkable phænomena of the heavens. For our ancestors have given the name of heavens, or, sometimes, another name, air, to all the seemingly void space, which diffuses around us this vital spirit. It is situated beneath the moon, indeed much lower, as is admitted by every one who has made observations on it, and is composed of a great quantity of air from the upper regions, mixed with a great quantity of terrestrial vapour, the two forming a compound. Hence proceed clouds, thunder and lightning of all kinds; hence also hail, frost, showers, storms and whirlwinds; hence proceed many of the evils incident to mortals, and the mutual contests of the various parts of nature. The force of the stars keeps down all terrestrial things which tend towards the heavens, and the same force attracts to itself those things which do not go there spontaneously. The showers fall, mists rise up, rivers are dried up, hail-storms rush down, the rays of the sun parch the earth, and impel it from all quarters towards the centre. The same rays, still unbroken, dart back again, and carry with them whatever they can take up. Vapour falls from on high and returns again to the same place. Winds arise which contain nothing, but which return loaded with spoils. The breathing of so many animals draws down the spirit from the higher regions; but this tends to go in a contrary direction, and the earth pours out its spirit into the void space of the heavens. Thus nature moving to and fro, as if impelled by some machine"Ut circumagendo balistæ vel fundæ impetus augetur." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 313., discord is kindled by the rapid motion of the world. Nor is the contest allowed to cease, for she is continually whirled round and lays open the causes of all things, forming an immense globe about the earth, while she again, from time to time, covers this other firma- ment with clouds"sed assidue rapta (natura) convolvitur, et circa terram immenso rerum causas globo ostendit, subinde per nubes cœlum aliud obtexens." On the words "immenso globo," Alexandre has the following comment: "Immensis cœli fornicibus appicta sidera, dumcircumvolvitur, terris ostendit;" and on the words "cœlum aliud," "obductæ scilicet nubes falsum quasi cœlum vero prætexunt." Lemaire, i. 313.. This is the region of the winds. Here their nature principally originates, as well as the causes of almost all other thingsThe author probably means to speak of all the atmospheric phænomena that have been mentioned above.; since most persons ascribe the darting of thunder and lightning to their violence. And to the same cause are assigned the showers of stones, these having been previously taken up by the wind, as well as many other bodies in the same way. On this account we must enter more at large on this subject.

It is obvious that there are causes of the seasons and of other things which have been stated, while there are some things which are casual, or of which the reason has not yet been discovered. For who can doubt that summer and winter, and the annual revolution of the seasons are caused by the motion of the starsMarcus has made some remarks on this subject which may be read with advantage; Ajasson, ii. 245–6.? As therefore the nature of the sun is understood to influence the temperature of the year, so each of the other stars has its specific power, which produces its appropriate effects. Some abound in a fluid retaining its liquid state, others, in the same fluid concreted into hoar frost, compressed into snow, or frozen into hail; some are prolific in winds, some in heat, some in vapours, some in dew, some in cold. But these bodies must not be supposed to be actually of the size which they appear, since the consideration of their immense height clearly proves, that none of them are less than the moon. Each of them exercises its influence over us by its own motions; this is particularly observable with respect to Saturn, which produces a great quantity of rain in its transits. Nor is this power confined to the stars which change their situations, but is found to exist in many of the fixed stars, whenever they are impelled by the force of any of the planets, or excited by the impulse of their rays; as we find to be the case with respect to the SuculæThe diminutive of Sus., which the Greeks, in reference to their rainy nature, have termed the HyadesAb u(/w, pluo.. There are also certain events which occur spontaneously, and at stated periods, as the rising of the KidsThe Hædi were in the constellation Auriga.. The star Arcturus scarcely ever rises without storms of hail occurring.

Who is there that does not know that the vapour of the sun is kindled by the rising of the Dog-star? The most powerful effects are felt on the earth from this star. When it rises, the seas are troubled, the wines in our cellars ferment, and stagnant waters are set in motion. There is a wild beast, named by the Egyptians Oryx, which, when the star rises, is said to stand opposite to it, to look steadfastly at it, and then to sneeze, as if it were worshiping itWe have the same account of the Oryx in Ælian, lib. vii. cap. 8.. There is no doubt that dogs, during the whole of this period, are peculiarly disposed to become rabidOur author again refers to this opinion, viii. 63, and it was generally adopted by the ancients; but it appears to be entirely unfounded..

There is moreover a peculiar influence in the different degrees of certain signs, as in the autumnal equinox, and also in the winter solstice, when we find that a particular star is connected with the state of the weather"cum tempestatibus confici sidus intelligimus.". It is not so much the recurrence of showers and storms, as of various circumstances, which act both upon animals and vegetables. Some are planet-struck"afflantur." On this term Hardouin remarks, "Siderantur. Sideratio morbi genus est, partem aliquam corporis, ipsumque ssepe totum corpus percutientis subito: quod quum repentino eveniat impetu, e cœlo vi quadam sideris evenire putatur." Lemaire, i. 317., and others, at stated times, are affected in the bowels, the sinews, the head, or the intellect. The olive, the white poplar, and the willow turn their leaves round at the summer solstice. The herb pulegium, when dried and hanging up in a house, blossoms on the very day of the winter solstice, and bladders burst in consequence of their being distended with airCicero alludes to these opinions in his treatise De Divin. ii. 33; see also Aul. Gellius, ix. 7.. One might wonder at this, did we not observe every day, that the plant named heliotrope always looks towards the setting sun, and is, at all hours, turned towards him, even when he is obscured by cloudsThe heliotropium of the moderns has not the property here assigned to it, and it may be doubted whether it exists in any plant, except in a very slight and imperfect degree: the subject will be considered more fully in a subsequent part of the work, xxii. 29, where the author gives a more particular account of the heliotrope.. It is certain that the bodies of oysters and of whelks"conchyliorum;" this term appears to have been specifically applied to the animal from which the Tyrian dye was procured., and of shell-fish generally, are increased in size and again diminished by the influence of the moon. Certain accurate observers have found out, that the entrails of the field-mouse"soricum fibras;" Alexandre remarks on these words, "fibras jecoris intellige, id est, lobos infimos.....;" Lemaire, i. 318; but I do not see any ground for this interpretation. correspond in number to the moon's age, and that the very small animal, the ant, feels the power of this luminary, always resting from her labours at the change of the moon. And so much the more disgraceful is our ignorance, as every one acknowledges that the diseases in the eyes of certain beasts of burden increase and diminish according to the age of the moon. But the immensity of the heavens, divided as they are into seventy-twoIt does not appear from what source our author derived this number; it is considerably greater than that stated by Ptolemy and the older astronomers. See the remarks of Hardouin and of Brotier; Lemaire. i. 319. constellations, may serve as an excuse. These are the resemblances of certain things, animate and inanimate, into which the learned have divided the heavens. In these they have announced 1600 stars, as being remarkable either for their effects or their appearance; for example, in the tail of the Bull there are seven stars, which are named VergiliæThe Vergiliæ or Pleiades are not in the tail of the Bull, according to the celestial atlas of the moderns.; in his forehead are the Suculæ; there is also Bootes, which follows the seven northern stars"Septemtriones.".

But I would not deny, that there may exist showers and winds, independent of these causes, since it is certain that an exhalation proceeds from the earth, which is sometimes moist, and at other times, in consequence of the vapours, like dense smoke; and also, that clouds are formed, either from the fluid rising up on high, or from the air being compressed into a fluidThe doctrine of Aristotle on the nature and formation of mists and clouds is contained in his treatises De Meteor. lib. i. cap. 9. p. 540, and De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. He employs the terms a)tmis\s, ne/fos, and nefe/lh, which are translated vapor, nubes and nebula, respectively. The distinction, however, between the two latter does not appear very clearly marked either in the Greek or the Latin, the two Greek words being indiscriminately applied to either of the Latin terms.. Their density and their substance is very clearly proved from their intercepting the sun's rays, which are visible by divers, even in the deepest watersIt is doubtful how far this statement is correct; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lem. i. 320..

It cannot therefore be denied, that fire proceeding from the stars which are above the clouds, may fall on them, as we frequently observe on serene evenings, and that the air is agitated by the impulse, as darts when they are hurled whiz through the air. And when it arrives at the cloud, a discordant kind of vapour is produced, as when hot iron is plunged into water, and a wreath of smoke is evolved. Hence arise squalls. And if wind or vapour be struggling in the cloud, thunder is discharged; if it bursts out with a flame, there is a thunderbolt; if it be long in forcing out its way, it is simply a flash of lightningThe words in the original are respectively fulmen and fulgetrum; Seneca makes a similar distinction between fulmen and fulguratio: "Fulguratio est late ignis explicitus; fulmen est coactus ignis ot impetu jactus." Nat. Quæst. lib. ii. cap. 16. p. 706.. By the latter the cloud is simply rent, by the former it is shattered. Thunder is pro- duced by the stroke given to the condensed air, and hence it is that the fire darts from the chinks of the clouds. It is possible also that the vapour, which has risen from the earth, being repelled by the stars, may produce thunder, when it is pent up in a cloud; nature restraining the sound whilst the vapour is struggling to escape, but when it does escape, the sound bursting forth, as is the case with bladders that are distended with air. It is possible also that the spirit, whatever it be, may be kindled by friction, when it is so violently projected. It is possible that, by the dashing of the two clouds, the lightning may flash out, as is the case when two stones are struck against each other. But all these things appear to be casual. Hence there are thunderbolts which produce no effect, and proceed from no immediate actual cause; by these mountains and seas are struck, and no injury is done. Those which prognosticate future events proceed from on high and from stated causes, and they come from their peculiar stars"Præsertim ex tribus superioribus planetis, uti dictum est, cap. 18." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 322..

In like manner I would not deny that winds, or rather sudden gusts, are produced by the arid and dry vapours of the earth; that air may also be exhaled from water, which can neither be condensed into a mist, nor compressed into a cloud; that it may be also driven forward by the impulse of the sun, since by the term 'wind' we mean nothing more than a current of air, by whatever means it may be producedOur author's opinion respecting the origin of winds nearly agrees with that of Aristotle; "nihil ut aliud ventus (a)/nemos) sit, nisi aër multus fluctuans et compressus, qui etiam spiritus (pneu=ma) appellatur;" De Meteor. This treatise contains a full account of the phænomena of winds. Seneca also remarks, "Ventus est aër fluens;" Nat. Quæst. lib. 3 & 5.. For we observe winds to proceed from rivers and bays, and from the sea, even when it is tranquil; while others, which are named Altani, rise up from the earth; when they come back from the sea they are named Tropæi, but if they go straight on, ApogæiAristotle informs us, that the winds termed apogæi (a)po/gaioi) proceed from a marshy and moist soil; De Mundo, cap. 4. p. 605. For the origin and meaning of the terms here applied to the winds, see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 323..

(44.) The windings and the numerous peaks of mountains, their ridges, bent into angles or broken into defiles, with the hollow valleys, by their irregular forms, cleaving the air which rebounds from them (which is also the cause why voices are, in many cases, repeated several times in succession), give rise to winds.

(45.) There are certain caves, such as that on the coast of Dalmatia, with a vast perpendicular chasm, into which, if a light weight only be let down, and although the day be calm, a squall issues from it like a whirlwind. The name of the place is Senta. And also, in the province of Cyrenaica, there is a certain rock, said to be sacred to the south wind, which it is profane for a human hand to touch, as the south wind immediately rolls forwards clouds of sandThis is mentioned by Pomp. Mela.. There are also, in many houses, artificial cavities, formed in the walls"In domibus etiam multis manu facta inclusa opacitate conceptacula....." Some of the MSS. have madefacta for manu facta, and this reading has been adopted by Lemaire; but nearly all the editors, as Dalechamps, Laët, Grovonius, Poincinet and Ajasson, retain the former word., which produce currents of air; none of these are without their appropriate cause.

But there is a great difference between a gale and a windThe terms in the original are "flatus" and "ventus.". The former are uniform and appear to rush forth"illos (flatus) states atque perspirantes."; they are felt, not in certain spots only, but over whole countries, not forming breezes or squalls, but violent storms"qui non aura, non procella, sed mares appellatione quoque ipsa venti sunt." This passage cannot be translated into English, from our language not possessing the technical distinction of genders, as depending on the termination of the substantives.. Whether they be produced by the constant revolution of the world and the opposite motion of the stars, or whether they both of them depend on the generative spirit of the nature of things, wandering, as it were, up and down in her womb, or whether the air be scourged by the irregular strokes of the wandering stars"Septem nimirum errantibus." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 306., or the various projections of their rays, or whether they, each of them, proceed from their own stars, among which are those that are nearest to us, or whether they descend from those that are fixed in the heavens, it is manifest that they are all governed by a law of nature, which is not altogether unknown, although it be not completely ascertained.

(46.) More than twenty old Greek writers have published their observations upon this subject. And this is the more remarkable, seeing that there is so much discord in the world, and that it is divided into different kingdoms, that is into separate members, that there should have been so many who have paid attention to these subjects, which are so difficult to investigate. Especially when we consider the wars and the treachery which everywhere prevail; while pirates, the enemies of the human race, have possession of all the modes of communication, so that, at this time, a person may acquire more correct information about a country from the writings of those who have never been there, than from the inhabitants themselves. Whereas, at this day, in the blessed peace which we enjoy, under a prince who so greatly encourages the advancement of the arts, no new inquiries are set on foot, nor do we even make ourselves thoroughly masters of the discoveries of the ancients. Not that there were greater rewards held out, from the advantages being distributed to a greater number of persons, but that there were more individuals who diligently scrutinized these matters, with no other prospect but that of benefiting posterity. It is that the manners of men are degenerated, not that the advantages are diminished. All the seas, as many as there are, being laid open, and a hospitable reception being given us at every shore, an immense number of people undertake voyages; but it is for the sake of gain, not of science. Nor does their understanding, which is blinded and bent only on avarice, perceive that this very thing might be more safely done by means of science. Seeing, therefore, that there are so many thousands of persons on the seas, I will treat of the winds with more minuteness than perhaps might otherwise appear suitable to my undertaking.

The ancients reckoned only four winds (nor indeed does Homer mention moreOdyss. v. 295, 296.) corresponding to the four parts of the world; a very poor reason, as we now consider it. The next generation added eight others, but this was too refined and minute a division; the moderns have taken a middle course, and, out of this great number, have added four to the original set. There are, therefore, two in each of the four quarters of the heavens. From the equinoctial rising of the sunIn giving names to the different winds, the author designates the points of the compass whence they proceed, by the place where the sun rises or sets, at the different periods of the year. The following are the terms which he employs :—"Oriens æquinoctialis," the place where the sun rises at the equinox, i. e. the East. "Oriens brumalis," where he rises on the shortest day, the S.E. "Occasus brumalis," where he sets on the shortest day, the S.W. "Occasus æquinoctialis," where he sets at the equinox, the W. "Occasus solstitialis," where he sets on the longest day, the N.W. "Exortus solstitialis," where he rises on the longest day, the N.E. "Inter septemtrionem et occasum solstitialem," between N. and N.W., N.N.W. "Inter aquilonem et exortum æquinoctialem," between N. and N.E., N.N.E. "Inter ortum brumalem et meridiem," between S. and S.E., S.S.E. Inter meridiem et hybernum occidentem," between S. and S.W., S.S.W. proceeds Subsolanus"Quod sub sole nasci videtur.", and, from his brumal rising, VulturnusThis name was probably derived from the town Vulturnum in Campania.; the former is named by the Greeks ApeliotesSeneca informs us, that what the Latins name Subsolanus, is named by the Greeks )Afhliw/ths; Quæst. Nat. lib. 5. § 16. p. 764., the latter Eurus. From the south we have Auster, and from the brumal setting of the sun, Africus; these were named Notos and Libs. From the equinoctial setting proceeds Favonius"quia favet rebus nascentibus.", and from the solstitial setting, Corus"....semper spirantes frigora Cauri." Virgil, Geor. iii. 356.; these were named Zephyrus and Argestes. From the seven stars comes Septemtrio, between which and the solstitial rising we have Aquilo, named Aparctias and BoreasThe eight winds here mentioned will bear the following relation to our nomenclature: Septemtrio, N.; Aquilo, N.E.; Subsolanus, E.; Vulturnus, S.E.; Auster, S.; Africus, N.W.; Favonius, W.; and Corus, N.W.. By a more minute subdivision we interpose four others, Thrascias, between Septemtrio and the solstitial setting; Cæcias, between Aquilo and the equinoctial rising; and Phœnices, between the brumal rising and the south. And also, at an equal distance from the south and the winter setting, between Libs and Notos, and compounded of the two, is Libonotos. Nor is this all. For some persons have added a wind, which they have named Meses, between Boreas and Cæcias, and one between Eurus and Notos, named EuronotusThe four winds here mentioned, added to eight others, making, in the whole, twelve, will give us the following card:— N. Septemtrio.S. Notos or Auster.N.N.E. Boreas or Aquilo.S.S.W. Libonotos.E.N.E. Cæcias.W.S.W. Libs or Africus.E. Apeliotes or Subsolanus.W. Zephyrus or Favonius.E.S.E. Eurus or Vulturnus.W.N.W. Argestes or Corus.S.S.E. Euronotus or Phœnices.N.N.W. Thrascias.

We are informed by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 330, that there is an ancient dial plate in the Vatican, consisting of twelve sides, in which the names of the twelve winds are given both in Greek and in Latin. They differ somewhat from those given above, both absolutely and relatively; they are as follows:— )Aparkti/as, Septemtrio.No/tos, Auster.Bore/as, Aquilo.Aibo/notos, Austroafricus.Kaiki/as, Vulturnus.Ai\y, Africus.)Afhliw/ths, Solanus.Ze/furos, Zephyrus.Eu=ros, Eurus.)Ia/puc, Corus.Eu)ro/notos, Euronotus.qraski/as, Circius.

There are also certain winds peculiar to certain countries, which do not extend beyond certain districts, as Sciron in Attica, deviating a little from Argestes, and not known in the other parts of Greece. In other places it is a little higher on the card and is named Olympias; but all these have gone by the name of Argestes. In some places Cæcias is named Hellespontia, and the same is done in other cases. In the province of Narbonne the most noted wind is Circius; it is not inferior to any of the winds in violence, frequently driving the waves before it, to OstiaThis wind must have been N.N.W.; it is mentioned by Strabo, iv. 182; A. Gellius, ii. 22; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. v. 17; and again by our author, xvii. 2., straight across the Ligurian sea. Yet this same wind is unknown in other parts, not even reaching Vienne, a city in the same province; for meeting with a high ridge of hills, just before it arrives at that district, it is checked, although it be the most violent of all the winds. Fabius also asserts, that the south winds never penetrate into Egypt. Hence this law of nature is obvious, that winds have their stated seasons and limits.

The spring opens the seas for the navigators. In the beginning of this season the west winds soften, as it were, the winter sky, the sun having now gained the 25th degree of Aquarius; this is on the sixth day before the Ides of Februarycorresponding to the 8th day of the month.. This agrees, for the most part, with all the remarks that I shall subsequently make, only anticipating the period by one day in the intercalary year, and again, preserving the same order in the succeeding lustrum...lustro sequenti...; "tribus annis sequentibus." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 334.. After the eighth day before the Calends of Marchcorresponding to the 22nd of February., Favonius is called by some Chelidoniasa xelidw\n, hirundo., from the swallows making their appearance. The wind, which blows for the space of nine days, from the seventy-first day after the winter solsticeThis will be either on March 2nd or on February 26th, according as we reckon from December the 21st, the real solstitial day, or the 17th, when, according to the Roman calendar, the sun is said to enter Capricorn., is sometimes called Ornithias, from the arrival of the birds"quasi Avicularem dixeris." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 334.. In the contrary direction to Favonius is the wind which we name Subsolanus, and this is connected with the rising of the Vergiliæ, in the 25th degree of Taurus, six days before the Ides of MayCorresponding to the 10th of May., which is the time when south winds prevail: these are opposite to Septemtrio. The dog-star rises in the hottest time of the summer, when the sun is entering the first degree of LeoAccording to the Roman calendar, this corresponds to the 20th July, but, according to the text, to the 17th. Columella says, that the sun enters Leo on the 13th of the Calends of August; xi. 2.; this is fifteen days before the Calends of August. The north winds, which are called Prodromi"quasi præcursores;" Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 335. Cicero refers to these winds in one of his letters to Atticus; xiv. 6., precede its rising by about eight days. But in two days after its rising, the same north winds, which are named Etesiæe)thsi/ai, ab e)/tos, annus., blow more constantly during this period; the vapour from the sun, being increased twofold by the heat of this star, is supposed to render these winds more mild; nor are there any which are more regular. After these the south winds become more frequent, until the appearance of ArcturusThis will be on the 13th of September, as, according to our author, xviii. 24, the equinox is on the 24th., which rises eleven days before the autumnal equinox. At this time Corus sets in; Corus is an autumnal wind, and is in the opposite direction to Vulturnus. After this, and generally for forty-four days after the equinox, at the setting of the Vergiliæ, the winter commences, which usually happens on the third of the Ides of NovemberThis corresponds to the 11th of November; forty-four days before this will be the 29th of September.. This is the period of the winter north wind, which is very unlike the summer north wind, and which is in the opposite direction to Africus. For seven days before the winter solstice, and for the same length of time after it, the sea becomes calm, in order that the king-fishers may rear their young; from this circumstance they have obtained the name of the halcyon daysOr Halcyonides. This topic is considered more at length in a subsequent part of the work; x. 47.; the rest of the season is winterlyThe author, as it appears, portions out the whole of the year into fourteen periods, during most of which certain winds are said to blow, or, at least, to be decidedly prevalent. Although the winds of Italy are less irregular than those of England, Pliny has considerably exaggerated the real fact.. Yet the severity of the storms does not entirely close up the sea. In former times, pirates were compelled, by the fear of death, to rush into death, and to brave the winter ocean; now we are driven to it by avariceOn this subject the reader may peruse the remarks of Seneca, Nat. Quæst. v. 18, written in his style of flowery declamation..

Those are the coldest winds which are said to blow from the seven stars, and Corus, which is contiguous to them; these also restrain the others and dispel the clouds. The moist winds are Africus, and, still more, the Auster of Italy. It is said that, in Pontus, Cæcias attracts the clouds. The dry winds are Corus and Vulturnus, especially when they are about to cease blowing. The winds that bring snow are Aquilo and Septemtrio; Septemtrio brings hail, and so does Corus; Auster is sultry, Vulturnus and Zephyrus are warm. These winds are more dry than Subsolanus, and generally those which blow from the north and west are more dry than those which blow from the south and east. Aquilo is the most healthy of them all; Auster is unhealthy, and more so when dry; it is colder, perhaps because it is moist. Animals are supposed to have less appetite for food when this wind is blowing. The Etesiæ generally cease during the night, and spring up at the third hour of the dayA.M.. In Spain and in Asia these winds have an easterly direction, in Pontus a northerly, and in other places a southerly direction. They blow also after the winter solstice, when they are called OrnithiæIn the last chapter Ornithias is said to be a west wind., but they are more gentle and continue only for a few days. There are two winds which change their nature with their situation; in Africa Auster is attended with a clear sky, while Aquilo collects the cloudsThis obviously depends upon the geographical situation of the northern parts of Africa, to which the observation more particularly applies, with respect to the central part of the Continent and the Mediterranean. See the remarks of Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 340.. Almost all winds blow in their turn, so that when one ceases its opposite springs up. When winds which are contiguous succeed each other, they go from left to right, in the direction of the sun. The fourth day of the moon generally determines their direction for the whole of the monthly periodThe influence of the fourth day of the moon is referred to by Virgil, Geor. i. 432 et seq. "Sin ortu quarto," &c.. We are able to sail in opposite directions by means of the same wind, if we have the sails properly set; hence it frequently happens that, in the night, vessels going in different directions run against each other. Auster produces higher winds than Aquilo, because the former blows, as it were, from the bottom of the sea, while the latter blows on the surface; it is therefore after south winds that the most mischievous earthquakes have occurred. Auster is more violent during the night, Aquilo during the day; winds from the east continue longer than from the west. The north winds generally cease blowing on the odd days, and we observe the prevalence of the odd numbers in many other parts of nature; the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbersThis refers to the genders of the names of the winds, analogous to the remark in note5, p. 71.. The sun sometimes increases and sometimes restrains winds; when rising and setting it increases them; while, when on the meridian, it restrains them during the summer. They are, therefore, generally lulled during the middle of the day and of the night, because they are abated either by excessive cold or heat; winds are also lulled by showers. We generally expect them to come from that quarter where the clouds open and allow the clear sky to be seen. EudoxusEudoxus was a native of Cnidus, distinguished for his knowledge in astrology and science generally; he was a pupil of Plato, and is referred to by many of the ancients; see Hardouin's Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 187, and Enfield's Hist. of Phil. i. 412, with the very copious list of references. supposes that the same succession of changes occurs in them after a period of four years, if we observe their minute revolutions; and this applies not only to winds, but to whatever concerns the state of the weather. He begins his lustrum at the rising of the dog-star, in the intercalary year. So far concerning winds in general.

And now respecting the sudden gusts"flatus repentini.", which arising from the exhalations of the earth, as has been said above, and falling down again, being in the mean time covered by a thin film of clouds, exist in a variety of forms. By their wandering about, and rushing down like torrents, in the opinion of some persons, they produce thunder and lightningCicero refers to an opinion very similar to this as maintained by the Stoics; De Div. ii. 44.. But if they be urged on with greater force and violence, so as to cause the rupture of a dry cloud, they produce a squall"procella.", which is named by the Greeks Ecnephias"e)k ne/fous, erumpente spiritu." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i.343. Perhaps it most nearly corresponds to the term "hurricane.". But, if these are compressed, and rolled up more closely together, and then break without any discharge of fire, i. e. without thunder, they produce a squall, which is named Typhona tu/fw, incendo, ardeo. We have no distinct term in our language which corresponds to the account of the typhon; it may be considered as a combination of a whirlwind and a hurricane., or an Ecnephias in a state of agitation. It carries along a portion of the cloud which it has broken off, rolling it and turning it round, aggravating its own destruction by the weight of it, and whirling it from place to place. This is very much dreaded by sailors, as it not only breaks their sail-yards, but the vessels themselves, bending them about in various ways. This may be in a slight degree counteracted by sprinkling it with vinegar, when it comes near us, this substance being of a very cold naturePlutarch, Sympos. Quæst. iii. 5, refers to the extraordinary power of vinegar in extinguishing fire, but he ascribes this effect, not to its coldness, but to the extreme tenuity of its parts. On this Alexandre remarks, "Melius factum negassent Plinius et Plutarchus, quam causam inanera rei absurdissimæ excogitarent." Lemaire, i. 344.. This wind, when it rebounds after the stroke, absorbs and carries up whatever it may have seized on.

But if it burst from the cavity of a cloud which is more depressed, but less capacious than what produces a squall, and is accompanied by noise, it is called a whirlwind, and throws down everything which is near it. The same, when it is more burning and rages with greater heat, is called a blasting windprhsth\o, a prh/qw, incendo. Seneca calls it "igneus turbo;" Nat. Quæst. v. 13. p. 762. See also Lucretius, vi. 423., scorching and, at the same time, throwing down everything with which it comes in contact. (49.) Typhon never comes from the north, nor have we Ecnephias when it snows, or when there is snow on the ground. If it breaks the clouds, and, at the same time, catches fire or burns, but not until it has left the cloud, it forms a thunderbolt. It differs from Prester as flame does from fire; the former is diffused in a gust, the latter is condensed with a violent impulsePlutarch.. The whirlwind, when it rebounds, differs from the tornado in the same manner as a loud noise does from a dash.

The squall differs from both of them in its extent, the clouds being more properly rent asunder than broken into pieces. A black cloud is formed, resembling a great animal, an appearance much dreaded by sailors. It is also called a pillar, when the moisture is so condensed and rigid as to be able to support itself. It is a cloud of the same kind, which, when drawn into a tube, sucks up the waterA water-spout. We have a description of this phenomenon in Lucretius, vi. 425 et seq..

Thunder is rare both in winter and in summerThis has been pointed out by Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 346, as one of the statements made by our author, which, in consequence of his following the Greek writers, applies rather to their climate than to that of Italy. The reader may form a judgement of the correctness of this remark by comparing the account given by Aristotle and by Seneca; the former in Meteor. iii. 1. p. 573, 574, the latter in Nat. Quæst. ii. 32 et seq., but from different causes; the air, which is condensed in the winter, is made still more dense by a thicker covering of clouds, while the exhalations from the earth, being all of them rigid and frozen, extinguish whatever fiery vapour it may receive. It is this cause which exempts Scythia and the cold districts round it from thunder. On the other hand, the excessive heat exempts Egypt; the warm and dry vapours of the earth being very seldom condensed, and that only into light clouds. But, in the spring and autumn, thunder is more frequent, the causes which produce summer and winter being, in each season, less efficient. From this cause thunder is more frequent in Italy, the air being more easily set in motion, in consequence of a milder winter and a showery summer, so that it may be said to be always spring or autumn. Also in those parts of Italy which recede from the north and lie towards the south, as in the district round our city, and in Campania, it lightens equally both in winter and in summer, which is not the case in other situations.

We have accounts of many different kinds of thunder-storms. Those which are dry do not burn objects, but dissipate them; while those which are moist do not burn, but blacken them. There is a third kind, which is called bright lightning"quod clarum vocant.", of a very wonderful nature, by which casks are emptied, without the vessels themselves being injured, or there being any other trace left of their operationThis account seems to be taken from Aristotle, Meteor. iii 1. p. 574; see also Seneca, Nat. Quest. ii. 31. p. 711. We have an account of the peculiar effects of thunder in Lucretius, vi. 227 et seq.. Gold, copper, and silver are melted, while the bags which contain them are not in the least burned, nor even the wax seal much defaced. Marcia, a lady of high rank at Rome, was struck while pregnant; the fœtus was destroyed, while she herself survived without suffering any injuryThis effect may be easily explained by the agitation into which the female might have been thrown. The title of "princeps Romanarum," which is applied to Marcia, has given rise to some discussion among the commentators, for which see the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 348.. Among the prognostics which took place at the time of Catiline's conspiracy, M. Herennius, a magistrate of the borough of Pompeii, was struck by lightning when the sky was without cloudsSometimes a partial thunder-cloud is formed, while the atmosphere generally is perfectly clear, or, as Hardouin suggests, the effect might have been produced by a volcanic eruption. See Lemaire, i. 348..

The Tuscan books inform us, that there are nine Gods who discharge thunder-storms, that there are eleven different kinds of them, and that three of them are darted out by Jupiter. Of these the Romans retained only two, ascribing the diurnal kind to Jupiter, and the nocturnal to SummanusAccording to Hardouin, "Summanus est Deus summus Manium, idem Orcus et Pluto dictus." Lemaire, i. 349; he is again referred to by our author, xxix. 14; Ovid also mentions him, Fast. vi. 731, with the remark, "quisquis is est."; this latter kind being more rare, in consequence of the heavens being colder, as was mentioned above. The Etrurians also suppose, that those which are named Infernal burst out of the ground; they are produced in the winter and are particularly fierce and direful, as all things are which proceed from the earth, and are not generated by or proceeding from the stars, but from a cause which is near at hand, and of a more disorderly nature. As a proof of this it is said, that all those which proceed from the higher regions strike obliquely, while those which are termed terrestrial strike in a direct line. And because these fall from matter which is nearer to us, they are supposed to proceed from the earth, since they leave no traces of a rebound; this being the effect of a stroke coming not from below, but from an opposite quarter. Those who have searched into the subject more minutely suppose, that these come from the planet Saturn, as those that are of a burning nature do from Mars. In this way it was that Volsinium, the most opulent town of the Tuscans, was entirely consumed by lightningThe city of Bolsena is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Volsinium. From the nature of the district in which it is situate, it is perhaps more probable, that the event alluded to in the text was produced by a volcanic eruption, attended by lightning, than by a simple thunderstorm.. The first of these strokes that a man receives, after he has come into possession of any property, is termed Familiar"Vocant et familiaria.....quæ prima fiunt familiam suam cuique indepto." This remark is explained by the following passage from Seneca; Nat. Quæst. ii. 47. "Hæc sunt fulmina, quæ primo accepto patrimonio, in novo hominis aut urbis statu fiunt." This opinion, as well as most of those of our author, respecting the auguries to be formed from thunder, is combated by Seneca; ubi supra, § 48., and is supposed to prognosticate the events of the whole of his life. But it is not generally supposed that they predict events of a private nature for a longer space than ten years, unless they happen at the time of a first marriage or a birth-day; nor that public predictions extend beyond thirty yearsThis opinion is also referred to by Seneca. in the following passage; "privata autem fulmina negant ultra decimum annum, publica ultra trigesimum posse deferri;" ubi supra., unless with respect to the founding of colonies"in deductione oppidorum;" according to Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 350, "quum in oppida coloniee deducuntur.".

It is related in our Annals, that by certain sacred rites and imprecations, thunder-storms may be compelled or invokedThe following conjecture is not without a degree of probability; "Ex hoc multisque aliis auctorum locis, plerique conjiciunt Etruscis auguribus haud ignotam fuisse vim electricam, licet eorum arcana nunquam divulgata sint." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 3, 50.. There is an old report in Etruria, that thunder was invoked when the city of Volsinium had its territory laid waste by a monster named VoltaAlexandre remarks in this place, "An morbus aliquis fuit, qui primum in agros debacchatus, jam urbi minabatur, forsitan ab aëris siccitate natus, quem advenientes cum procella imbres discusserunt? "Lemaire, i. 350.. Thunder was also in- voked by King Porsenna. And L. PisoFor a notice of Piso, see Lemaire, i. 208., a very respectable author, states in the first book of his Annals, that this had been frequently done before his time by Numa, and that Tullus Hostilius, imitating him, but not having properly performed the ceremonies, was struck with the lightningWe have an account of the death of Tullus Hostilius in Livy, i. 31.. We have also groves, and altars, and sacred places, and, among the titles of Jupiter, as Stator, Tonans, and Feretrius, we have a Jupiter Elicius"ab eliciendo, seu quod precationibus cœlo evocaretur, id nomen traxit." This is confirmed by the following lines from Ovid, Fast. iii. 327, 328:— "Eliciunt cœlo te, Jupiter: unde minores Nunc quoque te celebrant, Eliciumque vocant.". The opinions entertained on this point are very various, and depend much on the dispositions of different individuals. To believe that we can command nature is the mark of a bold mind, nor is it less the mark of a feeble one to reject her kindness"beneficiis abrogare vires.". Our knowledge has been so far useful to us in the interpretation of thunder, that it enables us to predict what is to happen on a certain day, and we learn either that our fortune is to be entirely changed, or it discloses events which are concealed from us; as is proved by an infinite number of examples, public and private. Wherefore let these things remain, according to the order of nature, to some persons certain, to others doubtful, by some approved, by others condemned. I must not, however, omit the other circumstances connected with them which deserve to be related.

It is certain that the lightning is seen before the thunder is heard, although they both take place at the same time. Nor is this wonderful, since light has a greater velocity than sound. Nature so regulates it, that the stroke and the sound coincide"ictum autem et sonitum congruere, ita modulante natura." This remark is not only incorrect, but appears to be at variance both with what precedes and what follows.; the sound is, however, produced by the discharge of the thunder, not by its stroke. But the air is impelled quicker than the lightningThe following remark of Seneca may be referred to, both as illustrating our author and as showing how much more correct the opinions of Seneca were than his own, on many points of natural philosophy; "....necesse est, ut impetus fulminis et præmittat spiritus, et agat ante se, et a tergo trahat ventum....;" Nat. Quæst. lib. ii. § 20. p. 706., on which account it is that everything is shaken and blown up before it is struck, and that a person is never injured when he has seen the lightning and heard the thunder. Thunder on the left hand is supposed to be lucky, because the east is on the left side of the heavens"quoniam læva parte mundi ortus est." On this passage Hardouin remarks; "a Deorum sede, quum in meridiem spectes, ad sinistram sunt partes mundi exorientes;" Lemaire, i. 353. Poinsinet enters into a long detail respecting opinions of the ancients on this point and the circumstances which induced them to form their opinions; i. 34 et seq.. We do not regard so much the mode in which it comes to us, as that in which it leaves us, whether the fire rebounds after the stroke, or whether the current of air returns when the operation is concluded and the fire is consumed. In relation to this object the Etrurians have divided the heavens into sixteen partsSee Cicero de Divin. ii 42.. The first great division is from north to east; the second to the south; the third to the west, and the fourth occupies what remains from west to north. Each of these has been subdivided into four parts, of which the eight on the east have been called the left, and those on the west the right divisions. Those which extend from the west to the north have been considered the most unpropitious. It becomes therefore very important to ascertain from what quarter the thunder proceeds, and in what direction it falls. It is considered a very favourable omen when it returns into the eastern divisions. But it prognosticates the greatest felicity when the thunder proceeds from the first-mentioned part of the heavens and falls back into it; it was an omen of this kind which, as we have heard, was given to Sylla, the Dictator. The remaining quarters of the heavens are less propitious, and also less to be dreaded. There are some kinds of thunder which it is not thought right to speak of, or even to listen to, unless when they have been disclosed to the master of a family or to a parent. But the futility of this observation was detected when the temple of Juno was struck at Rome, during the consulship of Scaurus, he who was afterwards the Prince of the Senate"Junonis quippe templum fulmine violatum ostendit non a Jove, non a Deis mitti fulmina." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 354. The consulate of Scaurus was in the year of Rome 638. Lucan, i. 155, and Horace, Od. i. 2. refer to the destruction of temples at Rome by lightning..

It lightens without thunder more frequently in the night than in the dayObviously because faint flashes are more visible in the night.. Man is the only animal that is not always killed by it, all other animals being killed instantly, nature having granted to him this mark of distinction, while so many other animals excel him in strength. All animals fall down on the opposite side to that which has been struck; man, unless he be thrown down on the parts that are struck, does not expire. Those who are struck directly from above sink down immediately. When a man is struck while he is awake, he is found with his eyes closed; when asleep, with them open. It is not considered proper that a man killed in this way should be burnt on the funeral pile; our religion enjoins us to bury the body in the earthWe have an explanation of this peculiar opinion in Tertullian, as referred to by Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 355; "Qui de cœlo tangitur, salvus est, ut nullo igne decinerescat.". No animal is consumed by lightning unless after having been previously killed. The parts of the animal that have been wounded by lightning are colder than the rest of the body.

Among the productions of the earth, thunder never strikes the laurelAlthough it has been thought necessary by M. Fée, in the notes to Ajasson's trans., ii. 384, 385, to enter into a formal examination of this opinion of the author's, I conceive that few of our readers will agree with him in this respect., nor does it descend more than five feet into the earth. Those, therefore, who are timid consider the deepest caves as the most safe; or tents made of the skins of the animal called the sea-calf, since this is the only marine animal which is never struckSuetonius informs us, that Augustus always wore a seal's skin for this purpose; Octavius, § 90.; as is the case, among birds, with the eagle; on this account it is represented as the bearer of this weaponThe eagle was represented by the ancients with a thunderbolt in its claws.. In Italy, between Terracina and the temple of Feronia, the people have left off building towers in time of war, every one of them having been destroyed by thunderbolts.

Besides these, we learn from certain monuments, that from the lower part of the atmosphereThe same region from which lightning was supposed to proceed. it rained milk and blood, in the consulship of M'Acilius and C. Porcius, and frequently at other timesWe have several relations of this kind in Livy, xxiv. 10, xxxix. 46 and 56, xl. 19, and xliii. 13. The red snow which exists in certain alpine regions, and is found to depend upon the presence of the Uredo nivalis, was formerly attributed to showers of blood.. This was the case with respect to flesh, in the consulship of P. Volumnius and Servius Sulpicius, and it is said, that what was not devoured by the birds did not become putrid. It also rained iron among the Lucanians, the year before Crassus was slain by the Parthians, as well as all the Lucanian soldiers, of whom there was a great number in this army. The substance which fell had very much the appearance of spongeThis occurrence may probably be referred to an aërolite, while the wool mentioned below, i.e. a light flocculent substance, was perhaps volcanic.; the augurs warned the people against wounds that might come from above. In the consulship of L. Paulus and C. Marcellus it rained wool, round the castle of Carissanum, near which place, a year after, T. Annius Milo was killed. It is recorded, among the transactions of that year, that when he was pleading his own cause, there was a shower of baked tiles.

We have heard, that during the war with the Cimbri, the rattling of arms and the sound of trumpets were heard through the sky, and that the same thing has frequently happened before and sinceArmorum sonitum toto Germania cœlo Audiit.—Virgil, Geor. i. 474, 475. "....in Jovis Vicilini templo, quod in Compsano agro est, arma concrepuisse." Livy, xxiv. 44.. Also, that in the third consulship of Marius, armies were seen in the heavens by the Amerini and the Tudertes, encountering each other, as if from the east and west, and that those from the east were repelledSee Plutarch, by Langhorne; Marius, iii. 133.. It is not at all wonderful for the heavens themselves to be in flamesSee Livy, iii. 5 & 10, xxxi. 12, xxxii. 9, et alibi., and it has been more frequently observed when the clouds have taken up a great deal of fire.

The Greeks boast that AnaxagorasThe life of Anaxagoras has been written by Diogenes Laërtius. We have an ample account of him by Enfield in the General Biography, in loco; he was born B.C. 500 and died B.C. 428., the Clazomenian, in the second year of the 78th Olympiad, from his knowledge of what relates to the heavens, had predicted, that at a certain time, a stone would fall from the sunThere is some variation in the exact date assigned by different authors to this event; in the Chronological table in Brewster's Encyc. vi. 420, it is said to have occurred 467 B.C.. And the thing accordingly happened, in the daytime, in a part of Thrace, at the river Ægos. The stone is now to be seen, a waggonload in size and of a burnt appearance; there was also a comet shining in the night at that timeAristotle gives us a similar account of this stone; that it fell in the daytime, and that a comet was then visible at night; Meteor. i. 7. It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the authority for this fact must be referred entirely to Aristotle, without receiving any additional weight from our author. The occurrence of the comet at the same time with the aërolite must have been entirely incidental.. But to believe that this had been predicted would be to admit that the divining powers of Anaxagoras were still more wonderful, and that our knowledge of the nature of things, and indeed every thing else, would be thrown into confusion, were we to suppose either that the sun is itself composed of stone, or that there was even a stone in it; yet there can be no doubt that stones have frequently fallen from the atmosphere. There is a stone, a small one indeed, at this time, in the Gymnasium of Abydos, which on this account is held in veneration, and which the same Anaxagoras predicted would fall in the middle of the earth. There is another at Cassandria, formerly called Potidæa"Deductis eo sacri lapidis causa colonis, extructoque oppido, cui nomen a colore adusto lapidis, est inditum, Potidæa. Est enim poti\ Dorice pro\s, ad, apud; dai/omai, uror." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 361. It was situated in the peninsula of Pallene, in Macedonia., which from this circumstance was built in that place. I have myself seen one in the country of the VocontiiThe Vocontii were a people of Gallia Narbonensis, occupying a portion of the modern Dauphiné., which had been brought from the fields only a short time before.

What we name Rainbows frequently occur, and are not considered either wonderful or ominous; for they do not predict, with certainty, either rain or fair weather. It is obvious, that the rays of the sun, being projected upon a hollow cloud, the light is thrown back to the sun and is re- fracted"Manifestum est, radium Solis immissum cavæ nubi, repulsa acie in Solem, refringi.", and that the variety of colours is produced by a mixture of clouds, air, and fireAristotle treats of the Rainbow much in detail, principally in his Meteor. iii. 2, 3, 4, and 5, where he gives an account of the phænomena, which is, for the most part, correct, and attempts to form a theory for them; see especially cap. 4. p. 577 et seq. In the treatise De Mundo he also refers to the same subject, and briefly sums up his doctrine with the following remark: "arcus est species segmenti solaris vel lunaris, edita in nube humida, et cava, et perpetua; quam velut in speculo intuemur, imagine relata in speciem circularis ambitiûs." cap. 4. p. 607. Seneca also treats very fully on the phenomena and theory of the Rainbow, in his Nat. Quæst. i. 3–8.. The rainbow is certainly never produced except in the part opposite to the sun, nor even in any other form except that of a semicircle. Nor are they ever formed at night, although Aristotle asserts that they are sometimes seen at that time; he acknowledges, however, that it can only be on the 14th day of the moonVide supra, also Meteor. iii. 2, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 3.. They are seen in the winter the most frequently, when the days are shortening, after the autumnal equinoxAristotle, Meteor. iii. 5. p. 581, observes, that the rainbow is less frequently seen in the summer, because the sun is more elevated, and that, consequently, a less portion of the arch is visible. See also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. i. 8. p. 692.. They are not seen when the days increase again, after the vernal equinox, nor on the longest days, about the summer solstice, but frequently at the winter solstice, when the days are the shortest. When the sun is low they are high, and when the sun is high they are low; they are smaller when in the east or west, but are spread out wider; in the south they are small, but of a greater span. In the summer they are not seen at noon, but after the autumnal equinox at any hour: there are never more than two seen at once,

I do not find that there is any doubt entertained respecting the following points. (60.) Hail is produced by frozen rain, and snow by the same fluid less firmly concreted, and hoar by frozen dewAristotle treats at some length of dew, snow, and hail, in his Meteor. i. cap. 10, 11 & 12 respectively.. During the winter snow falls, but not hail; hail itself falls more frequently during the day than the night, and is more quickly melted than snow. There are no mists either in the summer or during the greatest cold of winter. There is neither dew nor hoar formed during great heat or winds, nor unless the night be serene. Fluids are diminished in bulk by being frozen, and, when the ice is melted, we do not obtain the same quantity of fluid as at firstWhen water is frozen, its bulk is increased in consequence of its assuming a crystalline structure. Any diminution which may be found to have taken place in the bulk of the fluid, when thawed, must be ascribed to evaporation or to some accidental circumstance..

(61.) The clouds are varied in their colour and figure according as the fire which they contain is in excess or is absorbed by them.

There are, moreover, certain peculiarities in certain places. In Africa dew falls during the night in summer. In Italy, at Locri, and at the Lake Velinum, there is never a day in which a rainbow is not seen"Velini lacus.....præcipiti cursu in gurgitem subjectum defertur, et illo aquarum lapsu, dispersis in aëra guttis humidis,.....iridis multiplicis phænomenon efficit....." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 365.. At Rhodes and at Syracuse the sky is never so covered with clouds, but that the sun is visible at one time or another; these things, however, will be better detailed in their proper place. So far respecting the air.

Next comes the earth, on which alone of all parts of nature we have bestowed the name that implies maternal veneration. It is appropriated to man as the heavens are to God. She receives us at our birth, nourishes us when born, and ever afterwards supports us; lastly, embracing us in her bosom when we are rejected by the rest of nature, she then covers us with especial tenderness; rendered sacred to us, inasmuch as she renders us sacred, bearing our monuments and titles, continuing our names, and extending our memory, in opposition to the shortness of life. In our anger we imprecate her on those who are now no moreWe have an example in Martial, v. 34. 9, of the imprecation which has been common in all ages: Mollia nec rigidus cespes tegat ossa, nec illi Terra gravis fueris; and in Seneca's Hippolytus, sub finem: .....istam terra defossam premat, Gravisque tellus impio capiti incubet., as if we were ignorant that she is the only being who can never be angry with man. The water passes into showers, is concreted into hail, swells into rivers, is precipitated in torrents; the air is condensed into clouds, rages in squalls; but the earth, kind, mild, and indulgent as she is, and always ministering to the wants of mortals, how many things do we compel her to produce spontaneously! What odours and flowers, nutritive juices, forms and colours! With what good faith does she render back all that has been entrusted to her! It is the vital spirit which must bear the blame of producing noxious animals; for the earth is constrained to receive the seeds of them, and to support them when they are produced. The fault lies in the evil nature which generates them. The earth will no longer harbour a serpent after it has attacked any oneThe author refers to this opinion, xxix. 23, when describing the effects of venomous animals., and thus she even demands punishment in the name of those who are indifferent about it themselvesinertium; "ultione abstinentium," as explained by Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 367.. She pours forth a profusion of medicinal plants, and is always producing something for the use of man. We may even suppose, that it is out of compassion to us that she has ordained certain substances to be poisonous, in order that when we are weary of life, hunger, a mode of death the most foreign to the kind disposition of the earth"Qued mortis genus a terræ meritis et benignitate valde abhorret." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 367., might not consume us by a slow decay, that precipices might not lacerate our mangled bodies, that the unseemly punishment of the halter may not torture us, by stopping the breath of one who seeks his own destruction, or that we may not seek our death in the ocean, and become food for our graves, or that our bodies may not be gashed by steel. On this account it is that nature has produced a substance which is very easily taken, and by which life is extinguished, the body remaining undefiled and retaining all its blood, and only causing a degree of thirst. And when it is destroyed by this means, neither bird nor beast will touch the body, but he who has perished by his own hands is reserved for the earth.

But it must be acknowledged, that everything which the earth has produced, as a remedy for our evils, we have converted into the poison of our lives. For do we not use iron, which we cannot do without, for this purpose? But although this cause of mischief has been produced, we ought not to complain; we ought not to be ungrateful to this one part of nature"Terra, inquit, sola est, e quatuor naturæ partibus sive elementis, adversus quam ingrati simus." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 368.. How many luxuries and how many insults does she not bear for us! She is cast into the sea, and, in order that we may introduce seas into her bosom, she is washed away by the waves. She is continually tortured for her iron, her timber, stone, fire, corn, and is even much more subservient to our luxuries than to our mere support. What indeed she endures on her surface might be tolerated, but we penetrate also into her bowels, digging out the veins of gold and silver, and the ores of copper and lead; we also search for gems and certain small pebbles, driving our trenches to a great depth. We tear out her entrails in order to extract the gems with which we may load our fingers. How many hands are worn down that one little joint may be ornamented! If the infernal regions really existed, certainly these burrows of avarice and luxury would have penetrated into them. And truly we wonder that this same earth should have produced anything noxious! But, I suppose, the savage beasts protect her and keep off our sacrilegious hands"Est ironifæ formula. Quid, ait, feras et serpentes et venena terræ exprobramus, quæ ne ad tuendam quidem illam satis valent?" Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 369.. For do we not dig among serpents and handle poisonous plants along with those veins of gold? But the Goddess shows herself more propitious to us, inasmuch as all this wealth ends in crimes, slaughter, and war, and that, while we drench her with our blood, we cover her with unburied bones; and being covered with these and her anger being thus appeased, she conceals the crimes of mortals"ossa vel insepulta cum tempore tellus occultat, deprimentia pondere suo mollitam pluviis humum." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 370.. I consider the ignorance of her nature as one of the evil effects of an ungrateful mind.

Every one agrees that it has the most perfect figure"figura prima." I may refer to the second chapter of this book, where the author remarked upon the form of the earth as perfect in all its parts, and especially adapted for its supposed position in the centre of the universe.. We always speak of the ball of the earth, and we admit it to be a globe bounded by the poles. It has not indeed the form of an absolute sphere, from the number of lofty mountains and flat plains; but if the termination of the lines be bounded by a curve"....si capita linearum comprehendantur ambitu;" the meaning of this passage would appear to be: if the extremities of the lines drawn from the centre of the earth to the different parts of the surface were connected together, the result of the whole would be a sphere. I must, however, remark, that Hardouin interprets it in a somewhat different manner; "Si per extremitates linearum ductarum a centro ad summos quosque vertices montium circulus exigatur." Lemaire, i. 370., this would compose a perfect sphere. And this we learn from arguments drawn from the nature of things, although not from the same considerations which we made use of with respect to the heavens. For in these the hollow convexity everywhere bends on itself, and leans upon the earth as its centre. Whereas the earth rises up solid and dense, like something that swells up and is protruded outwards. The heavens bend towards the centre, while the earth goes from the centre, the continual rolling of the heavens about it forcing its immense globe into the form of a sphere"....immensum ejus globum in formam orbis assidua circa eam mundi volubilitate cogente." As Hardouin remarks, the word mundus is here used in the sense of cœlum. Lemaire, i. 371..

On this point there is a great contest between the learned and the vulgar. We maintain, that there are men dispersed over every part of the earth, that they stand with their feet turned towards each other, that the vault of the heavens appears alike to all of them, and that they, all of them, appear to tread equally on the middle of the earth. If any one should ask, why those situated opposite to us do not fall, we directly ask in return, whether those on the opposite side do not wonder that we do not fall. But I may make a remark, that will appear plausible even to the most unlearned, that if the earth were of the figure of an unequal globe, like the seed of a pineAs our author admits of the existence of antipodes, and expressly states that the earth is a perfect sphere, we may conclude that the resemblance to the cone of the pine is to be taken in a very general sense. How far the ancients entertained correct opinions respecting the globular figure of the earth, or rather, at what period this opinion became generally admitted, it is perhaps not easy to ascertain. The lines in the Georgics, i. 242, 243, which may be supposed to express the popular opinion in the time of Virgil, certainly do not convey the idea of a sphere capable of being inhabited in all its parts: Hic vertex nobis semper sublimis; at illum Sub pedibus Styx atra videt, manesque profundi., still it may be inhabited in every part.

But of how little moment is this, when we have another miracle rising up to our notice! The earth itself is pendent and does not fall with us; it is doubtful whether this be from the force of the spirit which is contained in the universe"spiritus vis mundo inclusi.", or whether it would fall, did not nature resist, by allowing of no place where it might fall. For as the seat of fire is nowhere but in fire, nor of water except in water, nor of air except in air, so there is no situation for the earth except in itself, everything else repelling it. It is indeed wonderful that it should form a globe, when there is so much flat surface of the sea and of the plains. And this was the opinion of Dicæarchus, a peculiarly learned man, who measured the heights of mountains, under the direction of the kings, and estimated Pelion, which was the highest, at 1250 paces perpendicular, and considered this as not affecting the round figure of the globe. But this appears to me to be doubtful, as I well know that the summits of some of the Alps rise up by a long space of not less than 50,000 paces".....Alpium vertices, iongo tractu, nee breviore quinquaginta millibus passuum assurgere." To avoid the apparent improbability of the author conceiving of the Alps as 50 miles high, the commentators have, according to their usual custom, exercised their ingenuity in altering the text. See Poinsinet, i. 206, 207, and Lemaire, i. 373. But the expression does not imply that he conceived them as 50 miles in perpendicular height, but that there is a continuous ascent of 50 miles to get to the summit. This explanation of the passage is adopted by Alexandre; Lemaire, ut supra. For what is known of Dicæarchus I may refer to Hardouin, Index Auctorum, in Lemaire, i. 181.. But what the vulgar most strenuously contend against is, to be compelled to believe that the water is forced into a rounded figure"coactam in verticem aquarum quoque figuram."; yet there is nothing more obvious to the sight among the phænomena of nature. For we see everywhere, that drops, when they hang down, assume the form of small globes, and when they are covered with dust, or have the down of leaves spread over them, they are observed to be completely round; and when a cup is filled, the liquid swells up in the middle. But on account of the subtile nature of the fluid and its inherent softness, the fact is more easily ascertained by our reason than by our sight. And it is even more wonderful, that if a very little fluid only be added to a cup when it is full, the superfluous quantity runs over, whereas the contrary happens if we add a solid body, even as much as would weigh 20 denarii. The reason of this is, that what is dropt in raises up the fluid at the top, while what is poured on it slides off from the projecting surface. It is from the same cause"aqunrum nempe convexitas." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 374. that the land is not visible from the body of a ship when it may be seen from the mast; and that when a vessel is receding, if any bright object be fixed to the mast, it seems gradually to descend and finally to become invisible. And the ocean, which we admit to be without limits, if it had any other figure, could it cohere and exist without falling, there being no external margin to contain it? And the same wonder still recurs, how is it that the extreme parts of the sea, although it be in the form of a globe, do not fall down? In opposition to which doctrine, the Greeks, to their great joy and glory, were the first to teach us, by their subtile geometry, that this could not happen, even if the seas were flat, and of the figure which they appear to be. For since water always runs from a higher to a lower level, and this is admitted to be essential to it, no one ever doubted that the water would accumulate on any shore, as much as its slope would allow it. It is also certain, that the lower anything is, so much the nearer is it to the centre, and that all the lines which are drawn from this point to the water which is the nearest to it, are shorter than those which reach from the beginning of the sea to its extreme parts"Quam quæ ad extremum mare a primis aquis." I profess myself altogether unable to follow the author's mode of reasoning in this paragraph, or to throw any light upon it. He would appear to be arguing in favour of the actual flatness of the surface of the ocean, whereas his previous remarks prove its convexity.. Hence it follows, that all the water, from every part, tends towards the centre, and, because it has this tendency, does not fall.

We must believe, that the great artist, Nature, has so arranged it, that as the arid and dry earth cannot subsist by itself and without moisture, nor, on the other hand, can the water subsist unless it be supported by the earth, they are connected by a mutual union. The earth opens her harbours, while the water pervades the whole earth, within, without, and above; its veins running in all directions, like connecting links, and bursting out on even the highest ridges; where, forced up by the air, and pressed out by the weight of the earth, it shoots forth as from a pipe, and is so far from being in danger of falling, that it bounds up to the highest and most lofty places. Hence the reason is obvious, why the seas are not increased by the daily accession of so many riversAlexandre remarks on this passage, "Nempe quod remotissimos etiam fontes alat oceanus. Sed omittit Plinius vaporationis intermedia ope hoc fieri." Lemaire, i. 376. Aristotle has written at considerable length on the origin of springs, in his Meteor. i. 13. p. 543 et seq. He argues against the opinion of those who suppose that the water of springs is entirely derived from evaporation. Seneca's account of the origin of springs is found in his Nat. Quæst. iii. 1..

(66.) The earth has, therefore, the whole of its globe girt, on every side, by the sea flowing round it. And this is not a point to be investigated by arguments, but what has been ascertained by experience.

The whole of the western ocean is now navigated, from Gades and the Pillars of Hercules, round Spain and Gaul. The greater part of the northern ocean has also been navigated, under the auspices of the Emperor Augustus, his fleet having been carried round Germany to the promontory of the CimbriThe voyage which is here alluded to was probably that performed by Drusus; it is mentioned by Dio, lib. iv., Suetonius, Claud. § 1, Vel. Paterculus, ii. 106, and by Tacitus, Germ. § 34.; from which spot they descried an immense sea, or became acquainted with it by report, which extends to the country of the Scythians, and the districts that are chilled by excessive moistureWhat is here spoken of we may presume to have been that part of the German Ocean which lies to the N.W. of Denmark; the term Scythian was applied by the ancients in so very general a way, as not to afford any indication of the exact district so designated.. On this account it is not at all probable, that the ocean should be deficient in a region where moisture so much abounds. In like manner, towards the east, from the Indian sea, all that part which lies in the same latitude"Sub eodem sidere;" "which lies under the same star.", and which bends round towards the CaspianThe ancients conceived the Caspian to be a gulf, connected with the northern ocean. Our author gives an account of it, vi. 15., has been explored by the Macedonian arms, in the reigns of Seleucus and Antiochus, who wished it to be named after themselves, the Seleucian or Antiochian Sea. About the Caspian, too, many parts of the shores of the ocean have been explored, so that nearly the whole of the north has been sailed over in one direction or another. Nor can our argument be much affected by the point that has been so much discussed, respecting the Palus Mæotis, whether it be a bay of the same oceanThat is, of the Caspian Sea., as is, I understand, the opinion of some persons, or whether it be the overflowing of a narrow channel connected with a different oceanThe remarks which our author makes upon the Palus Mæotis, in the different parts of his work, ii. 112 and vi. 7, appear so inconsistent with each other, that we must suppose he indiscriminately borrowed them from various writers, without comparing their accounts, or endeavouring to reconcile them to each other. Such inaccuracies may be thought almost to justify the censure of Alexandre, who styles our author, "indiligens plane veri et falsi compilator, et ubi dissentiunt auctores, nunquam aut raro sibi constans." Lemaire, i. 378.. On the other side of Gades, proceeding from the same western point, a great part of the southern ocean, along Mauritania, has now been navigated. Indeed the greater part of this region, as well as of the east, as far as the Arabian Gulf, was surveyed in consequence of Alexander's victories. When Caius Cæsar, the son of AugustusThe son of Agrippa, whom Augustus adopted. Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 378., had the conduct of affairs in that country, it is said that they found the remains of Spanish vessels which had been wrecked there. While the power of Carthage was at its height, Hanno published an account of a voyage which he made from Gades to the extremity of ArabiaSee Beloe's Herodotus, ii. 393, 394, for an account of the voyage round Africa that was performed by the Phœnicians, who were sent to explore those parts by Necho king of Egypt.; Himilco was also sent, about the same time, to explore the remote parts of Europe. Besides, we learn from Corn. Nepos, that one Eudoxus, a contemporary of hisIt is generally supposed that C. Nepos lived in the century previous to the Christian æra. Ptolemy Lathyrus commenced his reign U.C. 627 or B.C. 117, and reigned for 36 years. The references made to C. Nepos are not found in any of his works now extant., when he was flying from king Lathyrus, set out from the Arabian Gulf, and was carried as far as GadesWe have previously referred to Eudoxus, note3, p. 78.. And long before him, Cælius AntipaterWe have a brief account of Antipater in Hardouin's Index Auctorum; Lemaire, i. 162. informs us, that he had seen a person who had sailed from Spain to Æthiopia for the purposes of trade. The same Cornelius Nepos, when speaking of the northern circumnavigation, tells us that Q. Metellus Celer, the colleague of L. Afranius in the consulship, but then a proconsul in GaulWe are informed by Alexandre that this was in the year of the City 691, the same year in which Cicero was consul; see note in Lemaire, i. 379., had a present made to him by the king of the Suevi, of certain Indians, who sailing from India for the purpose of commerce, had been driven by tempests into GermanyIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that the account here given must be incorrect; the reader who may be disposed to learn the opinions of the commentators on this point, may consult the notes in Poinsinet and Lemaire in loco.. Thus it appears, that the seas which flow com- pletely round the globe, and divide it, as it were, into two partsDividuo globo; "Eoas partes a vespertinis dividente oceano." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 380., exclude us from one part of it, as there is no way open to it on either side. And as the contemplation of these things is adapted to detect the vanity of mortals, it seems incumbent on me to display, and lay open to our eyes, the whole of it, whatever it be, in which there is nothing which can satisfy the desires of certain individuals.

In the first place, then, it appears, that this should be estimated at half the globe"Jam primum in dimidio computari videtur.", as if no portion of this half was encroached upon by the ocean. But surrounding as it does the whole of the land, pouring out and receiving all the other waters, furnishing whatever goes to the clouds, and feeding the stars themselves, so numerous and of such great size as they are, what a great space must we not suppose it to occupy! This vast mass must fill up and occupy an infinite extent. To this we must add that portion of the remainder which the heavens"Cœlum;" the rigour of the climate. take from us. For the globe is divided into five partsThe division of the globe into five zones is referred to by Virgil, Geor. i. 233–239, and by Ovid, Met. i. 45, 46., termed zones, and all that portion is subject to severe cold and perpetual frost which is under the two extremities, about each of the poles, the nearer of which is called the north, and the opposite the south, pole. In all these regions there is perpetual darkness, and, in consequence of the aspect of the milder stars being turned from them, the light is malignant, and only like the whiteness which is produced by hoar frost. The middle of the earth, over which is the orbit of the sun, is parched and burned by the flame, and is consumed by being so near the heat. There are only two of the zones which are temperate, those which lie between the torrid and the frigid zones, and these are separated from each other, in consequence of the scorching heat of the heavenly bodies. It appears, therefore, that the heavens take from us three parts of the earth; how much the ocean steals is uncertain.

And with respect to the part which is left us, I do not know whether that is not even in greater danger. This same ocean, insinuating itself, as I have described it, into a number of bays, approaches with its roaring"...interna maria allatrat,..." so near to the inland seas, that the Arabian Gulf is no more than 115 miles from the Egyptian SeaThis is considerably more than the distance in the present day. The Isthmus of Suez appears, according to the statement of the most accurate geographers, to be about 70 miles in breadth., and the Caspian only 375 miles from the Euxine. It also insinuates itself into the numerous seas by which it separates Africa, Europe, and Asia; hence how much space must it occupy? We must also take into account the extent of all the rivers and the marshes, and we must add the lakes and the pools. There are also the mountains, raised up to the heavens, with their precipitous fronts; we must also subtract the forests and the craggy valleys, the wildernesses, and the places, which, from various causes, are desert. The vast quantity which remains of the earthHæ tot portiones terræ, as Alexandre correctly remarks, "ironice dictum. Quam paucæ enim supersunt!" Lemaire, i. 383., or rather, as many persons have considered it, this speck of a world"Mundi punctus." This expression, we may presume, was taken from Seneca; "Hoc est illud punctum, quod inter tot gentes ferro et igni dividitur." Nat. Quæst. i. præf. p. 681. (for the earth is no more in regard to the universe), this is the object, the seat of our glory—here we bear our honours, here we exercise our power, here we covet wealth, here we mortals create our disturbances, here we continually carry on our wars, aye, civil wars, even, and unpeople the earth by mutual slaughter. And not to dwell on public feuds, entered into by nations against each other, here it is that we drive away our neighbours, and enclose the land thus seized upon within our own fenceNostro solo adfodimus; "addimus, adjungimus, annectimus, ut una fossione aretur." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 383.; and yet the man who has most extended his boundary, and has expelled the inhabitants for ever so great a distance, after all, what mighty portion of the earth is he master of? And even when his avarice has been the most completely satisfied, what part of it can he take with him into the grave?

It is evident from undoubted arguments, that the earth is in the middle of the universe"Mundi totius.", but it is the most clearly proved by the equality of the days and the nights at the equinox"Æquinoctii paribus horis.". It is demonstrated by the quadrantDioptra. "Græce dio/ptra, instrumentum est geometricum, un quart de cerele, quo apparentes rerum inter se distantiæ anguli apertura dijudicantur." Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 384., which affords the most decisive confirmation of the fact, that unless the earth was in the middle, the days and nights could not be equal; for, at the time of the equinox, the rising and setting of the sun are seen on the same line, and the rising of the sun, at the summer solstice, is on the same line with its setting at the winter solstice; but this could not happen if the earth was not situated in the centre

The three circles"Tropici duo, cum æquinoctiali circulo;" Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 884., which are connected with the abovementioned zones, distinguish the inequalities of the seasons; those are, the solstitial circle, which proceeds from the part of the Zodiac the highest to us and approaching the nearest to the district of the north; on the other side, the brumal, which is towards the south pole; and the equinoctial, which traverses the middle of the Zodiac.

The cause of the other things which are worthy of our admiration depends on the figure of the earth itself, which, together with all its waters, is proved, by the same arguments, to be a globe. This certainly is the cause why the stars of the northern portion of the heavens never set to us, and why, on the other hand, those in the south never rise, and again, why the latter can never be seen by the former, the globe of the earth rising up and concealing them. The Northern Wain is never seen in TroglodyticeThe Troglodytice of the ancients may be considered as nearly corresponding to the modern Abyssinia and Nubia., nor in Egypt, which borders on itThis remark is incorrect, as far as respects nearly the whole of Egypt; see the remarks of Marcus, in Ajasson, ii. 245.; nor can we, in Italy, see the star CanopusThis is a star of the first magnitude in the southern constellation of Argo; we have a similar statement in Manilius, i. 216, 217., or Berenice's HairThe commentators suppose that the star or constellation here referred to cannot be the same with what bears this name on the modern celestial atlas; vide Hardouin in loco, also Marc. in Ajasson, ut supra. The constellation of Berenice's hair forms the subject of Catullus's 67th poem.; nor what, under the Emperor Augustus, was named Cæsar's Throne, although they are, thereIn Troglodytice and in Egypt., very brilliant stars. The curved form of the earth is so obvious, rising up like a ridge, that Canopus appears to a spectator at Alexandria to rise above the horizon almost the quarter of a sign; the same star at Rhodes appears, as it were, to graze along the earth, while in Pontus it is not seen at all; where the Northern Wain appears considerably elevated. This same constellation cannot be seen at Rhodes, and still less at Alexandria. In Arabia, in the month of November, it is concealed during the first watch of the night, but may be seen during the secondThe first watch of the night was from 6 P.M. to 9; the second from 9 to midnight.; in Meroë it is seen, for a short time, in the evening, at the solstice, and it is visible at day-break, for a few days before the rising of ArcturusAccording to Columella, xi. 2. 369, this was 9 Calend. Mart., corresponding to the 21st of February.. These facts have been principally ascertained by the expeditions of navigators; the sea appearing more elevated or depressed in certain parts"In alia adverso, in alia prono mari." I have adopted the opinion of Alexandre, who explains the terms "adverso" and "prono," "ascendenti ad polum," and "ad austrum devexo;" a similar sense is given to the passage by Poinsinet and Ajasson, in their translations.; the stars suddenly coming into view, and, as it were, emerging from the water, after having been concealed by the bulging out of the globe"Anfractu pilæ." See Manilius, i. 206 et seq. for a similar mode of expression.. But the heavens do not, as some suppose, rise higher at one pole, otherwise"Aut;" as Poinsinet remarks, "aut est ici pour alioqui;" and he quotes another passage from our author, xix. 3, where the word is employed in a similar manner. its stars would be seen from all parts of the world; they indeed are supposed to be higher by those who are nearest to them, but the stars are sunk below the horizon to those who are more remote. As this pole appears to be elevated to those who are beneath it; so, when we have passed along the convexity of the earth, those stars rise up, which appear elevated to the inhabitants of those other districts; all this, however, could not happen unless the earth had the shape of a globe.

Hence it is that the inhabitants of the east do not see those eclipses of the sun or of the moon which occur in the evening, nor the inhabitants of the west those in the morning, while such as take place at noon are more frequently visibleWe may presume that the author meant to convey the idea, that the eclipses which are visible in any one country are not so in those which are situated under a different meridian. The terms "vespertinos," "matutinos," and "meridianos," refer not to the time of the day, but to the situation of the eclipse, whether recurring in the western, eastern, or southern parts of the heavens.. We are told, that at the time of the famous victory of Alexander the Great, at ArbelaBrewster, in the art. "Chronology," p. 415, mentions this eclipse as having taken place Sept. 21st, U.C. 331, eleven days before the battle of Arbela; while, in the same art. p. 423, the battle is said to have taken place on Oct. 2nd, eleven days after a total eclipse of the moon., the moon was eclipsed at the second hour of the night, while, in Sicily, the moon was rising at the same hour. The eclipse of the sun which occurred the day before the calends of May, in the consulship of Vipstanus and FonteiusIt took place on the 30th of April, in the year of the City 811, A.D. 59; see Brewster, ubi supra. It is simply mentioned by Tacitus, Ann. xiv. 12, as having occurred among other prodigies which took place at this period., not many years ago, was seen in Campania between the seventh and eighth hour of the day; the general Corbulo informs us, that it was seen in Armenia, between the eleventh and twelfth hourWe have an account of Corbulo's expedition to Armenia in Dion Cassius, lx. 19–24, but there is no mention of the eclipse or of any peculiar celestial phænomenon.; thus the curve of the globe both reveals and conceals different objects from the inhabitants of its different parts. If the earth had been flat, everything would have been seen at the same time, from every part of it, and the nights would not have been unequal; while the equal intervals of twelve hours, which are now observed only in the middle of the earth, would in that case have been the same everywhere.

Hence it is that there is not any one night and day the same, in all parts of the earth, at the same time; the intervention of the globe producing night, and its turning round producing dayThe terms employed in the original are "oppositu" and "ambitu." Alexandre's explanation of the first is, "quum globi terraquei crassitudo interposita solis arcet radios;" and of the second, "quum nostra hujus globi pars a sole ambitur." Lemaire, i. 389.. This is known by various observations. In Africa and in Spain it is made evident by the Towers of HannibalOne of these towers is mentioned by Livy, xxxiii. 48; it is said to have been situated between Acholla and Thapsus, on the sea-coast., and in Asia by the beacons, which, in consequence of their dread of pirates, the people erected for their protection; for it has been frequently observed, that the signals, which were lighted at the sixth hour of the day, were seen at the third hour of the night by those who were the most remoteHardouin, according to his usual custom, employs all his learning and ingenuity to give a plausible explanation of this passage. Alexandre, as it must be confessed, with but too much reason, remarks, "Frustra desudavit Harduinus ut sanum aliquem sensum ex illis Plinii deliramentis excuteret." He correctly refers the interval of time, which was said to occur between these signals, not to any astronomical cause, but to the necessary delay which took place in the transmission of them. He concludes, "Sed ad cursum solis hoc referre, dementiæ est. Nam ut tanta horarum differentia intersit, si moram omnem in speculandis ac transmittendis signis sustuleris, necesse erit observatores illos ultimos 135 gradibus, id est, sesquidimidio hemisphærio, a primis distare turribus. Recte igitur incredibilem Plinii credulitatem ludibrio vertit Baylius in Dictionario suo." Lemaire, i. 389.. Philonides, a courier of the above-mentioned Alexander, went from Sicyon to Elis, a distance of 1200 stadia, in nine hours, while he seldom returned until the third hour of the night, although the road was down-hillThe distance, as here stated, is about 150 miles, which he is said to have performed in nine hours, but that the same distance, in returning, required fifteen hours. We have here, as on the former occasion, a note of Hardouin's to elucidate the statement of the author. On this Alexandre observes, "Optime; sed in tam parva locorum distantia, Elidis et Sicyonis horologia vix quinque unius hore sexagesimis differre poterant; quare eunti ac redeunti ne discrimen quidem quadrantis horæ intererat. Ineptos igitur auctores sequitur hoc quoque loco Plinius." Lemaire, i. 390, 391.. The reason is, that, in going, he followed the course of the sun, while on his return, in the opposite direction, he met the sun and left it behind him. For the same reason it is, that those who sail to the west, even on the shortest day, compensate for the difficulty of sailing in the night and go farther"Vincunt spatia nocturnæ navigationis." This expression would appear to imply, that the author conceived some physical difficulty in sailing during the night, and so it seems to be understood by Alexandre; vide not. in loco., because they sail in the same direction with the sun.

The same dial-plates"Vasa horoscopica." "Vasa horoscopica appellat horologia in plano descripta, horizonti ad libellam respondentia. Vasa dicuntur, quod area in qua lineæ ducebantur, labri interdum instar et conchæ erat, cujus in margine describebantur horæ. Horoscopa, ab w(/ra et skope/w, hoc est, ab inspiciendis horis." Hardouin, in Lemaire, i. 391. cannot be used in all places, the shadow of the sun being sensibly different at distances of 300, or at most of 500 stadiaThese distances are respectively about 38 and 62 miles.. Hence the shadow of the dial-pin, which is termed the gnomon, at noon and at the summer solstice, in Egypt, is a little more than half the length of the gnomon itself At the city of Rome it is only 1/9 less than the gnomon, at Ancona not more than 1/35 less, while in the part of Italy which is called Venetia, at the same hour, the shadow is equal to the length of the gnomonWe are not to expect any great accuracy in these estimates, and we accordingly find, that our author, when referring to the subject in his 6th book, ch. 39, makes the shadow at Ancona 1/35 greater than the gnomon, while, in Venetia, which is more northerly, he says, as in the present chapter, that the shadow and the gnomon are equal in length. See the remarks of M. Alexandre in Lemaire, ut supra..

It is likewise said, that in the town of Syene, which is 5000 stadia south of AlexandriaThis would be about 625 miles. Strabo, ii. 114, and Lucan, ii. 587, give the same distance, which is probably nearly correct. Syene is, however, a little to the north of the tropic., there is no shadow at noon, on the day of the solstice; and that a well, which was sunk for the purpose of the experiment, is illuminated by the sun in every part. Hence it appears that the sun, in this place, is vertical, and Onesicritus informs us that this is the case, about the same time, in India, at the river HypasisThis remark is not correct, as no part of this river is between the tropics. For an account of Onesicritus see Lemaire, i. 203, 204.. It is well known, that at Berenice, a city of the Troglodytæ, and 4820 stadia beyond that city, in the same country, at the town of Ptolemais, which was built on the Red Sea, when the elephant was first hunted, this same thing takes place for forty-five days before the solstice and for an equal length of time after it, and that during these ninety days the shadows are turned towards the south"In meridiem umbras jaci." M. Ajasson translates this passage, "les ombres tombent pendant quatre-vingt-dix jours sur le point central du méridien." ii. 165. But I conceive that Holland's version is more correct, "for 90 days' space all the shadows are cast into the south." i. 36. The remarks of M. Alexandre are to the same effect; ".....ut bis solem in zenitho haberet (Ptolemais), Malii mensis et Augusti initio; interea vero, solem e septemtrione haberet." Lemaire, i. 393.. Again, at Meroë, an island in the Nile and the metropolis of the Æthiopians, which is 5000 stadiaAbout 625 miles. from Syene, there are no shadows at two periods of the year, viz. when the sun is in the 18th degree of Taurus and in the 14th of LeoThese days correspond to the 8th of May and the 4th of August respectively.. The Oretes, a people of India, have a mountain named MaleusThere is considerable uncertainty respecting the identity of this mountain; our author refers to it in a subsequent part of his work, where it is said to be in the country of the Monedes and Suari; vi. 22. See the note of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 394., near which the shadows in sum- mer fall towards the south and in winter towards the north. The seven stars of the Great Bear are visible there for fifteen nights only. In India also, in the celebrated sea-port PataleOur author, in a subsequent part of his work, vi. 23, describes the island of Patale as situated near the mouth of the Indus; he again refers to it, xii. 25. His account of the position of the sun does not, however, apply to this place., the sun rises to the right hand and the shadows fall towards the south. While Alexander was staving there it was observed, that the seven northern stars were seen only during the early part of the nightIf we may suppose this to have been actually the case, we might calculate the time of the year when Alexander visited this place and the length of his stay.. Onesicritus, one of his generals, informs us in his work, that in those places in India where there are no shadows, the seven stars are not visibleWe may presume, that our author means to say no more than that, in those places, they are occasionally invisible; literally the observation would not apply to any part of India.; these places, he says, are called "Asciaa)/skia, shadowless.," and the people there do not reckon the time by hoursIf this really were the case, it could have no relation to the astronomical position of the country..

Eratosthenes informs us, that in the whole of Troglodytice, for twice forty-five days in the year, the shadows fall in the contrary direction"In contrarium," contrary to what takes place at other times, i. e. towards the south. This observation is not applicable to the whole of this country, as its northern and southern parts differ from each other by seven or eight degrees of latitude. For an account of Eratosthenes see Lemaire, i. 186..

Hence it follows, that in consequence of the daylight increasing in various degrees, in Meroë the longest day consists of twelve æquinoctial hours and eight parts of an hour"Hora duodecim in partes, ut as in totidem uncias dividebatur. Octonas igitur partes horæ antiquæ, sive bessem, ut Martianus vocat, nobis probe repræsentant horarum nostratium 40 sexagesimæ, quas miuntas vocamus." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 396., at Alexandria of fourteen hours, in Italy of fifteen, in Britain of seventeen; where the degree of light, which exists in the night, very clearly proves, what the reason of the thing also obliges us to believe, that, during the solstitial period, as the sun approaches to the pole of the world, and his orbit is contracted, the parts of the earth that lie below him have a day of six months long, and a night of equal length when he is removed to the south pole. Pytheas, of MarseillesFor a notice of Pytheas see Lemaire, i. 210. He was a geographer and historian who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus; but his veracity does not appear to have been highly estimated by his contemporaries., informs us, that this is the case in the island of ThuleThe Thule of Pliny has been generally supposed to be the Shetland Isles. What is here asserted respecting the length of the day, as well as its distance from Britain, would indeed apply much more correctly to Iceland than to Shetland; but we have no evidence that Iceland was known to the ancients. Our author refers to the length of the day in Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 36., which is six days' sail from the north of Britain. Some persons also affirm that this is the case in Mona, which is about 200 miles from CamelodunumSupposed to be Colchester in Essex; while the Mona of Pliny appears to have been Anglesea. It is not easy to conceive why the author measured the distance of Mona from Camelodunum., a town of Britain.

Anaximenes the Milesian, the disciple of Anaximander, of whom I have spoken aboveChap. 6 of this book., discovered the theory of shadows and what is called the art of dialling, and he was the first who exhibited at Lacedæmon the dial which they call sciothericona skia\, umbra, and qhra/w, sector. It has been a subject for discussion by the commentators, how far this instrument of Anaximenes is entitled to the appellation of a dial, whether it was intended to mark the hours, or to serve for some other astronomical purpose. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 398, 399. It has been correctly remarked by Brotier, that we have an account of a much more ancient dial in the 2nd book of Kings, xx. 9, 11..

The days have been computed by different people in different ways. The Babylonians reckoned from one sunrise to the next; the Athenians from one sunset to the next; the Umbrians from noon to noon; the multitude, universally, from light to darkness; the Roman priests and those who presided over the civil day, also the Egyptians and Hipparchus, from midnight to midnightA. Gellius, iii. 3, informs us, that the question concerning the commencement of the day was one of the topics discussed by Varro, in his book "Rerum Humanarum:" this work is lost. We learn from the notes of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 399, that there are certain countries in which all these various modes of computation are still practised; the last-mentioned is the one commonly employed in Europe.. It appears that the interval from one sunrise to the next is less near the solstices than near the equinoxes, because the position of the zodiac is more oblique about its middle part, and more straight near the solsticeIt has been supposed, that in this passage the author intended to say no more than that the nights are shorter at the summer solstice than at the other parts of the year; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 399, 400. But to this, I conceive, it may be objected, that the words "inter ortus solis" can scarcely apply to the period while the sun is below the horizon, and that the solstices generally would seem to be opposed to the equinoxes generally. Also the words "obliquior" and "rectior" would appear to have some farther reference than merely to the length of time during which the sun is above or below the horizon..

To these circumstances we must add those that are connected with certain celestial causes. There can be no doubt, that the Æthiopians are scorched by their vicinity to the sun's heat, and they are born, like persons who have been burned, with the beard and hair frizzled"Vibrato;" the same term is applied by Turnus to the hair of Æneas; Æn. xii. 100.; while, in the opposite and frozen parts of the earth, there are nations with white skins and long light hair. The latter are savage from the inclemency of the climate, while the former are dull from its variableness"Mobilitate hebetes;" it is not easy to see the connexion between these two circumstances.. We learn, from the form of the legs, that in the one, the fluids, like vapour, are forced into the upper parts of the body, while in the other, being a gross humour, it is drawn downwards into the lower partsThere is a passage in Galen, De Temperamentis, iii. 6, which may appear to sanction the opinion of our author; "Siccos esse, quibus macra sunt crura; humidos, quibus crassa.". In the cold regions savage beasts are produced, and in the others, various forms of animals, and many kinds of birdsThe latter part of the remark is correct, but the number of ferocious animals is also greater in the warmer regions; there is, in fact, a greater variety in all the productions of nature in the warmer districts of the globe, except in those particular spots where animal or vegetable life is counteracted by some local circumstances, as in many parts of Asia and Africa by the want of water.. In both situations the body grows tall, in the one case by the force of fire, and in the other by the nutritive moisture.

In the middle of the earth there is a salutary mixture of the two, a tract fruitful in all things, the habits of the body holding a mean between the two, with a proper tempering of colours; the manners of the people are gentle, the intellect clear"Sensus liquidus;" Alexandre explains this expression, "judicium sanum, mens intelligendo apta." Lemaire, i. 401., the genius fertile and capable of comprehending every part of nature. They have formed empires, which has never been done by the remote nations; yet these latter have never been subjected by the former, being severed from them and remaining solitary, from the effect produced on them by their savage nature.

According to the doctrine of the Babylonians, earthquakes and clefts of the earth, and occurrences of this kind, are supposed to be produced by the influence of the stars, especially of the three to which they ascribe thunderSaturn, Jupiter and Mars: see the 8th chapter of this book.; and to be caused by the stars moving with the sun, or being in conjunction with it, and, more particularly, when they are in the quartile aspect"Vel quando meant cum Sole in conjunctione cum eo, vel quando cum eo conveniunt in aspectu, maxime vero in quadrato, qui fit, qunm distant a Sole quarta mundi sive cœli parte." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 401.. If we are to credit the report, a most admirable and immortal spirit, as it were of a divine nature, should be ascribed to Anaximander the Milesian, who, they say, warned the Lacedæmonians to beware of their city and their houses"Ut urbem et tecta custodirent." This anecdote is referred to by Cicero, who employs the words "ut urbem et tecta linquerent." De Divin. i. 112.. For he predicted that an earthquake was at hand, when both the whole of their city was destroyed and a large portion of Mount Taygetus, which projected in the form of a ship, was broken off, and added farther ruin to the previous destruction. Another prediction is ascribed to Pherecydes, the master of Pythagoras, and this was divine; by a draught of water from a well, he foresaw and predicted that there would be an earthquake in that placeThis anecdote is also referred to by Cicero, de Div. ii.. And if these things be true, how nearly do these individuals approach to the Deity, even during their lifetime! But I leave every one to judge of these matters as he pleases. I certainly conceive the winds to be the cause of earthquakes; for the earth never trembles except when the sea is quite calm, and when the heavens are so tranquil that the birds cannot maintain their flight, all the air which should support them being withdrawnIt has been observed that earthquakes, as well as other great convulsions of nature, are preceded by calms; it has also been observed that birds and animals generally exhibit certain presentiments of the event, by something peculiar in their motions or proceedings; this circumstance is mentioned by Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 12.; nor does it ever happen until after great winds, the gust being pent up, as it were, in the fissures and concealed hollows. For the trembling of the earth resembles thunder in the clouds; nor does the yawning of the earth differ from the bursting of the lightning; the enclosed air struggling and striving to escapeIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that this supposed resemblance or analogy is entirely without foundation. The phænomena of earthquakes are described by Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. 4, and Meteor. ii. 7 and 8; also by Seneca in various parts of the 6th book of his Qusest. Nat..

The earth is shaken in various ways, and wonderful effects are producedOn this subject we shall find much curious matter in Aristotle's Treatise de Mundo, cap. 4.; in one place the walls of cities being thrown down, and in others swallowed up by a deep cleftPoinsinet enters into a long detail of some of the most remarkable earthquakes that have occurred, from the age of Pliny to the period when he wrote, about fifty years ago; i. 249. 2.; some- times great masses of earth are heaped up, and rivers forced out, sometimes even flame and hot springsSee Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8., and at others the course of rivers is turned. A terrible noise precedes and accompanies the shockSee Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 13.; sometimes a murmuring, like the lowing of cattle, or like human voices, or the clashing of arms. This depends on the substance which receives the sound, and the shape of the caverns or crevices through which it issues; it being more shrill from a narrow opening, more hoarse from one that is curved, producing a loud reverberation from hard bodies, a sound like a boiling fluid"Fervente;" "Fremitum aque ferventis imitante." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 404. from moist substances, fluctuating in stagnant water, and roaring when forced against solid bodies. There is, therefore, often the sound without any motion. Nor is it a simple motion, but one that is tremulous and vibratory. The cleft some- times remains, displaying what it has swallowed up; some- times concealing it, the mouth being closed and the soil being brought over it, so that no vestige is left; the city being, as it were, devoured, and the tract of country engulfed. Maritime districts are more especially subject to shocks. Nor are mountainous tracts exempt from them; I have found, by my inquiries, that the Alps and the Apennines are fre- quently shaken. The shocks happen more frequently in the autumn and in the spring, as is the case also with thunder. There are seldom shocks in Gaul and in Egypt; in the latter it depends on the prevalence of summer, in the former, of winter. They also happen more frequently in the night than in the day. The greatest shocks are in the morning and the evening; but they often take place at day-break, and some- times at noon. They also take place during eclipses of the sun and of the moon, because at that time storms are lulled. They are most frequent when great heat succeeds to showers, or showers succeed to great heatThe reader will scarcely require to be informed, that many of the remarks in the latter part of this chapter are incorrect. Our author has principally followed Aristotle, whose treatise on meteorology, although abounding in curious details, is perhaps one of the least correct of his works..

There is no doubt that earthquakes are felt by persons on shipboard, as they are struck by a sudden motion of the waves, without these being raised by any gust of wind. And things that are in the vessels shake as they do in houses, and give notice by their creaking; also the birds, when they settle upon the vessels, are not without their alarms. There is also a sign in the heavens; for, when a shock is near at hand, either in the daytime or a little after sunset, a cloud is stretched out in the clear sky, like a long thin lineThis observation is taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.. The water in wells is also more turbid than usual, and it emits a disagreeable odourPhænomena of this kind have been frequently noticed, and are not difficult of explanation..

These same places"In iisdem;" "Iidem, inquit, putei inclusum terra spiritum libero meatu emittentes, terræ motus avertunt." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 406., however, afford protection, and this is also the case where there is a number of caverns, for they give vent to the confined vapour; a circumstance which has been remarked in certain towns, which have been less shaken where they have been excavated by many sewers. And, in the same town, those parts that are excavated"Quæ pendent." M. Ajasson translates this passage, "qui sont comme suspendues." Hardouin's explanation is, "Structis fornice cameris imposita ædificia intelligit; quod genus camerarum spiramenta plerumque habet non pauca, quibus exeat ad libertatem aer." Lemaire, i. 407. are safer than the other parts, as is understood to be the case at Naples in Italy, the part of it which is solid being more liable to injury. Arched buildings are also the most safe, also the angles of walls, the shocks counteracting each other; walls made of brick also suffer less from the shocksMany of these circumstances are referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 30. On the superior security of brick buildings, M. Alexandre remarks, "Muri e lateribus facti difficilius quam ceeteri dehiscunt, unde fit ut in urbibus muniendis id constructionum genus plerumque præferatur. Ex antiquæ Italiæ palatiis templisve nihil fere præter immensas laterum moles hodie superest.". There is also a great difference in the nature of the motionsThese remarks upon the different kinds of shocks are probably taken from Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8., where various motions are experienced. It is the safest when it vibrates and causes a creaking in the building, and where it swells and rises upwards, and settles with an alternate motion. It is also harmless when the buildings coming together butt against each other in opposite directions, for the motions counteract each other. A movement like the rolling of waves is dangerous, or when the motion is impelled in one direction. The tremors cease when the vapour bursts outThis observation is also in Aristotle, ii. 8.; but if they do not soon cease, they continue for forty days; generally, indeed, for a longer time: some have lasted even for one or two years.

A great prodigy of the earth, which never happened more than once, I have found mentioned in the books of the Etruscan ceremonies, as having taken place in the district of Mutina, during the consulship of Lucius Martius and Sextus JuliusIn the year of the city 663; A.C. 90.. Two mountains rushed together, falling upon each other with a very loud crash, and then receding; while in the daytime flame and smoke issued from them; a great crowd of Roman knights, and families of people, and travellers on the Æmilian way, being spectators of it. All the farm-houses were thrown down by the shock, and a great number of animals that were in them were killed; it was in the year before the Social war; and I am in doubt whether this event or the civil commotions were more fatal to the territory of Italy. The prodigy which happened in our own age was no less wonderful; in the last year of the emperor NeroIn the year of the city 821; A.D. 68., as I have related in my history of his timesThe continuation of Aufidius Bassus' history; our author refers to it in the first book., when certain fields and olive grounds in the district of Marrucinum, belonging to Vectius Marcellus, a Roman knight, the steward of Nero, changed places with each otherWe have no authentic accounts of this mutual change of place between two portions of land, nor can we conceive of any cause capable of effecting it. Our author mentions this circumstance again in book xvii. ch. 38., although the public highway was interposed.

Inundations of the sea take place at the same time with earthquakesSee Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8.; the water being impregnated with the same spirit"Eodem videlicet spiritu infusi (maris) ac terræ residentis sinu recept i.", and received into the bosom of the earth which subsides. The greatest earthquake which has occurred in our memory was in the reign of TiberiusU.C. 770; A.D. 17. We have an account of this event in Strabo, xii. 57; in Tacitus, Ann. ii. 47; and in the Universal History, xiv. 129, 130. We are informed by Hardouin, that coins are still in existence which were struck to commemorate the liberality of the emperor on the occasion, inscribed "civitatibus Asiæ restitutis." Lemaire, i. 410., by which twelve cities of Asia were laid prostrate in one night. They occurred the most frequently during the Punic war, when we had accounts brought to Rome of fifty-seven earthquakes in the space of a single year. It was during this yearU.C. 537; A.C. 217. that the Carthaginians and the Romans, who were fighting at the lake Thrasimenus, were neither of them sensible of a very great shock during the battleThis circumstance is mentioned by Livy, xxii. 5, and by Florus, ii. 6.. Nor is it an evil merely consisting in the danger which is produced by the motion; it is all equal or a greater evil when it is considered as a prodigy"Præsagiis, inquit, quam ipsa clade, sæviores sunt terræ motus." Alexander in Lemaire, i. 410.. The city of Rome never experienced a shock, which was not the forerunner of some great calamity.

The same cause produces an increase of the land; the vapour, when it cannot burst out forcibly lifting up the surfaceThis phænomenon is distinctly referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 21. It presents us with one of those cases, where the scientific deductions of the moderns have been anticipated by the speculations of the ancients.. For the land is not merely produced by what is brought down the rivers, as the islands called Echinades are formed by the river Achelous, and the greater part of Egypt by the Nile, where, according to Homer, it was a day and a night's journey from the main land to the island of PharosOdyss. iv. 354–357; see also Arist. Meteor. i. 14; Lucan, x. 509–511; Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 26; Herodotus, ii. 4, 5; and Strabo, i. 59.; but, in some cases, by the receding of the sea, as, according to the same author, was the case with the Circæan islesThese form, at this day, the Monte Circello, which, it is remarked, rises up like an island, out of the Pontine marshes. It seems, however, difficult to conceive how any action of the sea could have formed these marshes.. The same thing also happened in the harbour of Ambracia, for a space of 10,000 paces, and was also said to have taken place for 5000 at the Piræus of AthensSee Strabo, i. 58. ii., and likewise at Ephesus, where formerly the sea washed the walls of the temple of Diana. Indeed, if we may believe Herodotusii. 5. et alibi., the sea came beyond Memphis, as far as the mountains of Ethiopia, and also from the plains of Arabia. The sea also surrounded Ilium and the whole of Teuthrania, and covered the plain through which the Mæander flowsThe plain in which this river flows, forming the windings from which it derives its name, appears to have been originally an inlet of the sea, which was gradually filled up with alluvial matter..

Land is sometimes formed in a different manner, rising suddenly out of the sea, as if nature was compensating the earth for its losses"Paria secum faciente natura." This appears to have been a colloquial or idiomatic expression among the Romans. See Hardouin in Lemaire, 1. 412., restoring in one place what she had swallowed up in another.

Delos and RhodesIt may be remarked, that the accounts of modern travellers and geologists tend to confirm the opinion of the volcanic origin of many of the islands of the Archipelago., islands which have now been long famous, are recorded to have risen up in this way. More lately there have been some smaller islands formed; Anapha, which is beyond Melos; Nea, between Lemnos and the Hellespont; Halone, between Lebedos and Teos; TheraBrotier remarks, that, according to the account of Herodotus, this island existed previous to the date here assigned to it; Lemaire, i. 412, 413: it is probable, however, that the same name was applied to two islands, one at least of which was of volcanic origin. and Therasia, among the Cyclades, in the fourth year of the 135th OlympiadU.C. 517, A.C. 237; and U.C. 617, A.C. 107; respectively.. And among the same islands, 130 years afterwards, Hiera, also called AutomateHiera, Automata; ab i(era\, sacer, et au)toma/th, sponte nascens. Respecting the origin of these islands there would appear to be some confusion in the dates, which it is difficult to reconcile with each other; it is, I conceive, impossible to decide whether this depends upon an error of our author himself, or of his transcribers., made its appearance; also Thia, at the distance of two stadia from the former, 110 years afterwards, in our own times, when M. Junius Silanus and L. Balbus were consuls, on the 8th of the ides of JulyJuly 25th, U.C. 771; A.C. 19..

(88.) Opposite to us, and near to Italy, among the Æolian isles, an island emerged from the sea; and likewise one near Crete, 2500 paces in extent, and with warm springs in it; another made its appearance in the third year of the 163rd OlympiadU.C. 628; A.C. 125., in the Tuscan gulf, burning with a violent explosion. There is a tradition too that a great number of fishes were floating about the spot, and that those who employed them for food immediately expired. It is said that the Pithecusan isles rose up, in the same way, in the bay of Campania, and that, shortly afterwards, the mountain Epopos, from which flame had suddenly burst forth, was reduced to the level of the neighbouring plain. In the same island, it is said, that a town was sunk in the sea; that in consequence of another shock, a lake burst out, and that, by a third, Prochytas was formed into an island, the neighbouring mountains being rolled away from it.

In the ordinary course of things islands are also formed by this means. The sea has torn Sicily from ItalySee Ovid, Metam. xv. 290, 291; also Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 29., Cyprus from Syria, Eubœa from BœotiaThis event is mentioned by Thucydides, lib. 3, Smith's Trans. i. 293; and by Diodorus, xii. 7, Booth's Trans. p. 287, as the consequence of an earthquake; but the separation was from Locris, not from Eubœa. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 415., Atalante and MacrisIt is somewhat uncertain to what island our author applied this name; see the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire. from Eubœa, Besbycus from Bithynia, and Leucosia from the promontory of the Sirens.

Again, islands are taken from the sea and added to the main land; AntissaSee Ovid, Metam. xv. 287. to Lesbos, Zephyrium to Halicarnassus, Æthusa to Myndus, Dromiscus and Perne to Miletus, Narthecusa to the promontory of Parthenium. Hybanda, which was formerly an island of Ionia, is now 200 stadia distant from the sea. Syries is now become a part of Ephesus, and, in the same neighbourhood, Derasidas and Sophonia form part of Magnesia; while Epidaurus and Oricum are no longer islandsIt is not improbable, from the situation and geological structure of the places here enumerated, that many of the changes mentioned above may have actually occurred but there are few of them of which we have any direct evidence..

The sea has totally carried off certain lands, and first of all, if we are to believe PlatoThis celebrated narrative of Plato is contained in his Timæus, Op. ix. p. 296, 297; it may be presumed that it was not altogether a fiction on the part of the author, but it is, at this time, impossible to determine what part of it was derived from ancient traditions and what from the fertile stores of his own imagination. It is referred to by various ancient writers, among others by Strabo. See also the remarks of Brotier in Lemaire, i. 416, 417., for an immense space where the Atlantic ocean is now extended. More lately we see what has been produced by our inland sea; Acarnania has been overwhelmed by the Ambracian gulf, Achaia by the Corinthian, Europe and Asia by the Propontis and Pontus. And besides these, the sea has rent asunder Leucas, Antirrhium, the Hellespont, and the two BosphoriMany of these changes on the surface of the globe, and others mentioned by our author in this part of his work, are alluded to by Ovid, in his beautiful abstract of the Pythagorean doctrine, Metam. xv. passim..

And not to speak of bays and gulfs, the earth feeds on itself; it has devoured the very high mountain of Cybotus, with the town of Curites; also Sipylus in MagnesiaSee Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 8, and Strabo, i. For some account of the places mentioned in this chapter the reader may consult the notes of Hardouin in loco., and formerly, in the same place, a very celebrated city, which was called Tantalis; also the land belonging to the cities Galanis and Gamales in Phœnicia, together with the cities themselves; also Phegium, the most lofty ridge in ÆthiopiaPoinsinet, as I conceive correctly, makes the following clause the commencement of the next chapter.. Nor are the shores of the sea more to be depended upon.

The sea near the Palus Mæotis has carried away Pyrrha and Antissa, also Elice and BuraSee Ovid, Metam. xv. 293–295; also the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 418. in the gulf of Corinth, traces of which places are visible in the ocean. From the island Cea it has seized on 30,000 paces, which were suddenly torn off, with many persons on them. In Sicily also the half of the city of Tyndaris, and all the part of Italy which is wanting"Spatium intelligit, fretumve, quo Sicilia nunc ab Italia dispescitur." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 419.; in like manner it carried off Eleusina in BœotiaSee Strabo, ix..

But let us say no more of earthquakes and of whatever may be regarded as the sepulchres of cities"Busta urbium."; let us rather speak of the wonders of the earth than of the crimes of nature. But, by Hercules! the history of the heavens themselves would not be more difficult to relate:—the abundance of metals, so various, so rich, so prolific, rising up"Suboriens," as M. Alexandre explains it, "renascens;" Lemaire, i. 420. during so many ages; when, throughout all the world, so much is, every day, destroyed by fire, by waste, by shipwreck, by wars, and by frauds; and while so much is consumed by luxury and by such a number of people:—the figures on gems, so multiplied in their forms; the variously-coloured spots on certain stones, and the whiteness of others, excluding everything except light:-the virtues of medicinal springs, and the perpetual fires bursting out in so many places, for so many ages:-the exhalation of deadly vapours, either emitted from caverns"Scrobibus;" "aut quum terra fossis excavatur, ut in Pomptina palude, aut per naturales hiatus." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 420., or from certain unhealthy districts; some of them fatal to birds alone, as at Soracte, a district near the cityThis circumstance is mentioned by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. vi. 28, as occurring "pluribus Italiæ locis;" it may be ascribed to the exhalations from volcanos being raised up into the atmosphere. It does not appear that there is, at present, any cavern in Mount Soracte which emits mephitic vapours. But the circumstance of Soracte being regarded sacred to Apollo, as we learn from our author, vii. 2, and from Virgil, Æn. xi. 785, may lead us to conjecture that something of the kind may formerly have existed there.; others to all animals, except to manThe author may probably refer to the well-known Grotto del Cane, where, in consequence of a stratum of carbonic acid gas, which occupies the lower part of the cave only, dogs and other animals, whose mouths are near the ground, are instantly suffocated., while others are so to man also, as in the country of Sinuessa and Puteoli. They are generally called vents, and, by some persons, Charon's sewers, from their exhaling a deadly vapour. Also at Amsanctum, in the country of the Hirpini, at the temple of MephitisCelebrated in the well-known lines of Virgil, Æn. vii. 563 et seq., as the "sævi spiracula Ditis.", there is a place which kills all those who enter it. And the same takes place at Hierapolis in AsiaApuleius gives us an account of this place from his own observation; De Mundo, § 729. See also Strabo, xii., where no one can enter with safety, except the priest of the great Mother of the Gods. In other places there are prophetic caves, where those who are intoxicated with the vapour which rises from them predict future eventsSee Aristotle, De Mundo, cap. iv., as at the most noble of all oracles, Delphi. In which cases, what mortal is there who can assign any other cause, than the divine power of nature, which is everywhere diffused, and thus bursts forth in various places?

There are certain lands which shake when any one passes over them"Ad ingressum ambulantium, et equorum cursus, terræ quoque tremere sentiuntur in Brabantino agro, quæ Belgii pars, et circa S. Audomari fanum." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 421, 422.; as in the territory of the Gabii, not far from the city of Rome, there are about 200 acres which shake when cavalry passes over it: the same thing takes place at Reate.

(95.) There are certain islands which are always floatingSee Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25., as in the territory of the CæcubumMartial speaks of the marshy nature of the Cæcuban district, xiii. 115. Most of the places mentioned in this chapter are illustrated by the remarks of Hardouin; Lemaire, i. 422, 423., and of the above-mentioned Reate, of Mutina, and of Statonia. In the lake of Vadimonis and the waters of Cutiliæ there is a dark wood, which is never seen in the same place for a day and a night together. In Lydia, the islands named Calaminæ are not only driven about by the wind, but may be even pushed at pleasure from place to place, by poles: many citizens saved themselves by this means in the Mithridatic war. There are some small islands in the Nymphæus, called the Dancers"Saltuares." In some of the MSS. the term here employed is Saliares, or Saltares; but in all the editions which I am in the habit of consulting, it is Saltuares., because, when choruses are sung, they are moved by the motions of those who beat time. In the great Italian lake of Tarquinii, there are two islands with groves on them, which are driven about by the wind, so as at one time to exhibit the figure of a triangle and at another of a circle; but they never form a squareThere is, no doubt, some truth in these accounts of floating islands, although, as we may presume, much exaggerated. There are frequently small portions of land detached from the edges of lakes, by floods or rapid currents, held together and rendered buoyant by a mass of roots and vegetable matter. In the lake of Keswick, in the county of Cumberland, there are two small floating islands, of a few yards in circumference, which are moved about by the wind or by currents; they appear to consist, principally, of a mass of vegetable fibres..

There is at Paphos a celebrated temple of Venus, in a certain court of which it never rains; also at Nea, a town of Troas, in the spot which surrounds the statue of Minerva: in this place also the remains of animals that are sacrificed never putrefyIt has been observed, that there are certain places where bodies remain for a long time without undergoing decomposition; it depends principally upon a dry and cool condition of the air, such as is occasionally found in vaults and natural caverns. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 424..

Near Harpasa, a town of Asia, there stands a terrific rock, which may be moved by a single finger; but if it be pushed by the force of the whole body, it resistsWe may conceive of a large mass of rock being so balanced upon the fine point of another rock, as to be moved by the slightest touch; but, that if it be pushed with any force, it may be thrown upon a plane surface, and will then remain immovable.. In the Tauric peninsula, in the state of the Parasini, there is a kind of earth which cures all woundsPerhaps the author may refer to some kind of earth, possessed of absorbent or astringent properties, like the Terra Sigillata or Armenian Bole of the old Pharmacopœias.. About Assos, in Troas, a stone is found, by which all bodies are consumed; it is called SarcophagusA sa\rc, caro, and fa/gw, edo We may conceive this stone to have contained a portion of an acrid ingredient, perhaps of an alkaline nature, which, in some degree, might produce the effect here described. It does not appear that the material of which the stone coffins are composed, to which this name has been applied, the workmanship of which is so much an object of admiration, are any of them possessed of this property.. There are two mountains near the river Indus; the nature of one is to attract iron, of the other to repel it: hence, if there be nails in the shoes, the feet cannot be drawn off the one, or set down on the otherAlexandre remarks on this statement, "Montes istæ videntur originem dedisse fabulæ quæ in Arabicis Noctibus legitur....;" Lemaire, i. 425. Fouché, indeed, observes, that there are mountains composed principally of natural loadstone, which might sensibly attract a shoe containing iron nails. Ajasson, ii. 386. But I conceive that we have no evidence of the existence of the magnetic iron pyrites having ever been found in sufficient quantity to produce any sensible effect of the kind here described.. It has been noticed, that at Locris and Crotona, there has never been a pestilence, nor have they ever suffered from an earthquake; in Lycia there are always forty calm days before an earthquake. In the territory of Argyripa the corn which is sown never springs up. At the altars of Mucius, in the country of the Veii, and about Tusculum, and in the Cimmerian Forest, there are places in which things that are pushed into the ground cannot be pulled out again. The hay which is grown in Crustuminium is noxious on the spot, but elsewhere it is wholesomeWe may remark generally, that of the "miracula" related in this chapter, the greatest part are entirely without foundation, and the remainder much exaggerated..

Much has been said about the nature of waters; but the most wonderful circumstance is the alternate flowing and ebbing of the tides, which exists, indeed, under various forms, but is caused by the sun and the moon. The tide flows twice and ebbs twice between each two risings of the moon, always in the space of twenty-four hours. First, the moon rising with the stars"Mundo;" the heavens or visible firmament, to which the stars and planets appear to be connected, so as to be moved along with it. swells out the tide, and after some time, having gained the summit of the heavens, she declines from the meridian and sets, and the tide subsides. Again, after she has set, and moves in the heavens under the earth, as she approaches the meridian on the opposite side, the tide flows in; after which it recedes until she again rises to us. But the tide of the next day is never at the same time with that of the preceding; as if the planet was in attendance"Ancillante;" "Credas ancillari sidus, et indulgere mari, ut non ab eadem parte, qua pridie, pastum ex oceano hauriat." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 427., greedily drinking up the sea, and continually rising in a different place from what she did the day before. The intervals are, however, equal, being always of six hours; not indeed in respect of any particular day or night or placeNot depending on the time of the rising and setting of the sun or the latitude of the place, but determinate portions of the diurnal period., but equinoctial hours, and therefore they are unequal as estimated by the length of common hours, since a greater number of themBy a conjectural variation of a letter, viz. by substituting "eos "for "eas," Dalechamp has, as he conceives, rendered this passage more clear; the alteration is adopted by Lemaire. fall on some certain days or nights, and they are never equal everywhere except at the equinox. This is a great, most clear, and even divine proof of the dullness of those, who deny that the stars go below the earth and rise up again, and that nature presents the same face in the same states of their rising and setting"In iisdem ortus occasusque operibus;" "Eodem modo utrinque orientibus occidentibusque sideribus," as interpreted by Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 428.; for the course of the stars is equally obvious in the one case as in the other, producing the same effect as when it is manifest to the sight.

There is a difference in the tides, depending on the moon, of a complicated nature, and, first, as to the period of seven days. For the tides are of moderate height from the new moon to the first quarter; from this time they increase, and are the highest at the full: they then decrease. On the seventh day they are equal to what they were at the first quarter, and they again increase from the time that she is at first quarter on the other side. At her conjunction with the sun they are equally high as at the full. When the moon is in the northern hemisphere, and recedes further from the earth, the tides are lower than when, going towards the south, she exercises her influence at a less distanceIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that both the alleged fact and the supposed cause are incorrect. And this is the case with what our author says in the next sentence, respecting the period of eight years, and the hundred revolutions of the moon.. After an interval of eight years, and the hundredth revolution of the moon, the periods and the heights of the tides return into the same order as at first, this planet always acting upon them; and all these effects are likewise increased by the annual changes of the sun"Solis annuis causis." The circumstances connected with the revolution of the sun, acting as causes of the period and height of the tides, in addition to the effect of the moon., the tides rising up higher at the equinoxes, and more so at the autumnal than at the vernal; while they are lower"Inanes;" "Depressiores ac minus tumentes." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 429. about the winter solstice, and still more so at the summer solstice; not indeed precisely at the points of time which I have mentioned, but a few days afterAccording to the remark of Alexandre, "Uno die et dimidio altero, 36 circiter horis, in Gallia." Lemaire, i. 429.; for example, not exactly at the full nor at the new moon, but after them; and not immediately when the moon becomes visible or invisible, or has advanced to the middle of her course, but generally about two hours later than the equinoctial hoursAlexandre remarks on this passage, "Variat pro locis hoc intervallum a nullo fere temporis momento ad undecim horas et amplius;" Lemaire, i 429.; the effect of what is going on in the heavens being felt after a short interval; as we observe with respect to lightning, thunder, and thunderbolts.

But the tides of the ocean cover greater spaces and produce greater inundations than the tides of the other seas; whether it be that the whole of the universe taken together is more full of life than its individual parts, or that the large open space feels more sensibly the power of the planet, as it moves freely about, than when restrained within narrow bounds. On which account neither lakes nor rivers are moved in the same manner. PytheasOur author has already referred to Pytheas, in the 77th chapter of this book. of Massilia informs us, that in Britain the tide rises 80 cubitsIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that the space here mentioned, which is nearly 120 feet, is far greater than the actual fact.. Inland seas are enclosed as in a harbour, but, in some parts of them, there is a more free space which obeys the influence"Ditioni paret;" "Lunæ solisque efficientiæ, quæ ciet æstum." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 430.. Among many other examples, the force of the tide will carry us in three days from Italy to Utica, when the sea is tranquil and there is no impulse from the sailsThe effect here described could not have depended upon the tides, but upon some current, either affecting the whole of the Mediterranean, or certain parts of it. See the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire.. But these motions are more felt about the shores than in the deep parts of the seas, as in the body the extremities of the veins feel the pulse, which is the vital spirit, more than the other partsPliny naturally adopted the erroneous opinions respecting the state of the blood-vessels, and the cause of the pulse, which were universally maintained by the ancients.. And in most estuaries, on account of the unequal rising of the stars in each tract, the tides differ from each other, but this respects the period, not the nature of them; as is the case in the Syrtes.

There are, however, some tides which are of a peculiar nature, as in the Tauromenian EuripusThe name of Euripus is generally applied to the strait between Bœotia and Eubœa, but our author here extends it to that between Italy and Sicily. A peculiarity in the tide of this strait is referred to by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. iii. 24., where the ebb and flow is more frequent than in other places, and in Eubœa, where it takes place seven times during the day and the night. The tides intermit three times during each month, being the 7th, 8th and 9th day of the moon"Estus idem triduo in mense consistit." "Consistentia, sive mediocritas aquarum non solum septima die sentitur, sed et octava, ac nona durat," as Hardoum explains this passage, Lemaire, i. 431.. At Gades, which is very near the temple of Hercules, there is a spring enclosed like a well, which sometimes rises and falls with the ocean, and, at other times, in both respects contrary to it. In the same place there is another well, which always agrees with the ocean. On the shores of the BætisNow called the Guadalquivir., there is a town where the wells become lower when the tide rises, and fill again when it ebbs; while at other times they remain stationary. The same thing occurs in one well in the town of HispalisThe modern Seville., while there is nothing peculiar in the other wells. The Euxine always flows into the Propontis, the water never flowing back into the EuxineThis circumstance is noticed by most of the ancients, as by Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 1; by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iv. 2; and by Strabo. It has, however, no relation to the tide, but depends upon the quantity of water transmitted into the Euxine by the numerous large rivers that empty themselves into it..

All seas are purified at the full moonIt has been suggested, with some plausibility, that the greater height of the tides at this period will cause a greater quantity of matter to be cast on shore. This circumstance is referred to by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 26; and by Strabo.; some also at stated periods. At Messina and Mylæ refuse matter, like dungAlexandre observes on this supposed fact, "Algarum molles quædam species intelligendæ sunt, quæ convolutæ et marcidæ in littus ejiciuntur." Lemaire, i. 432., is cast up on the shore, whence originated the story of the oxen of the Sun having had their stable at that place. To what has been said above (not to omit anything with which I am acquainted) Aristotle adds, that no animal dies except when the tide is ebbing. The observation has been often made on the ocean of Gaul; but it has only been found true with respect to manIt may cause some surprise to find that such an opinion has been entertained even in modern times; but more correct observation has shown it to be without foundation. Lemaire..

Hence we may certainly conjecture, that the moon is not unjustly regarded as the star of our life"Spiritus sidus;" "Quod vitalem humorem ac spiritus in corporibus rebusque omnibus varie temperet." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 433.. This it is that replenishes the earth"Terras saturet;" as Alexandre interprets it, "succo impleat;" Lemaire.; when she approaches it, she fills all bodies, while, when she recedes, she empties them. From this cause it is that shell-fish grow with her increaseThis circumstance is alluded to by Cicero, De Divin. ii. 33, and by Horace, Sat. ii. 4, 30. It is difficult to conceive how an opinion so totally unfounded, and so easy to refute, should have obtained general credence., and that those animals which are without blood more particularly experience her influence; also, that the blood of man is increased or diminished in proportion to the quantity of her light; also that the leaves and vegetables generally, as I shall describe in the proper placeLib. xviii. chap. 75., feel her influence, her power penetrating all things.

Fluids are dried up by the heat of the sun; we have therefore regarded it as a masculine star, burning up and absorbing everythingAristotle, Meteor. ii. 1, remarks, that as the sun is continually evaporating the water of the sea, it must eventually be entirely dried up. But we have reason to believe, that all the water which is evaporated by the solar heat, or any other natural process, is again deposited in the form of rain or dew..

Hence it is that the widely-diffused sea is impregnated with the flavour of salt, in consequence of what is sweet and mild being evaporated from it, which the force of fire easily accomplishes; while all the more acrid and thick matter is left behind; on which account the water of the sea is less salt at some depth than at the surface. And this is a more true cause of the acrid flavour, than that the sea is the continued perspiration of the land"Terræ sudor;" according to Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 4: this opinion. was adopted by some of the ancients., or that the greater part of the dry vapour is mixed with it, or that the nature of the earth is such that it impregnates the waters, and, as it were, medicates themThe commentators discuss at considerable length the relative merits of the three hypotheses here proposed, to account for the saltness of the ocean; all of which are equally unfounded. See Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 434, 435. Aristotle's opinion on this subject is contained in his Meteor.. Among the prodigies which have occurred, there is one which happened when Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, was expelled from his kingdom; that, for the space of one day, the water in the harbour became sweet.

(101.) The moon, on the contrary, is said to be a feminine and delicate planet, and also nocturnal; also that it resolves humours and draws them out, but does not carry them off. It is manifest that the carcases of wild beasts are rendered putrid by its beams, that, during sleep, it draws up the accumulated torpor into the head, that it melts ice, and relaxes all things by its moistening spiritIt is not easy to ascertain the origin of the very general opinion respecting the peculiar physical action of the moon. The alleged facts are, for the most part, without foundation, and I am not aware of any circumstance which could, originally, have made them a part of the popular creed of so many nations, ancient as well as modern. Perhaps some of the effects which have been ascribed to the specific action of the moon, may be explained by the lower temperature and greater dampness of the air, during the absence of the sun.. Thus the changes of nature compensate each other, and are always adequate to their destined purpose; some of them congealing the elements of the stars and others dissolving them. The moon is said to be fed by fresh, and the sun by salt water.

FabianusThere appears to be some doubt respecting the history of the person here referred to: according to the account of Hardouin, Fabianus was a naturalist, who enjoyed a high repution; he lived in the time of Tiberius: see Lemaire, i. 188. informs us that the greatest depth of the sea is 15 stadiaThis would be a depth of 3125 yards, not very far short of two miles; see Adam's Rom. Antiq. p. 503.. We learn from others, that in the Euxine, opposite to the nation of the Coraxi, at what is called the Depths of the Euxine"Baqe/a Ponti;" Aristotle refers to this as one of those parts where the sea is unfathomable; Meteor. i. 13.. about 300 stadiaA distance of nearly nine and a half miles. from the main land, the sea is immensely deep, no bottom having been found.

It is very remarkable that fresh water should burst out close to the sea, as from pipes. But there is no end to the wonders that are connected with the nature of waters. Fresh water floats on sea water, no doubt from its being lighter; and therefore sea water, which is of a heavier natureThe specific gravity of sea water varies from 1ċ0269 to 1ċ0285. The saline contents of the water of the English Channel are stated to be 27 grs. in 1000. Turner's Chem. p. 1289, 1290., supports better what floats upon it. And, in some places, different kinds of fresh water float upon each other; as that of the river which falls into the Fucinus; that of the Addua into the Larius; of the Ticinus into the Verbanus; of the Mincius into the Benacus; of the Ollius into the Sevinus; and of the Rhone into the Leman lakeThe modern names of the rivers and lakes here mentioned are the Liris, communicating with the Lago di Celano; the Adda, with the Lago di Como; the Ticino, with the Lago Maggiore; the Mincio, with the Lago di Guarda; the Oglio, with the Lago di Sero; and the Rhone with the Lake of Geneva. There may be some foundation for the alleged fact, because the specific gravity and the temperature of the lake may differ a little from that of the river which passes through it. (this last being beyond the Alps, the others in Italy): all which rivers passing through the lakes for many miles, generally carry off no more water than they bring with them. The same thing is said to occur in the Orontes, a river of Syria, and in many others

Some rivers, from a real hatred of the sea, pass under it, as does Arethusa, a fountain of Syracuse, in which the substances are found that are thrown into the Alpheus; which, after flowing by Olympia, is discharged into the sea, on the shore of the PeloponnesusAccording to Brotier, "fons ille olim nobilissimus, nunc ignobile est lavacrum, cujus aqua marino sapore inficitur." He conceives that there is no actual foundation for this so frequently repeated story; and conjectures that it originated from the similitude of the names, the fountain in Sicily and the river in the Peloponnesus being both named Alpheus. He goes on to mention some examples of springs of fresh water rising up on the sea-coast; Lemaire, i. 438. The allusion to the fountain of Arethusa, by Virgil, in the commencement of the 10th eclogue, is well known to all classical scholars. The lines of Virgil have been elegantly imitated by Voltaire, in the Henriade, ix. 269, 270.. The Lycus in AsiaThis is mentioned by Ovid, Met. xv. 273, 274., the Era- sinus in Argolis, and the TigrisThis is again referred to by our author, vi. 31; also by Strabo, and by Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 26. in Mesopotamia, sink into the earth and burst out again. Substances which are thrown into the fountain of Æsculapius at AthensPausanias. are cast up at the fountain of Phalerum. The river which sinks into the ground in the plain of AtinumThe river here referred to is the Tanager, the modern Rio Negro. See the remarks of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 439. comes up again at the distance of twenty miles, and the Timavus does the same in AquileiaFrom a note in Pomsinet, i. 302, we learn that there has been some doubt respecting the locality of this river. It is mentioned by Virgil, Æn. i. 244, and it forms the subject of Heyne's 7th Excursus, ii. 124 et seq. Virgil also speaks of the Timavus, Ec. viii. 6; and Heyne, in a note, gives the following description of it: "Timavus in ora Adriæ, non longe ab Aquileia fluvius ex terra novem fontibus seu capitibus progressus, brevi cursu, in unum alveum collectus, lato altoque flumine in mare exit." i. 127, 128..

In the lake Asphaltites, in Judæa, which produces bitumen, no substance will sink, nor in the lake ArethusaThis remark is not to be taken in its full extent; the water of these lakes contains a large quantity of saline and other substances dissolved in it, and, consequently, has its specific gravity so much increased, that various substances float on it which sink in pure water., in the Greater Armenia: in this lake, although it contains nitre, fish are found. In the country of the Salentini, near the town of Manduria, there is a lakeAccording to Hardouin, this is now called the Lake of Andoria, near the town of Casalnuovo; Lemaire, i. 439. Poinsinet calls it Anduria, i. 303. full to the brim, the waters of which are never diminished by what is taken out of it, nor increased by what is added. Wood, which is thrown into the river of the CiconesThe petrifying quality of this river is referred to by Ovid, Met. xv. 313, 314; Seneca quotes these lines when treating on this subject, Nat. Quæst. iii. 20., or into the lake Velinus in Picenum, becomes coated with a stony crust, while in the Surius, a river of Colchis, the whole substance becomes as hard as stone. In the same manner, in the SilarusAristotle, Strabo, and Silius Italicus, viii. 582, 583, refer to this property of the Silarus; but, according to Brotier, it does not appear to be known to the present inhabitants of the district through which it flows. Lemaire, i. 440., beyond Surrentum, not only twigs which are immersed in it, but likewise leaves are petrified; the water at the same time being proper for drinking. In the stream which runs from the marsh of ReateIn a subsequent part of the work, xxxi. 8, our author remarks, "Reatinis tantum paludibus ungulas jumentorum indurari." We may presume that the water contained some saline, earthy or metallic substance, either in solution, or in a state of minute division, which would produce these effects. It does not appear that anything of this kind has been observed by the moderns in this water. there is a rock, which continues to increase in size, and in the Red Sea olive-trees and green shrubs are producedThe coral beds with which the Red Sea abounds may have given rise to this opinion: see the remarks of Alexandre in loco. Hardouin informs us, that this clause respecting the Red Sea is not found in any of the MSS. Lemaire, i. 441. A similar observation occurs in a subsequent part of the work, xiii. 48..

There are many springs which are remarkable for their warmth. This is the case even among the ridges of the AlpsThere are thermal springs in the Alpine valleys, but not any in the elevated parts of the Alps themselves., and in the sea itself, between Italy and Ænaria, as in the bay of Baiæ, and in the Liris and many other riversThe volcanic nature of a large portion of the south of Italy and the neighbouring islands may be regarded as the cause of the warm springs which are found there.. There are many places in which fresh water may be procured from the sea, as at the Chelidonian Isles, and at Arados, and in the ocean at Gades. Green plants are produced in the warm springs of Padua, frogs in those of Pisa, and fish in those of Vetulonia in Etruria, which is not far from the sea. In Casinas there is a cold river called Scatebra, which in summer is more full of waterThis river may be supposed to have been principally supplied by melted snow; it would appear to be colder, because its temperature would be less elevated than the other streams in the neighbourhood.. In this, as in the river Stymphalis, in Arcadia, small water-mice are produced. The fountain of Jupiter in Dodona, although it is as cold as ice, and extinguishes torches that are plunged into it, yet, if they be brought near it, it kindles them againThe statement, if correct, may be referred to the discharge of a quantity of inflammable gas from the surface of the water. The fact is men- tioned by Lucretius, vi. 879, 880, and by Mela.. This spring always becomes dry at noon, from which circumstance it is called Anapauo/menon"Quasi alternis requiescens, ac meridians: diem diffindens, ut Varro loquitur, insititia quiete." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 443. He says that there is a similar kind of fountain in Provence, called Collis Martiensis. it then increases and becomes full at midnight, after which it again visibly decreases. In Illyricum there is a cold spring, over which if garments are spread they take fire. The pool of Jupiter Ammon, which is cold during the day, is warm during the nightThere has been considerable difference of opinion among the commentators, both as to the reading of the text and its interpretation, for which I shall refer to the notes of Poinsinet, i. 307, of Hardouin and Alexandre, Lemaire, i. 443, and of Richelet, Ajasson, ii. 402.. In the country of the TroglodytæWe have an account of the Troglodytsæ in a subsequent part of the work, v. 5. The name is generally applied by the ancients to a tribe of people inhabiting a portion of Æthiopia, and is derived from the circumstance of their dwellings being composed of caverns; a trwglh\ and du/nw. Alexandre remarks, that the name was occasionally applied to other tribes, whose habitations were of the same kind; Lemaire, i. 443. They are referred to by Q. Curtius as a tribe of the Æthiopians, situated to the south of Egypt and extending to the Red Sea, iv. 7., what they call the Fountain of the Sun, about noon is fresh and very cold; it then gradually grows warm, and, at midnight, becomes hot and salineQ. Curtius gives nearly the same account of this fountain..

In the middle of the day, during summer, the source of the Po, as if reposing itself, is always dryThe Po derives its water from the torrents of the Alps, and is therefore much affected by the melting of the snow or the great falls of rain, which occur at different seasons of the year; but the daily diminution of the water, as stated by our author, is without foundation.. In the island of Tenedos there is a spring, which, after the summer solstice, is full of water, from the third hour of the night to the sixth"Fontem ibi intermittentem frustra qusæsivit cl. Le Chevalier, Voyage de la Troade, t. i. p. 219." Lemaire, i. 444.. The fountain Inopus, in the island of Delos, decreases and increases in the same manner as the Nile, and also at the same periodsStrabo, in allusion to this circumstance, remarks, that some persons make it still more wonderful, by supposing that this spring is connected with the Nile. We learn from Tournefort, that there is a well of this name in Delos, which he found to contain considerably more water in January and February than in October, and which is supposed to be connected with the Nile or the Jordan: this, of course, he regards as an idle tale. Lemaire.. There is a small island in the sea, opposite to the river Timavus, containing warm springs, which increase and decrease at the same time with the tides of the seaHardouin informs us, that these warm springs are called "i bagni di Monte Falcone," or "di S. Antonio." They are situate so very near the sea, that we may suppose some communication to exist, which may produce the alleged effect. Lemaire.. In the territory of Pitinum, on the other side of the Apennines, the river Novanus, which during the solstice is quite a torrent, is dry in the winterAccording to Hardouin this is the modern Torre di Pitino; he conceives that the river here mentioned must be the Vomanus. The effect here described is, to a certain extent, always the case with rivers which proceed from mountains that are covered with snow. Lemaire, i. 445..

In Faliscum, all the water which the oxen drink turns them white; in Bœotia, the river Melas turns the sheep black; the Cephissus, which flows out of a lake of the same name, turns them whiteSeneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 25, makes the same remark: the fact would seem to be, that in certain districts the cattle are found to be for the most part white, and in other places black; but we have no reason to suppose that their colour has any connexion with the water which they employ.; again, the Peneus turns them black, and the Xanthus, near Ilium, makes them red, whence the river derives its nameThis is asserted by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. iii. 12. We have a similar statement made by Ælian respecting the Scamander; viii. 21.. In Pontus, the river Astaces waters certain plains, where the mares give black milk, which the people use in diet. In Reate there is a spring called Neminia, which rises up sometimes in one place and sometimes in another, and in this way indicates a change in the produce of the earth"Annonæ mutationem significans.". There is a spring in the harbour of Brundisium that yields water which never becomes putrid at sea. The water of the Lyncestis, which is said to be acidulous, intoxicates like wineThe peculiar nature of the water of the Lyncestis is referred to by many of the ancients: we may suppose that it was strongly impregnated with carbonic acid gas. See Ovid, Met. xv. 329–331; also Aristotle, Meteor. ii. 3, and Seneca, Nat. Quæst. iii. 20.; this is the case also in PaphlagoniaVitruvius and Athenæus. and in the territory of CalenumCalenum was a town in Campania; this peculiar property of its water is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18.. In the island of Andros, at the temple of Father Bacchus, we are assured by Mucianus, who was thrice consul, that there is a spring, which, on the nones of January, always has the flavour of wine; it is called Dio\s Qeodosi/aLiterally, Jovis cultus; as interpreted by Hardouin, "tanquam si dixeris, divinum Jovis munus hunc fontem esse." Lemaire, i. 447.. Near Nonacris, in Arcadia, the StyxSeneca affirms its poisonous nature; Nat. Quæst. iii. 25. Q. Curtius refers to a spring in Macedonia of the same name, "quo pestiferum virus emanat." x. 10., which is not unlike it either in odour or in colour, instantly destroys those who drink it. Also in Librosus, a hill in the country of the Tauri, there are three springs which inevitably produce death, but without pain. In the territory of the Carrinenses in SpainThere appears to be some uncertainty respecting the locality of this district; see the remarks of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 447., two springs burst out close together, the one of which absorbs everything, the other throws them out. In the same country there is another spring, which gives to all the fish the appearance of gold, although, when out of the water, they do not differ in any respect from other fish. In the territory of Como, near the Larian lake, there is a copious spring, which always swells up and subsides again every hour"Hunc fontem describit eximie Plinius jun. lib. iv. epist. ult. Est ad orientalem Larii lacus plagam, Lago di Como, x mill. pass. a Como." Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 448.. In the island of CydoneaOur author, in a subsequent passage, v. 39, speaks of Cydonea, "cum fonte calido.", before Lesbos, there is a warm fountain, which flows only during the spring season. The lake SinnausAccording to Hardouin, i. 448, there is a considerable variation in the MSS. with respect to this name: he informs us that "Sunao\s urbs est Magnæ Phrygiæ Ptolemæo, v. 2.", in Asia, is impregnated with wormwood, which grows about it. At Colophon, in the cave of the Clarian Apollo, there is a pool, by the drinking of which a power is acquired of uttering wonderful oracles; but the lives of those who drink of it are shortenedTacitus gives an account of this oracle as having been visited by Germanicus; Ann. ii. 54.. In our own times, during the last years of Nero's life, we have seen rivers flowing backwards, as I have stated in my history of his timesOur author refers to this history in the First book of the present work..

And indeed who can be mistaken as to the fact, that all springs are colder in summer than in winter"Comparatos scilicet cum aëris externi temperie." Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 448., as well as these other wonderful operations of nature; that copper and lead sink when in a mass, but float when spread outThin leaves or films of metal have little affinity for water, and have, generally, bubbles of air attached to them; so that, when placed upon the water, the fluid is prevented from adhering to them, and thus they remain on the surface.; and of things that are equally heavy, some will sink to the bottom, while others will remain on the surfaceDepending not upon their absolute, but their specific gravity.; that heavy bodies are more easily moved in waterBeing partly supported by the water.; that a stone from Scyros, although very large, will float, while the same, when broken into small pieces, sinksThe stone may have floated in consequence of its being full of pores: these are more quickly filled with water when it is broken into small pieces. It was probably of the nature of pumice or some other volcanic product.; that the body of an animal, newly deprived of life, sinks, but that, when it is swelled out, it floatsThis is well known to depend upon the commencement of the decomposition of some part of the viscera, by which there is an evolution of gaseous matter.; that empty vessels are drawn out of the water with no more ease than those that are fullThis is an erroneous statement; it is not easy to ascertain what was the source of the error.; that rain-water is more useful for salt-pits than other kinds of waterRain, as it falls from the clouds, is nearly pure; and rivers, or receptacles of any kind, that are supplied by it, are considerably more free from saline impregnations than the generality of springs.; that salt cannot be made, unless it is mixed with fresh waterThis statement is altogether incorrect.; that salt water freezes with more difficultyWhen salt water freezes, it is disengaged from the saline matter which it previously held in solution; a greater degree of cold is therefore required to overcome the attraction of the water for the salt, and to form the ice, than when pure water is congealed., and is more readily heated"Celerius accendi." We can scarcely suppose that by this term our author intended to express the actual burning or inflaming of the water, which is its literal and ordinary meaning. This, however, would appear to be the opinion of Hardouin and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 449. Holland translates it, "made hot and set a-seething," i. 46; Poinsinet, "s'éhauffe le plus vîte," i. 313; and Ajasson, "plus prompte à s'échauffer," ii. 217.; that the sea is warmer in winterThe temperature of the ocean, in consequence of its great mass and the easy diffusion and mixture of its various parts, may be conceived to be longer in becoming raised or depressed than any particular portion of the land, where contemporary observations may be made. and more salt in the autumnThe evaporation that is going on during the heats of summer, and the heavy rains which in many countries fall during the autumn, may produce the effects here described, in confined seas or inlets.; that everything is soothed by oil, and that this is the reason why divers send out small quantities of it from their mouths, because it smoothes any part which is roughThe statement is true to a certain extent, as is proved by the well-known experiments of Franklin and others; but the degree of the effect is considerably exaggerated. See the observations of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre; Lemaire, i. 450, 451. and transmits the light to them; that snow never falls in the deep part of the seaIn the Mediterranean the warm vapours rising from the water and its shores may melt the snow as it descends; but this is not the case in the parts of the main ocean which approach either to the Arctic or the Antarctic regions.; that although water generally has a tendency downwards, fountains rise upThe theory of springs is well understood, as depending upon the water tending to rise to its original level, so as to produce an equilibrium of pressure., and that this is the case even at the foot of ÆtnaWhen we consider the great extent of the base of Ætna, and that the crater is in the form of an inverted cone, we shall perceive that there is ample space for the existence of springs in the lower part of the mountain, without their coming in contact with the heated lava., burning as it does, so as to force out the sand like a ball of flame to the distance of 150 miles?

And now I must give an account of some of the wonders of fire, which is the fourth element of nature; but first those produced by means of water.

In Samosata, a city of CommageneSamosata is situated on the Euphrates, in the north of Syria., there is a pool which discharges an inflammable mud, called MalthaThe Petroleum or Bitumen of the modern chemists; it is a tarry substance, more or less fluid, which has probably been produced by carbonaceous matter, as affected by heat or decomposition, below the surface of the earth. Our author has exaggerated its properties and action upon other bodies.. It adheres to every solid body which it touches, and moreover, when touched, it follows you, if you attempt to escape from it. By means of it the people defended their walls against Lucullus, and the soldiers were burned in their armourRespecting the transaction here mentioned, I shall refer to the note of Hardouin, Lemaire, i. 452.. It is even set on fire in water. We learn by experience that it can be extinguished only by earth.

Naphtha is a substance of a similar natureThe substance here mentioned may be considered as not differing essentially from the Maltha of the last chapter, except in being of a more fluid consistence. (it is so called about Babylon, and in the territory of the Astaceni, in ParthiaThe Astaceni are supposed to have inhabited a district near the sources of the Indus, probably corresponding to the modern Cabul.), flowing like liquid bitumen. It has a great affinity to fire, which instantly darts on it wherever it is seenWe may conceive of a quantity of inflammable vapour on the surface of the naphtha, which might, in some degree, produce the effect here described.. It is said, that in this way it was that Medea burned Jason's mistress; her crown having taken fire, when she approached the altar for the purpose of sacrificingHorace, in one of his Epodes, where he refers to the magical arts of Medea, says, that it was a cloak, "palla," which was sent to Creüsa; v. 65. So far as there is any foundation for the story, we may suppose that some part of her dress had been impregnated with an inflammable substance, which took fire when she approached the blazing altar..

Among the wonders of mountains there is Ætna, which always burns in the nightWhen the volcanos are less active the flame is visible in the night only., and for so long a period has always had materials for combustion, being in the winter buried in snow, and having the ashes which it has ejected covered with frost. Nor is it in this mountain alone that nature rages, threatening to consume the earthThe observations of modern travellers and geologists have proved, that the number of extinct volcanos is considerably greater than those now in action.; in Pha- selis, the mountain Chimæra burns, and indeed with a continual flame, day and nightChimæra was a volcano in Lycia, not far from the Xanthus; the circumstance of its summit emitting flame, while its sides were the resort of various savage animals, probably gave rise to the fabulous story of the Centaur of this name, a ferocious monster who was continually vomiting forth flame.. Ctesias of Cnidos informs us, that this fire is kindled by water, while it is extinguished by earth and by hayThe word in the text is "fœnum"; Hardouin suggests that the meaning of the author may have been litter, or the refuse of stables. Lemaire, i. 454.. In the same country of Lycia, the mountains of Hephæstius, when touched with a flaming torchThe emission of a gas, which may be kindled by the application of flame, is a phenomenon of no very rare occurrence; but the effects are, no doubt, much exaggerated. See the remarks of Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 454., burn so violently, that even the stones in the river and the sand burn, while actually in the water: this fire is also increased by rain. If a person makes furrows in the ground with a stick which has been kindled at this fire, it is said that a stream of flame will follow it. The summit of Cophantus, in BactriaThe country of the Bactrians was a district to the S.E. of the Caspian Sea, and to the north of the sources of the Indus, nearly corresponding to the modern Bucharia., burns during the night; and this is the case in Media and at SittaceneThere would appear to be some uncertainty as to the locality of this place: our author derived his statement from the writer of the treatise de Mirab. Auscult., on the borders of Persia; likewise in Susa, at the White Tower, from fifteen apertures"Caminis.", the greatest of which also burns in the daytime. The plain of Babylon throws up flame from a place like a fishpondProbably the crater of a former volcano., an acre in extent. Near Hesperium, a mountain of the ÆthiopiansThis mountain, as well as the Qew=n o)/xhma, mentioned below, has been supposed to be situated on the west of Africa, near Sierra Leone, or Cape Verd; but, as I conceive, without sufficient authority. See Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 455., the fields shine in the night-time like stars; the same thing takes place in the territory of the Megalopo- litani. This fire, however, is internal"Internus." "In interiore nemore abditus." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 455., mild, and not burning the foliage of a dense wood which is over itIf this account be not altogether fabulous, the appearance here described may be, perhaps, referred to the combustion of an inflammable gas which does not acquire a very high temperature.. There is also the crater of NymphæumWe have an account of this place in Strabo, vii. 310. Our author has already referred to it in the 96th chapter of this book, as a pool or lake, containing floating islands; and he again speaks of it in the next chapter., which is always burning, in the neighbourhood of a cold fountain, and which, according to Theopompus, presages direful calamities to the inhabitants of ApolloniaWe have an account of this volcano in Ælian, Var. Hist. xiii. 16. It would appear, however, that it had ceased to emit flame previous to the calamitous events of which it was supposed to be the harbinger.. It is increased by rainThis circumstance is mentioned by Dion Cassius, xli. 174. We may conceive that a sudden influx of water might force up an unusually large quantity of the bitumen., and it throws out bitumen, which, becoming mixed with the fountain, renders it unfit to be tasted; it is, at other times, the weakest of all the bitumens. But what are these compared to other wonders? Hiera, one of the Æolian isles, in the middle of the sea, near Italy, together with the sea itself, during the Social war, burned for several daysWe have a full account of this circumstance in Strabo, vi. 277., until expiation was made, by a deputation from the senate. There is a hill in Æthiopia called Qew=n o)/xhma"Currum deorum Latine licet interpretari." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 456., which burns with the greatest violence, throwing out flame that consumes everything, like the sun"torrentesque solis ardoribus flammas egerit;" perhaps the author may mean, that the fires of the volcano assist those of the sun in parch- ing the surface of the ground.. In so many places, and with so many fires, does nature burn the earth!

But since this one element is of so prolific a nature as to produce itself, and to increase from the smallest spark, what must we suppose will be the effect of all those funeral piles of the earth"Tot rogis terræ ?" in reference to the remark in a former chapter, "natura terras cremat." ? What must be the nature of that thing, which, in all parts of the world, supplies this most greedy voracity without destroying itself? To these fires must be added those innumerable stars and the great sun itself. There are also the fires made by men"Humani ignes," according to Hardouin, "Hi nostri ignes, quos vitæ usus requirit, ut Tullius ait de Nat. Deor. ii. 67;" Lemaire, i. 457., those which are innate in certain kinds of stones, those produced by the friction of woodThis is the mode which many savage tribes employ for exciting flame., and those in the clouds, which give rise to lightning. It really exceeds all other wonders, that one single day should pass in which everything is not consumed, especially when we reflect, that concave mirrors placed opposite to the sun's rays produce flame more readily than any other kind of fire; and that numerous small but natural fires abound everywhere. In Nymphæum there issues from a rock a fire which is kindled by rain; it also issues from the waters of the ScantiaIt is not known whether the Scantia was a river or a lake, or where it was situated; see Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 457.. This indeed is a feeble flame, since it passes off, remaining only a short time on any body to which it is applied: an ash tree, which overshadows this fiery spring, remains always greenThis may have been owing to the emission of an inflammable gas which burns at a comparatively low temperature, as was observed on a former occasion.. In the territory of Mutina fire issues from the ground on the days that are consecrated to VulcanThese are said by Columella, xi. 3, to occur in August; the statement as to the fire occurring on these particular days we may presume is erroneous.. It is stated by some authors, that if a burning body falls on the fields below AriciaAricia was a town in Campania, near the modern Lake of Nemi: this place, as well as the other places mentioned by our author, were probably of volcanic origin., the ground is set on fire; and that the stones in the territory of the Sabines and of the SidiciniSidicinum was a town in Campania, also called Teanum; probably the modern Teano., if they be oiled, burn with flame. In EgnatiaEgnatia was a town in Calabria, on the coast of the Adriatic: the circumstance mentioned by our author is ridiculed by Horace, in his well-known lines, Sat. i. 5, 97; but it is not improbable that there may be some foundation for it., a town of Salentinum, there is a sacred stone, upon which, when wood is placed, flame immediately bursts forth. In the altar of Juno LaciniaThis circumstance is referred to by Val. Maximus, i. 8, 18. The altar was probably in the neighbourhood of the Lacinian Promontory, at the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Tarentum, the modern Capo delle Colonne., which is in the open air, the ashes remain unmoved, although the winds may be blowing from all quarters.

It appears also that there are sudden fires both in waters and even in the human body; that the whole of Lake Thrasymenus was on fireThis may be referred to the inflammable vapours mentioned above, unless we regard the whole narrative as fabulous.; that when Servius Tullius, while a child, was sleeping, flame darted out from his headSee Livy, i. 39, and Val. Maximus, i. 6. 2. Although it would be rash to pronounce this occurrence and the following anecdotes respecting Marcius to be absolutely impossible, we must regard them as highly improbable, and resting upon very insufficient evidence.; and Valerius Antias informs us, that the same flame appeared about L. Marcius, when he was pronouncing the funeral oration over the Scipios, who were killed in Spain; and exhorting the soldiers to avenge their death. I shall presently mention more facts of this nature, and in a more distinct manner; in this place these wonders are mixed up with other subjects. But my mind, having carried me beyond the mere interpretation of nature, is anxious to lead, as it were by the hand, the thoughts of my readers over the whole globe.

Our part of the earth, of which I propose to give an account, floating as it were in the ocean which surrounds it (as I have mentioned aboveIn the 66th chapter of this book.), stretches out to the greatest extent from east to west, viz. from India to the Pillars consecrated to Hercules at Gades, being a distance of 8568 milesIn the estimate of distances I have given the numbers as they occur in the text of Lemaire, although, in many cases, there is considerable doubt as to their accuracy. See the observations of Hardouin and Alexandre in Lemaire, i. 460., according to the statement of ArtemidorusArtemidorus was an Ephesian, who wrote on geography; see Hardouin's Index Auct., Lemaire, i. 167., or ac- cording to that of IsidorusIsidorus was a native of Nicæa; he appears to have been a writer on various topics in natural history, but not much estimated; see Hardouin's Index Auct., in Lemaire, i. 194., 9818 miles. Artemidorus adds to this 491 miles, from Gades, going round by the Sacred Promontory, to the promontory of ArtabrumThe modern Cape St. Vincent and Cape Finisterre., which is the most projecting part of Spain.

This measurement may be taken in two directions. From the Ganges, at its mouth, where it discharges itself into the Eastern ocean, passing through India and Parthyene, to MyriandrusThis was a city on the Sinus Issicus, the present Gulf of Aiasso, situated, according to Brotier, between the sites of the modern towns of Scanderoon and Rosos. See Lemaire, i. 461., a city of Syria, in the bay of Issus, is a distance of 5215 milesRespecting this and the other distances mentioned in this chapter, I may refer the reader to the remarks of Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 461.. Thence, going directly by sea, by the island of Cyprus, Patara in Lycia, Rhodes, and Astypalæa, islands in the Carpathian sea, by Tænarum in Laconia, Lilybæum in Sicily and Calaris in Sardinia, is 2103 miles. Thence to Gades is 1250 miles, making the whole distance from the Eastern ocean 8568 milesIt is scarcely necessary to remark, that the calculations of our author do not indicate the real distance between the extreme points of the habitable parts of the globe, as known to the ancients, but the number of miles which must be passed over by a traveller, in going from place to place; in the first instance, a considerable part of the way by sea, and, in the second, almost entirely by land..

The other way, which is more certain, is chiefly by land. From the Ganges to the Euphrates is 5169 miles; thence to Mazaca, a town in Cappadocia, is 319 miles; thence, through Phrygia and Caria, to Ephesus is 415 miles; from Ephesus, across the Ægean sea to Delos, is 200 miles; to the Isthmus is 212 1/2 miles; thence, first by land and afterwards by the sea of Lechæum and the gulf of Corinth, to Patræ in Peloponnesus, 90 miles; to the promontory of Leucate 87 1/2 miles; as much more to Corcyra; to the Acroceraunian mountains 132 1/2, to Brundisium 87 1/2, and to Rome 360 miles. To the Alps, at the village of ScingomagumIt appears to be difficult to ascertain the identity of the place here mentioned; I may refer to the remarks of Hardouin and Brotier in Le- maire, i. 464., is 519 miles; through Gaul to Illiberis at the Pyrenees, 927; to the ocean and the coast of Spain, 331 miles; across the passage of Gades 7 1/2 miles; which distances, according to the estimate of Artemidorus, make altogether 8945 miles.

The breadth of the earth, from south to north, is commonly supposed to be about one-half only of its length, viz. 4490 miles; hence it is evident how much the heat has stolen from it on one side and the cold on the other: for I do not suppose that the land is actually wanting, or that the earth has not the form of a globe; but that, on each side, the uninhabitable parts have not been discovered. This measure then extends from the coast of the Æthiopian ocean, the most distant part which is habitable, to Meroë, 1000 milesThe same remarks may be made upon this and the following numbers as upon those in the former paragraph; for further information I shall refer my readers to the notes of Hardouin, Brotier, and Alexandre, in Lemaire, i. 465–468.; thence to Alexandria 1250; to Rhodes 562; to Cnidos 87 1/2; to Cos 25; to Samos 100; to Chios 94; to Mitylene 65; to Tenedos 44; to the promontory of Sigæum 12 1/2; to the entrance of the Euxine 312 1/2; to the promontory of Carambis 350; to the entrance of the Palus Mæotis 312 1/2; and to the mouth of the Tanais 275 miles, which distance, if we went by sea, might be shortened 89 miles. Beyond the Tanais the most diligent authors have not been able to obtain any accurate measurement. Artemidorus supposes that everything beyond is undiscovered, since he confesses that, about the Tanais, the tribes of the Sarmatæ dwell, who extend towards the north pole. Isidorus adds 1250 miles, as the distance to ThuleThere is great uncertainty respecting the locality of the Thule of the ancients; there was, in fact, nothing known respecting the locality or identity of any of the places approaching to the Arctic circle; the name appears to have been vaguely applied to some country lying to the north of the habitable parts of Europe. In note3, p. 109, I have already had occasion to offer some remarks on the locality of Thule. Our author speaks of Thule in two subsequent parts of his work, iv. 30 and vi. 39.; but this is mere conjecture. For my part, I believe that the boundaries of Sarmatia really extend to as great a distance as that mentioned above: for if it were not very extensive, how could it contain the innumerable tribes that are always changing their residence ? And indeed I consider the uninhabitable portion of the world to be still greater; for it is well known that there are innu- merable islands lying off the coast of GermanyIt is probable, that these supposed "immense islands," if they were not entirely imaginary, were the countries of Sweden and Norway, the southern extremities alone of which had been visited by the ancients., which have been only lately discovered.

The above is all that I consider worth relating about the length and the breadth of the earthStrabo, ii.; Vitruvius, i. 6; Macrobius, in Somn. Scip. ii. 20.. But EratosthenesOur author has previously referred to Eratosthenes, in the 76th chapter of this book., a man who was peculiarly well skilled in all the more subtle parts of learning, and in this above everything else, and a person whom I perceive to be approved by every one, has stated the whole of this circuit to be 252,000 stadia, which, according to the Roman estimate, makes 31,500 miles. The attempt is presumptuous, but it is supported by such subtle arguments that we cannot refuse our assent. HipparchusOur author has referred to Hipparchus, in the 9th chapter of this book., whom we must admire, both for the ability with which he controverts Eratosthenes, as well as for his diligence in everything else, has added to the above number not much less than 25,000 stadia.

(109.) Dionysodorus is certainly less worthy of confidence"Aliter, inquit, et cautius multo Dionysodorus est audiendus, qui miraculo solo nititur, quam Hipparchus et Eratosthenes, qui geometricis nituntur principiis." Hardouin in Lemaire, i. 469. Nothing further is known of Dionysodorus; see Hardouin's Index Auct. in Lemaire, i. 123.; but I cannot omit this most remarkable instance of Grecian vanity. He was a native of Melos, and was celebrated for his knowledge of geometry; he died of old age in his native country. His female relations, who inherited his property, attended his funeral, and when they had for several successive days performed the usual rites, they are said to have found in his tomb an epistle written in his own name to those left above; it stated that he had descended from his tomb to the lowest part of the earth, and that it was a distance of 42,000 stadia. There were not wanting certain geometricians, who interpreted this epistle as if it had been sent from the middle of the globe, the point which is at the greatest distance from the surface, and which must necessarily be the centre of the sphere. Hence the estimate has been made that it is 252,000 stadia in circumference.

That harmonical proportion, which compels nature to be always consistent with itself, obliges us to add to the above measure, 12,000 stadia; and this makes the earth one ninety-sixth part of the whole universe.

Summary.—The facts, statements, and observations contained in this Book amount in number to 417.

Roman Authors Quoted.—M. VarroMarcus Terentius Varro. He was born B.C. 116, espoused the cause of Pompey against Cæsar, and served as his lieutenant in Spain. He afterwards became reconciled to Cæsar, and died in the year B.C. 26. He is said to have written 500 volumes, but nearly all his works are lost (destroyed, it is said, by order of Pope Gregory VII.). His only remains are a Treatise on Agriculture, a Treatise on the Latin Tongue, and the fragments of a work called Analogia., Sulpicius GallusC. Sulpicius Gallus was Consul in the year 166 B.C. He wrote a Roman History, and a work on the Eclipses of the Sun and Moon., Titus CæsarTitus Vespasianus, the Emperor, to whom Pliny dedicates his work. His poem is mentioned in c. 22 of this Book. See pages 1, 2, and 55 of the present volume. the Emperor, Q. TuberoIt is most probable that Quintus Ælius Pætus Tubero is here meant. He was son-in-law, and, according to Cicero, nephew of Æmilius Paulus, and Consul in the year B.C. 167. There are two other persons found mentioned of the name of Q. Ælius Tubero., Tullius TiroThe freedman and amanuensis of Cicero. He was a man of great learning, and was supposed to have invented short-hand. He also wrote a Life of Cicero., L. PisoLucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi. He was Consul in the year B.C. 133, and was a stout opponent of the Gracchi. He wrote Annals of the History of Rome from the earliest periods., T. LiviusLivy, the well-known Roman historian., Cornelius NeposHe was the intimate friend of Cicero, and wrote Chronicles or Annals, in three books, a Life of Cicero, and some other historical works. A work still exists, called "Lives of Eminent Commanders," which is ascribed sometimes to him and sometimes to one Æmilius Probus, a writer of the reign of Theodosius. The latter probably abridged the original work of Nepos., SebosusStatius Sebosus. He is mentioned by Cicero as the friend of Catulus. He wrote a work called the "Periplus," and another on the Wonders of India., Cælius AntipaterA Roman historian and lawyer, who flourished about B.C. 124. He wrote a Book of Annals, in which was contained a valuable account of the Second Punic war. This work was epitomized by Brutus and held in high estimation by the Emperor Adrian., FabianusFabianus Papirius, a Roman rhetorician and naturalist, whose works are highly commended by Pliny and Seneca. He wrote a History of Animals, and a book on Natural Causes., AntiasQuintus Valerius Antias. He flourished about B.C. 80, and wrote the Annals of Rome, down to the time of Sylla., MucianusMarcus Licinius Crassus Mucianus. He was instrumental in raising the Emperor Vespasian to the throne, and was Consul in the years A.D. 52, 70, and 74. He published three Books of Epistles, and a History in eleven Books, which appears to have treated chiefly of Eastern affairs., CæcinaAulus Cæcina. He was sent into exile by Cæsar, joined the Pompeians in Africa, and was taken prisoner by Cæsar, but his life was spared. Cicero wrote several letters to him, and commends his abilities. His work appears to have been on Divination as practised by the Etrurians., who wrote on the Etruscan discipline, TarquitiusHe appears to have been a diviner or soothsayer of Etruria, and to have written a work on Etruscan prodigies., who did the same, Julius AquilaHe also wrote a work on Etruscan divination, but it does not appear that anything further is known of him., who also did the same, and SergiusSergius Paulus. He is also mentioned in the Index to the 18th Book. Nothing further seems to be known of him..

Foreign Authors Quoted.—PlatoThe greatest, with the exception of Aristotle, of the Greek Philosophers, and the disciple of Socrates., HipparchusA native of Nicæa in Bithynia, who flourished B.C. 160. He is called the "Father" of Astronomy. He wrote a Commentary on the Phænomena of Aratus and Eudoxus, which is still extant. His works, including those on the Lunar Month and the Fixed Stars, have not come down to us. His Catalogue of the Stars is preserved in the Almagest of Ptolemy., TimæusTimæus of Locri in Italy, a Pythagorean philosopher, said to have been the instructor of Plato. He wrote a work on Mathematics. A work "On the Soul of the World and of Nature," which is still extant, has been ascribed to him, but on doubtful grounds., SosigenesAn astronomer and peripatetic philosopher of Alexandria. He was employed by Julius Cæsar to superintend his revision of the Calendar. It is supposed that he wrote a work on the Celestial Revolutions, and a Commentary on the works of Aristotle., PetosirisA priest, mathematician, and astrologer of Egypt. A Letter on the Astrological Sciences, written by him to King Necepsos, is said to be extant in the Royal Library at Vienna, as also a work called the "Organum Astrologicum," dedicated to the same king. Juvenal seems to use his name as a common term for an astrologer., NecepsosHe is mentioned by Julius Firmicus as "a most just emperor of Egypt, and a very good astronomer." A work by him is quoted by Galen in his tenth Book on Simples, but it was most probably of spurious origin., the Pythago- rean"Pythagoricis" here may either mean the works of the followers of Pythagoras of Samos, or the books which were written by that philosopher. Pliny, in Books 19, 20, and 24, speaks of several writings of Pythagoras, and Diogenes Laertius mentions others; but it is more generally supposed that he wrote nothing, and that everything that passed by his name in ancient times was spurious. Philosophers, PosidoniusA Stoic philosopher of Apamea in Syria. He was the instructor of Cicero, and the friend of Pompey. He wrote works on history, divination, the tides, and the nature of the gods. Some fragments only have survived., AnaximanderOf Miletus, was born B.C. 610, and was the successor of Thales, the founder of the Ionian school of philosophy. He is said to have first taught the obliquity of the ecliptic and the use of the gnomon., EpigenesA philosopher of Rhodes or Byzantium. Seneca says that he boasted of having studied astronomy among the Chaldeans. He is mentioned by Varro and Columella as having written on rural matters, and is praised by Censorinus. the philosopher who wrote on Gnomonics, EuclidOf Alexandria, the great geometrician, and instructor of Ptolemy I. He was the founder of the mathematical school of Alexandria., CoeranusHe was a Greek by birth, and lived in the time of Nero. He is extolled by Tacitus, B. 14, for his superlative wisdom, beyond which nothing is known of him. the philosopher, EudoxusOf Cnidus, an astronomer and legislator who flourished B.C. 366. He was a friend and disciple of Plato, and said to have been the first who taught in Greece the motions of the planets. His works on astronomy and geometry are lost, but his Phænomena have been preserved by Aratus, who turned his prose into verse., DemocritusBorn at Abdera in Thrace, about B.C. 460. He was one of the founders of the atomic theory, and looked upon peace of mind as the summum bonum of mortals. He wrote works on the nature and organization of the world, on physics, on contagious maladies, on the chameleon, and on other subjects., CritodemusA Grecian astronomer. A work of his, called "Apotelesmatica," is said to be preserved in the Imperial Library at Vienna., ThrasyllusAn astrologer of Rhodes, patronized by Augustus and Tiberius. He wrote a work on Stones, and a History of Egypt. Tacitus, in his Annals, B. vi., speaks highly of his skill in astrology., SerapionA geographer of Antioch, and an opponent of the views of Eratosthenes. Cicero declares that he himself was unable to understand a thousandth part of his work., DicæarchusA Peripatetic philosopher and geographer, of Messina in Sicily. He studied under Aristotle and wrote several works, the principal of which was an account of the history, geography, and moral and religious condition of Greece. A few fragments only are extant., ArchimedesOf Syracuse, the most famous mathematician of antiquity, born B.C. 287. A few only of his works have come down to us, published at Oxford in 1792, by Torelli., Onesi- critusBorn either at Astypalæa or Ægina. He was chief pilot of the fleet of Alexander during the descent of the Indus and the voyage to the Persian Gulf. He wrote a work called the "Alexandropædia," or Education of Alexander. In his description of what he saw in India, many fables and falsehoods are said to have been interwoven, so much so that the work (which is now lost) is said to have resembled a fable more than a history., EratosthenesOf Cyrene, born B.C. 276. He was invited from Athens by Ptolemy Euergetes, to become keeper of the library at Alexandria. He was a man of most extensive erudition, as an astronomer, geographer, philosopher, historian and grammarian. All of his writings have perished, with the exception of a few fragments on geographical subjects., PytheasOf Massilia, now Marseilles, a celebrated navigator who flourished about the time of Alexander the Great. In his voyages he visited Britain and Thule, of which he probably gave some account in his work "on the Ocean." He has been wrongfully accused of falsehood by Strabo. Another work written by him was his "Periplus," or 'Circumnavigation' from Gades to the Tanais, probably, in this instance, the Elbe., HerodotusOf Halicarnassus, the father of Grecian history; born B.C. 484. Besides his great work which has come down to us, he is supposed to have written a history of Arabia., AristotleProbably the most learned of the Greek philosophers. His works were exceedingly numerous, and those which have survived to us treat of natural history, metaphysics, physical science, ethics, logic, and general literature., CtesiasA native of Cnidus in Caria, and private physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, having been made prisoner by him at the battle of Cunaxa. He wrote a History of Persia in 23 books, which, with the exception of a small abridgement by Photius and a few fragments, is now lost. He also wrote a book on India. He was much censured, probably without sufficient reason, for the credulity displayed in his works., ArtemidorusOf Ephesus, a geographer, who lived about B.C. 100. He wrote a Periplus, and a work on Geography; a few fragments only of abridgements of these have survived. of Ephesus, IsidorusOf Charax in Parthia, of which country he wrote an account which still exists. He flourished in the reign of Augustus. of Charax, and TheopompusOf Chios, a celebrated historian, and disciple of the orator Isocrates. His principal works were a History of Greece, and a Life of Philip of Macedon, father of Alexander the Great..

Thus far have I treated of the position and the wonders of the earth, of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of the universe and its dimensions. I shall now proceed to describe its individual parts; although indeed we may with reason look upon the task as of an infinite nature, and one not to be rashly commenced upon without incurring censure. And yet, on the other hand, there is nothing which ought less to require an apology, if it is only considered how far from surprising it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted with everything. I shall therefore not follow any single author, but shall employ, in relation to each subject, such writers as I shall look upon as most worthy of credit. For, indeed, it is the characteristic of nearly all of them, that they display the greatest care and accuracy in the description of the countries in which they respectively flourished; so that by doing this, I shall neither have to blame nor contradict any one.

The names of the different places will here be simply given, and as briefly as possible; the account of their celebrity, and the events which have given rise thereto, being deferred to a more appropriate occasion; for it must be remembered that I am here speaking of the earth as a whole, and I wish to be understood as using the names without any reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the places themselves were in their infancy, and had not as yet acquired any fame through great events. The name is men- tioned, it is true, but only as forming a part of the world and the system of the universe.

The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Our description commences where the sun sets and at the Straits of GadesNow the Straits of Gibraltar., where the Atlantic ocean, bursting in, is poured forth into the inland seas. As it makes its entrance from that side, Africa is on the right hand and Europe on the left; Asia lies between themThis is said more especially in reference to the western parts of Asia, the only portion which was perfectly known to the ancients. His meaning is, that Asia as a portion of the globe does not lie so far north as Europe, nor so far south as Africa.; the boundaries being the rivers TanaisNow the Don. It was usually looked upon as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Pliny's meaning seems to be, that the Tanais divides Asia from Europe, and the Nile, Asia from Africa, the more especially as the part to the west of the Nile was sometimes considered as belonging to Asia. It has been however suggested that he intends to assign these rivers as the extreme eastern boundaries of the internal or Mediterranean sea. and Nile. The Straits of the ocean, of which I have just spoken, extend fifteen miles in length and fiveAt no spot are the Straits less than ten miles in width; although D'Anville makes the width to be little less than five miles. This passage of our author is probably in a corrupt state. in breadth, measured from the village of MellariaThis probably stood near the site of the town of Tarifa of the present day. in Spain to the Album PromontoriumProbably the point called 'Punta del Sainar' at the present day. or White Promontory in Africa, as we learn from Turranius Gracilis, who was born in that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos however have stated the breadth, where it is least, to be seven miles, and where greatest, ten; from so small a mouth as this does so immense an expanse of water open upon us! Nor is our astonishment diminished by the fact of its being of great depth; for, instead of that, there are numerous breakers and shoals, white with foam, to strike the mariner with alarm. From this circumstance it is, that many have called this spot the threshold of The Inland Sea.

At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains placed to form barriers to the entrance on either side, AbylaNow called Ximiera, Jebel-el-Mina, or Monte del Hacho. in Africa, and CalpeThe Rock of Gibraltar. in Europe, the boundaries formerly of the labours of HerculesThe fable was that they originally formed one mountain, which was torn asunder by Hercules, or as Pliny says, "dug through.". Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the Columns of that god; they also believe that they were dug through by him; upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained admission, and so changed the face of nature.

I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that people which has conquered all other nations, and itself by far the most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many persons have, not without reasonThis was the opinion of Herodotus, but it had been so strenuously combated by Polybius and other writers before the time of Pliny, that it is difficult to imagine how he should countenance it., considered it, not as a third part only of the earth, but as equal to all the rest, looking upon the whole of our globe as divided into two parts only, by a line drawn from the river Tanais to the Straits of Gades. The ocean, after pouring the waters of the Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described, and, in its eager progress, overwhelming all the lands which have had to dread its approach, skirts with its winding course the shores of those parts which offer a more effectual resistance, hollowing out the coast of Europe especially into numerous bays, among which there are four Gulfs that are more particularly remarkable. The first of these begins at Calpe, which I have previously mentioned, the most distant mountain of Spain; and bends, describing an immense curve, as far as Locri and the Promontory of BruttiumHe probably alludes to Leucopetra, now called Capo dell' Armi. Locri Epizephyrii was a town of Bruttium, situate north of the promontory of Zephyrium, now called Capo di Bruzzano..

The first land situate upon this Gulf is that which is called the Farther Spain or BæticaSo called from the Bætis, now the Guadalquivir or Great River.; next to which, beginning at the frontier town of UrgiThe situation of this town is not known, but it is supposed to have been about five leagues from the present city of Mujacar, or Moxacar. It was situate on the Sinus Urgitanus., is the Nearer, or TarraconensianSo called from the city of Tarraco, on the site of the present Tarragona. Spain, extending as far as the chain of the Pyrenees. The Farther Spain is divided lengthwise into two provinces, LusitaniaCorresponding nearly in extent with the present kingdom of Portugal. and Bætica, the former stretching along the northern side of the latter, and being divided from it by the river AnaNow Gaudiana, a corruption of the Arabic Wadi Ana, "the river Ana.". The source of this river is in the district of LaminiumAccording to Hardouin this place is the modern town of Montiel, but Pinet and D'Anville make it the same as Alhambra., in the Nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of small lakes, and then again contracts itself into a narrow channel, or entirely disappears under groundAccording to modern writers it conceals itself in this manner for a distance of fifteen miles., and after frequently disappearing and again coming to light, finally dis- charges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. Tarraconensian Spain lies on one side, contiguous to the Pyrenees, running down- wards along the sides of that chain, and, stretching across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic oceanFrom the Balearic Channel to the Gulf of Gascony or Bay of Biscay., is separated from Bætica and Lusitania by Mount SoloriusProbably the Sierra Nevada is meant by this name; Hardouin considers it the same as the Sierra de los Vertientes., the chains of the OretaniProbably the Sierra Morena. and the CarpetaniThe Monte de Toledo., and that of the AsturesThe Sierra de las Asturias..

Bætica, so called from the river which divides it in the middle, excels all the other provinces in the richness of its cultivation and the peculiar fertility and beauty of its vegetation.

It consists of four jurisdictions, those of GadesThe present Cadiz. It was originally a Phœnician colony., of CordubaNow Cordova., of AstigiNow Ecija., and of HispaliNow Seville.. The total number of its towns is 175; of these nine are coloniesThe Roman colonies or colonies "civium Romanorum" are those here meant. The colonists in such case enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizens, the town in which they lived being founded under the supervision of the Roman magistracy., and eight muni- cipal towns"Municipia." These were towns in conquered countries which were not founded by the Romans, but whose inhabitants retained their original institutions, at the same time receiving certain of the rights of Roman citizens; most frequently, immunity to a greater or less degree from payment of tribute.; twenty-nine have been long since presented with the old Latin rights"Latium ;" also called "Jus Latii" and "Latinitas." This was the name given to those circumscribed or limited rights as Roman citizens which were at first bestowed upon the conquered states of Italy, before the time of the Social War. Indeed the Latinus held a kind of intermediate state between the Civis Romanus with all his rights, and the peregrinus or foreigner with all his disabilities. These Latin rights were afterwards extended to the people of other countries, but retained their original name.; six are free townsThe free towns were those, the inhabitants of which were at liberty to enjoy their ancient institutions and modes of internal government, though at the same time they enjoyed none of the privileges of Roman citizens., three federate"Fœderati civitates ;" the inhabitants of which were called 'federati' or 'socii.' They were in alliance with the Romans, but in some cases paid them tribute in the same manner as the 'stipendiaria' next mentioned. In some instances they also enjoyed the Latin rights., and 120 tributary.

In this district, the things that more especially deserve notice, or are more easily explained in the Latin tongue, are the following, beginning at the river Ana, along the line of the seashore; the town of Onoba, surnamed ÆstuariaFrom the numerous creeks or estuaries with which the coast is here indented. Commentators are at a loss for the site of the town of Onoba (or Ossonoba according to some readings). D'Anville considers it to be the same with the present town of Moguer; other commentators have suggested Gibraleon, and the vicinity of Palos.; the rivers Luxia and UriumThe Odiel and the Tinto; the Urium being supposed to be the same with the Tinto of the present day., flowing through this territory between the Ana and the Bætis; the MarianSome readings have "Hareni montes," and others "Arenæ montes," the "mountains of sand." There is no doubt that the sandy heights or downs on this coast are here meant, which are called at the present day "Dunes" by the French, and by the natives "Arenas gordas." Mountains; the river Bætis; the coast of CorumProbably the line of sea-shore between Roia and the city of Cadiz, skirting the Bay of Cadiz. Hardouin however thinks that the coast between the Guadalquivir and the Guadalete is meant, now occupied in part by the town of San Lucar de Barameda., with its winding bay; opposite to which is Gades, of which we shall have occasion to speak among the islandsIn the Fourth Book, c. 36.. Next comes the Promontory of JunoThe present Cape Trafalgar., and the port of BæsippoHardouin says that the present Vejer is the place meant, while others have suggested Puerto de Santa Maria, or Cantillana. Others again identify it with Bejer de la Frontera, though that place probably lies too far inland. The Roman ruins near Porto Barbato were probably its site.; the towns of BœloHardouin and other commentators suggest that the site of the present Tarifa is here meant; it is more probable however that D'Anville is right in suggesting the now deserted town of Bolonia. and MellariaProbably the present Tarifa., at which latter begin the Straits of the Atlantic; CarteiaThe exact site of Carteia is unknown; but it is generally supposed to have stood upon the bay which opens out of the straits on the west of the Rock of Gibraltar, now called the Bay of Algesiras or Gibraltar; and upon the hill at the head of the bay of El Rocadillo, about half-way between Algesiras and Gibraltar., called by the Greeks TartessosWe learn also from Strabo, that Tartessus was the same place as Carteia; it is not improbable that the former was pretty nearly the Phoenician name of the place, and the latter a Roman corruption of it, and that in it originated the 'Tarshish' of Scripture, an appellation apparently given to the whole of the southern part of the Spanish peninsula. Probably the Greeks preserved the appellation of the place more in conformity with the original Phoenician name.; and the mountain of Calpe.

Along the coast of the inland seaBy the "inland sea" Pliny means the Mediterranean, in contradistinction to the Atlantic Ocean without the Straits of Cadiz. is the town of BarbesulaThe ruins of this place, probably, are still to be seen on the east bank of the river Guadiaro, here alluded to. with its river; also SaldubaWith its river flowing by it. This place is probably the present Marbella, situate on the Rio Verde.; the town of SuelProbably the present Castillo de Torremolinos, or else Castillo de Fuengirola.; and then MalacaThe present city of Malaga. Hardouin thinks that the river Guadalquivirejo is here meant, but as that is some miles distant from the city, it is more probable that the Guadalmedina, which is much nearer to it, is the stream alluded to., with its river, one of the federate towns. Next to this comes MænobaNot improbably Velez Malaga, upon a river of the same name. Hardouin thinks that the place is the modern Torrox on the Fiu Frio, and D'Anville the present city of Almunecar, on the Rio Verde., with its river; then SexifirmumMost probably the present Almunecar, but it is uncertain. D'Anville says the present Torre de Banas; others have suggested the town of Motril., surnamed Julium; SelambinaNow Salobrena.; AbderaEither the present Adra or Abdera: it is uncertain which.; and MurciProbably the present Mujacar. D'Anville suggests Almeria., which is at the boundary of Bætica. M. Agrippa supposed that all this coast was peopled by colonists of Punic origin. Beyond the Anas, and facing the Atlantic, is the country of the BastuliAlso called Bastitani, a mixed race, partly Iberian and partly Phœnician. and the Turditani. M. Varro informs us, that the Iberians, the Persians, the Phœnicians, the Celts, and the Carthaginians spread themselves over the whole of Spain; that the name "Lusitania" is derived from the games (lusus) of Father Bacchus, or the fury (lyssaThe Greek Lu/ssa, "frantic rage" or "madness." The etymologies here suggested are puerile in the extreme.) of his frantic attendants, and that PanPlutarch, quoting from the Twelfth Book of the Iberica of Sosthenes, tells us that, "After Bacchus had conquered Iberia [the present Spain], he left Pan to act as his deputy, and he changed its name and called the country Pania, after himself, which afterwards became corrupted into Spania." was the governor of the whole of it. But the traditions respecting HerculesHe alludes to the expedition of Hercules into Spain, of which Diodorus Siculus makes mention; also his courtship of the nymph Pyrene, the daughter of Bebryx, who was buried by him on the Pyrenæan mountains, which thence derived their name. and Pyrene, as well as Saturn, I conceive to be fabulous in the highest degree.

The Bætis does not rise, as some writers have asserted, near the town of MentisaIt is unknown where this town was situate; Hardouin and D'Anville think it was on the site of the present village of San Thome, once an episcopal see, now removed to Jaen. The people of Mentisa, mentioned in c. 4, were probably inhabitants of a different place. D'Anville in his map has two Mentisas, one 'Oretana,' the other 'Bastitana., in the province of Tarraco, but in the Tugiensian ForestAccording to D'Anville, the place now called Toia.; and near it rises the river TaderNow the Segura., which waters the territory of Carthage'Nova' or 'New' Carthage, so called from having been originally founded by a colony of Carthaginians B.C. 242. It was situate a little to the west of the Saturni Promontorium, or Promontory of Palos. It was taken by Scipio Africanus the elder B.C. 210.. At IlorcumThe present Lorca. it turns away from the Funeral PileThis place is even now called by the inhabitants Sepulcro de Scipion. Cneius Cornelius Scipio Calvus, after the defeat of his brother P. Cornelius Scipio, in the year B.C. 211, by the forces of Asdrubal and Mago, fled to a tower at this spot, which was set fire to by the troops of Asdrubal, and he perished in the flames. of Scipio; then taking a sweep to the left, it falls into the Atlantic Ocean, giving its name to this province: at its source it is but small, though during its course it receives many other streams, which it deprives as well of their waters as their renown. It first enters Bætica in Ossigita-niaSo called from the town of Ossigi afterwards mentioned., and glides gently, with a smooth current, past many towns situate on either side of its banks.

Between this river and the sea-shore the most celebrated places inland are SegidaIt is unknown where this place stood; Medina Sidonia has been suggested., also surnamed Augurina; JuliaProbably the present Fuentes del Rey, between Andujar and Jaen, according to Pinet., called Fidentia; UrgaoD'Anville suggests that this is the present Arjona; but more probably it was the village of Arjonilla, two leagues south of Andujar. Gruter has an inscription found here, "MUNIC ALBENSE URGOANON." or Alba, EboraThere were five cities of this name in Spain. Hardouin thinks that this is the modern Alcala la Real, between Granada and Cordova. or Cerealis, IliberriMost probably the modern Sierra de Elvira, though some writers have suggested the city of Granada. or Liberini, IlipulaProbably near the modern Montilla. Hardouin takes it to be the present Granada. or Laus, ArtigiPoinsinet thinks that this is the present Ecija, but other writers take it to be Alhama, between Granada and Malaga. or Julienses, VesciPerhaps the present Archidona. Some writers have suggested the modern Faventia and Velez. or Faventia, SingiliProbably near the present Puente de Don Gonzalo, on the banks of the Rio Genil., AtteguaProbably near Aguilar on the river Cabra; or else the present Teba, between Osuna and Antequera., Arialdunum, Agla MinorAgla the Less., BæbroProbably the present Cabra. The sites of the two preceding towns are not known., Castra Vinaria"The Encampment in the Vineyards." Probably this was the same as the Castra Postumiana mentioned by Hirtius in his Book on the Spanish War as being four miles from Attegua. It appears to be the present Castro, or Castro el Rio, situate on the banks of the river Guadajoz., CisimbriumIn some readings "Episibrium." Probably the present Espeja., Hippo Nova or New HippoIts present site is unknown., IlurcoAccording to D'Anville, the present Puente de Pinos, six leagues north of Granada. Others take it to be Illora, south of Alcala la Real., OscaThe present Huesca, according to Hardouin; more probably, however, Huector, on the banks of the river Genil., EscuaPerhaps Escusar, five leagues from Granada. But according to some it is the same as Truelo or Eruelo., SucuboCalled Ucubis by Hirtius. Morales suggests that it is Sierra la Ronda, but Pinet says Stoponda., Nuditanum, Old TuatiThe sites of this and the preceding place are unknown.; all which towns are in that part of Bastitania which extends towards the sea, but in the jurisdictionIn relation to the 'conventus juridicus,' we may here observe that under the Roman sway, in order to facilitate the administration of justice, a province was divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of which was so called, as also 'forum' or 'jurisdictio.' At certain times of the year fixed by the proconsul or chief magistrate, the people assembled in the chief town of the district (whence the name 'conventus'), upon which judges were selected to try the causes of litigant parties. of Corduba. In the neighbourhood of the river itself is OssigiProbably near the town at the present day called Espelui. Strabo, in Book iii., tells us that Laconian institutions and customs were prevalent in some parts of Spain., also surnamed Laconicum, IliturgiThis place was ravaged by fire and levelled with the ground by the troops of Scipio, in consequence of the vigorous defence they had made, and the losses they had caused to the Roman army. It probably stood about four miles from the present city of Baeza. or Forum Julium, IpasturgiThe sites of this place and the next are unknown. or Triumphale, Setia, and, fourteen miles inland, ObulcoMost probably the present town of Porcuna. Ubeda or Ubedos has also been suggested., which is also called Pontificense.

Next to these comes EporaThe present town of Montoro., a federate town, SaciliNow Alcoorrucen, near Perabad. Martialium, and OnobaAnsart suggests that the reading is not Sacili of the Martiales, but Onoba of the Martiales, to distinguish it from Onoba Æstuaria, previously mentioned. It is not improbable that the place was so called from the Martian or Martial legion having originally colonized it. The site of Onoba is unknown.. On the right bank is Corduba, a Roman colony, surnamed PatriciaCordova was so called from the great number of patricians, who were among the original colonists, when it was founded by Marcellus. To the present day it is noted for the pride of its nobles. The Great Captain Gonzalo de Cordova used to say, that "other towns might be better to live in, but there was none better to be born in." It was the birth-place of Lucan and the two Senecas.; here the Bætis first becomes navigable. There are also the towns of Carbula and DetundaThe site of these two places is unknown at the present day., and the river SingulisNow called by the similar name of Genil or Xenil., which falls into the Bætis on the same side.

The towns in the jurisdiction of Hispalis are the following: Celti, AruaPerhaps the present Alcolea., CanamaPerhaps the Cantillana of the present day: there is, however, the greatest uncertainty as to the sites of these places., Evia, IlipaAccording to Hardouin, the modern city of Penaflor: D'Anville places it about two leagues thence, and near the city of Lora., surnamed Illa, and ItalicaNow Sevilla la Vieja, or Old Seville; called by the lower classes Santi-pone.. On the left of the river is the colony of HispalisNow Seville. This colony was founded by Julius Cæsar, and also bore the name of Julia Romula. named Romuliensis, and, on the opposite sideOr north side of the river., the town of OssetProbably on the site of the present Alcala del Rio., surnamed Julia Constantia, Vergentum, or Juli Genius'The [good] genius of Julius,' probably meaning Cæsar. Nothing seems to be known of its site., Orippo, CauraCaura may be the present Coria, a town three leagues from Seville., Siarum, and the river MenobaProbably the Rio Guadalete., which enters the Bætis on its right bank. Between the æstuaries of the Bætis lie the towns of NebrissaEither the present Sebrija, or in the vicinity of the city of San Lucar., surnamed Veneria, and of ColobonaProbably the present Bonania.. The colonies are, AstaProbably between Trebujena and the city of Xeres. It was the usual place of meeting for the people of the territory of Gades; and its importance may be judged from its appellation 'Regia' or 'royal,' and its numerous coins. Its ruins are still to be seen on a hill there., which is also called Regia, and, more inland, that of AsidoIt is not improbable that this was the present city of Xeres. Some geographers however take it to be that of Medina Sidonia, and look upon Xeres as the site of the ancient Asta., surnamed Cæsariana.

The river Singulis, discharging itself into the Bætis at the place already mentioned, washes the colony of AstigiNow Ecija. It stood on the plain of the Bætis, some distance south of the river, on its tributary the Singulis or Xenil., sur- named Augusta Firma, at which place it becomes navigable. The other colonies in this jurisdiction which are exempt from tribute are Tucci, surnamed Augusta GemellaThe site of this place is unknown. It probably obtained its name from being a colony of one of the legions, the 7th, 10th, 13th or 14th; which were called 'geminæ' or 'gemellæ,' from being composed of the men of two legions originally., Itucci called Virtus Julia"The Valour of Julius." Sanson places it not far from Miragenil., Attubi or Claritas Julia"The Fame of Julius." Perhaps the present Olivera, or else Teba, six leagues to the south of Estepa., UrsoThe present city of Ossuna. "Genua Urbanorum" would seem to mean "the knees of the citizens." Though all the MSS. agree in this reading, it probably is an error for "gemina Urbanorum," and it may have been a colony of one of the legions called 'geminæ' or 'gemellæ,' as previously mentioned. The other part of its appellation may possibly have originated in the fact of its first inhabitants being all natives of the city of Rome. or Genua Urbanorum; and among them in former times MundaThe use of the word fuit, 'was,' implies that the place had been destroyed. Cneius Pompeius, the eldest son of Pompey the Great, was defeated at Munda, in the year B.C. 45, and the town destroyed. Pompey escaped from the battle, but was taken a short time after and put to death. The site of the ancient town is very generally supposed to be the modern village of Monda, S.W. of Malaga, and about three leagues from the sea. It is more probable however that it was in the vicinity of Cordova, and there are ruins of ancient walls and towers between Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and Baena, which are supposed to denote its site., which was taken with the son of Pompey. The free towns are Old AstigiNow Alameda; eight leagues from the other Astiji or Ecija. and OstippoNow Estepa, six leagues from Ecija.; the tributary towns are Callet, Callecula, Castra Gemina, the Lesser Ilipula, Merucra, Sacrana, ObulculaPerhaps Mancloua, between the towns of Ecija and Carmona; the sites of all the other places here mentioned appear to be quite unknown., and Oningis. As you move away from the sea-coast, near where the river Menoba is navigable, you find, at no great distance, the Alontigiceli and the AlostigiSanson supposes the Alostigi to have inhabited the territory near Almagia, between Malaga and Antiqueira..

The country which extends from the Bætis to the river Anas, beyond the districts already described, is called Bæturia, and is divided into two parts and the same number of nations; the CelticiThe Celtici are supposed to have inhabited the country between the Guadiana and Guadalquivir, the eastern parts of Alentejo and the west of Estremadura, as far as the city of Badajoz., who border upon Lusitania, in the ju- risdiction of Hispalis, and the Turduli, who dwell on the vergeProbably part of Estremadura, and the vicinity of Badajoz in an easterly direction. of Lusitania and Tarraconensis, and are under the protection of the laws of Corduba. It is evident that the Celtici have sprung from the Celtiberi, and have come from Lusitania, from their religious rites, their language, and the names of their towns, which in Bætica are distinguished by the following epithetsThe exact meaning of this passage is somewhat obscure, but he probably means to say that the Celtici have an identity of sacred rites, language, and names of towns with the Celtiberians; though it had become the usage in Bætica more generally to distinguish the towns by their Roman names., which have been given to them. Seria has received the surname of Fama Julia"The Fame of Julius." Its site is not known., Nertobriga that of Concordia Julia"The Concord of Julius." Probably the same as the modern Valera la Vega, near Frejenal., Segida that of Restituta JuliaProbably meaning "Restored by Julius." Nothing is known of its site., and ContributaAccording to an authority quoted by Hardouin, this may possibly be Medina de las Torres. that of Julia. What is now Curiga was formerly Ucultuniacum, Constantia JuliaProbably Constantina in Andalusia, to the north of Penaflor. was Laconimurgis, the present Fortunales were the TeresesThe tribe or nation of the Tereses are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of the modern San Nicolo del Puerto., and the Emanici were the CallensesCalentum was their town; probably the present Cazalla near Alaniz. This place will be found mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 14.. Besides these, there are in Celtica the towns of AcinippoThe ruins two leagues north of Ronda la Vieja are supposed to be those of this place. There are the remains of an aqueduct and theatre, and numerous coins are found here., ArundaProbably the present Ronda la Vieja., AruciIdentified by inscriptions with the present Aroche. The sites of several of the following places are unknown., Turobriga, Lastigi, Salpesa, Sæpone, and Serippo.

The other Bæturia, which we have mentioned, is inhabited by the Turduli, and, in the jurisdiction of Corduba, has some towns which are by no means inconsiderable; ArsaThe Azuaga of modern times; but, according to Hardouin, Argallen., MellariaAccording to Hardouin this was on the site of the modern Fuente de la Ovejuna, fourteen leagues from Cordova., MirobrigaThis has been identified by inscriptions with the modern Villa de Capilla., and SisapoAccording to Hardouin, the modern Almaden de la Plata., in the district of Osintias.

To the jurisdiction of Gades belongs Regina, with Roman citizens; and Læpia, UliaProbably the same as the modern Monte Major., CarisaThe ruins of this place are probably those seen at Carixa, near Bornos, in the vicinity of Seville. surnamed Aurelia, UrgiaAccording to Hardouin, the same as the modern Las Cabezas, not far from Lebrija. or Castrum Julium, likewise called Cæsaris Salutariensis, all of which enjoy the Latian rights. The tributary towns are Besaro, BelippoThe sites of these two towns are unknown. Bæsippo, Barbesula and Callet have been already mentioned., Barbesula, Lacippo, Bæsippo, Callet, Cappacum, Oleastro, Ituci, Brana, Lacibi, SaguntiaThe ruins of Saguntia are to be seen between Arcos and Xeres della Frontera, on the river Guadalete; they bear their ancient name under the form of Cigonza. Mela, B. iii. c. 1, says that Oleastro was a grove near the Bay of Cadiz. Brana was probably the same place that is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Urbona., and Audorisæ.

M. Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this province to be 475 milesWe may here mention for the more correct information of the reader that the Roman mile consisted of 1000 paces, each pace being five English feet. Hence its length was 1618 English yards (taking the Roman foot at 11ċ6496 English inches), or 142 yards less than the English statute mile., and its breadth 257; but this was at a time when its boundaries extended to CarthageNova Carthago, or New Carthage., a circumstance which has often caused great errors in calculations; which are generally the result either of changes effected in the limits of provinces, or of the fact that in the reckoning of distances the length of the miles has been arbitrarily increased or diminished. In some parts too the sea has been long making encroachments upon the land, and in others again the shores have advanced; while the course of rivers in this place has become more serpentine, in that more direct. And then, besides, some writers begin their measurements at one place, and some at another, and so proceed in different directions; and hence the result is, that no two accounts agree.

(2.) At the present day the length of Bætica, from the town of CastuloNow Cazlona, on the confines of New Castile and the kingdom of Granada. It was a place of great importance, and the chief town of the Oretani. Himilce, the rich wife of Hannibal, was a native of this place., on its frontier, to Gades is 250 miles, and from Murci, which lies on the sea-coast, twenty-five miles more. The breadth, measured from the coast of Carteia, is 234 miles. Who is there that can entertain the belief that Agrippa, a man of such extraordinary diligence, and one who bestowed so much care on his subject, when he proposed to place before the eyes of the world a survey of that world, could be guilty of such a mistake as this, and that too when seconded by the late emperor the divine Augustus ? For it was that emperor who completed the PorticoThis was the 'porticus Octaviæ,' which, having been commenced by his sister Octavia, the wife of Marcellus and Antony, was completed by Augustus. It lay between the Circus Flaminius and the Theatre of Marcellus, occupying the site of the former portico, which had been built by Q. Cæcilius Metellus, and enclosing the two temples of Juno and of Jupiter Stator. It contained a public library, in which the Senate often met, and it was in this probably that the map or plan, mentioned by Pliny, was deposited. It also contained a great number of statues, paintings, and other works of art, which, with the library, were destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus. which had been begun by his sister, and in which the survey was to be kept, in conformity with the plan and descriptions of M. Agrippa.

The ancient form of the Nearer Spain, like that of many other provinces, is somewhat changed, since the time when Pompey the Great, upon the trophies which he erected in the Pyrenees, testified that 877 towns, from the Alps to the borders of the Farther Spain, had been reduced to subjection by him. The whole province is now divided into seven jurisdictions, those of CarthageNova Carthago or New Carthage, now Carthagena., of Tarraco, of Cæsar AugustaNow Zaragoza or Saragossa, on the right bank of the river Ebro. Its original name was Salduba, but it was changed in honour of Augustus, who colonized it after the Cantabrian war, B.C. 25., of CluniaThis was the most remote place of any consideration in Celtiberia, on the west. Its ruins are still to be seen on the summit of a hill surrounded with rocks, forming a natural wall between Corunna del Conde and Pennalda de Castro., of AsturicaThis was Asturica Augusta, the chief city of the nation of the Astures, and situate on one of the tributaries of the Astura, now Esta. On its site is situate the present Astorga: its ruins are very extensive., of LucusNow Lugo., and of the BracariOr Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient city there are the remains of an aqueduct and amphitheatre.. To these are to be added the islands, which will be described on another occasion, as also 293 states which are dependent on others; besides which the province contains 179 towns. Of these, twelve are colonies, thirteen, towns with the rights of Roman citizens, eighteen with the old Latian rights, one confederate, and 135 tributary.

The first people that we come to on the coast are the Bastuli; after whom, proceeding according to the order which I shall follow, as we go inland, there are the Mentesani, the Oretani, and the Carpetani on the Tagus, and next to them the Vaccæi, the Vectones, and the Celtiberian Arevaci. The towns nearest to the coast are Urci, and BareaProbably the present town of Vera near Muxacra. included in Bætica, the district of Mavitania, next to it Deitania, and then Contestania, and the colony of Carthago Nova; from the Promontory of which, known as the Promontorium SaturniThe "Promontory of Saturn," now Cabo de Palos., to the city of CæsareaD'Anville takes this place to be the port of Vacur; if so, the distance from Cape Palos is exactly 170 miles. in Mauritania, the passage is a distance of 187 miles. The remaining objects worthy of mention on the coast are the river TaderNow Segura., and the free colony of IliciThe modern town of Elche was probably built from the ruins of this place., whence the Ilicitanian GulfNow called the Gulf of Alicant. derives its name; to this colony the Icositani are subordinate.

We next have LucentumWith the Arabian El prefixed, this has formed the name of the famous port of Alicant., holding Latian rights; DianiumNow Denia, a thriving town., a tributary town; the river SucroNow called the Xucar., and in former times a town of the same name, forming the frontier of Contestania. Next is the district of Edetania, with the delightful expanse of a lakeNow called Albufera. before it, and extending backward to Celtiberia. ValentiaThe present city of Valencia., a colony, is situate three miles from the sea, after which comes the river TuriumOr Turia, now the Guadalaviar., and SaguntumOr Saguntus, famed for the fidelity of its inhabitants to the Roman cause: after a siege of nine months, rather than submit to the Carthaginians under Hannibal, they set fire to their town and perished in the flames, B.C. 219. It was rebuilt eight years afterwards and made a Roman colony. The ruins of the ancient town, which was said to have been originally founded by Greeks from Zacynthus, are still to be seen, and the ancient walls (muri veteres) give name to the present Murviedro, which is built on its site. at the same distance, a town of Roman citizens famous for its fidelity, the river UdubaNow the Murviedro, which flows past the city of that name and the town of Segorbe., and the district of the IlergaonesDertosa, the present Tortosa, is supposed to have been inhabited by them.. The IberusNow the Ebro., a river enriched by its commerce, takes its rise in the country of the Cantabri, not far from the town of JuliobrigaHardouin places this on the site of the modern Fuente de Ivero. The Ebro takes its rise in the Val de Vieso., and flows a distance of 450 miles; 260 of which, from the town of VariaAccording to D'Anville, the present Logrono. At present the Ebro only becomes navigable at Tudela, 216 miles from the sea. Other writers, however, take Varia to be the present Valtierra, near Tudela. namely, it is available for the purposes of navigation. From this river the name of Iberia has been given by the Greeks to the whole of Spain.

Next comes the district of Cossetania, the river SubiOr the Subur, now the Francoli. It flows into the sea at the port of Tarraco, now Tarragona., and the colony of Tarraco, which was built by the Scipios as CarthageThe more ancient commentators think that Carthago Vetus, or the colony of Old Carthage (now Carta la Vieja), is here alluded to, but more probably it is Carthago Nova that is meant. was by the Carthaginians. Then the district of the Ilergetes, the town of SuburOn the Subi, previously mentioned; now called Villa Nova., and the river RubricatumNow the Llobregat., beyond which begin the Laletani and the IndigetesTheir territory was situate around the present Gulf of Ampurias.. Behind these, in the order in which they will be mentioned, going back from the foot of the Pyrenees, are the AusetaniTheir chief cities were Gerunda, the present Gerona, and Ausa or Vicus Ausæ, now Vic d'Osona., the LacetaniIn the country beyond Gerona., and along the Pyrenees, the CerretaniLiving in the upper valley of the river Sicoris or Segre, which still retains, from them, the name of Cerdague., next to whom are the VasconesThe people of the modem Navarre and Guipuzcoa.. On the coast is the colony of BarcinoIn the later writers Barcelo, now Barcelona. It was said to have been originally founded by Hercules, and afterwards rebuilt by Hamilcar Barcas, who gave it the name of his family. Its name as a Roman colony was Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino. The modern city stands somewhat to the east of the ancient one., surnamed Faventia; BætuloThe modern Badalona, two leagues from Barcelona. and IluroOn the sea-shore,—the present Pineda., towns with Roman citizens; the river LarnumNow the Tordera., BlandæThe modern city of Blanos stands on its site., the river AlbaProbably the present Ter or Tet.; EmporiæThe modem Ampurias. We learn from Strabo that a wall divided the town of the Greeks from that of the old inhabitants. It was the usual landing-place for travellers from Gaul. It was originally colonized by the Phocæans from Massilia or Marseilles., a city consisting of two parts, one peopled by the original inhabitants, the other by the Greek descendants of the Phocæans; and the river TicherHardouin says that the Ticher or Tichis is the same with the modern Ter, but in such case Pliny would have mentioned it before coming to Emporiæ. Its present name however does not appear to be accurately known.. From this to the Venus PyrenæaA promontory extending from the Pyrenæan chain, on which a temple of Venus was situate. It is now called Cabo de Cruz. The distance mentioned by Pliny is probably too great., on the other side of the Promontory, is a distance of forty miles.

I shall now proceed to give an account of the more remarkable things in these several jurisdictions, in addition to those which have been already mentioned. Forty-three different peoples are subject to the jurisdiction of the courts of Tarraco: of these the most famous are—holding the rights of Roman citizens, the DertusaniThe people of the present Tortosa. and the Bisgargitani; enjoying Latian rights, the Ausetani, and the Cerretani, both Julian and Augustan, the EdetaniProbably not the same people as the Edetani, in whose district Saguntum and Valencia were situate., the GerundensesThe people of Gerunda or Gerona., the GessoriensesThey are nowhere else mentioned. Ukert supposes that their city stood in the district between the Sicoris and Nucaria., and the TeariTheir city was Tiara Julia., also called Julienses. Among the tributaries are the AquicaldensesThe people of Aquæ Calidæ or the 'Hot Springs,' called at the present day Caldes, four leagues from the city of Barcelona., the Onenses, and the BæculonensesPtolemy places Bæcula between Ausa and Gerunda..

Cæsar Augusta, a free colony, watered by the river Iberus, on the site of the town formerly called Salduba, is situate in the district of Edetania, and is the resort of fifty-five nations. Of these there are, with the rights of Roman citizens, the BellitaniThe people of the present Belchite., the CelsensesThe people of the present Xelsa, on the Ebro., a former colony, the CalagurritaniThe inhabitants of Calagurris, now Calahorra, a city of the Vascones, on the banks of the Ebro. They remained faithful to Sertorius to the last, and after slaughtering their wives and children and eating their flesh, their city was taken and destroyed; which event put an end to the Sertorian war. It was called" Nassica," in contradistinction to Calagurris Fibularia, which is afterwards mentioned by Pliny. The latter is mentioned by Cæsar as forming one community with Osca (now Huesca), and was probably the present Loarre, though some writers take the first-named Calagurris to be that place, and the latter one to be the present Calahorra., surnamed the Nassici, the IlerdensesThe people of Ilerda, the present Lerida, on the Sicoris or Segre. It is memorable for its siege by Cæsar, when the Pompeian forces under Afranius and Petreius had retired thither. It was a most flourishing city, though in the times of the later Roman emperors it had fallen into decay., of the nation of the Surdaones, near whom is the river Sicoris, the OscensesThe people of the present Huesca. in the district of Vescitania, and the TuriasonensesThe inhabitants of Turiazo, the present Tarazona, five leagues south of Tudela.. Of those enjoying the rights of the ancient Latins, there are the CascantensesThe people of Cascantum, the present town of Cascante in Navarre. the ErgavicensesThe people of Ergavica. Its ruins, at the confluence of the Guadiela and Tagus, are still to be seen, and are called Santaver. By some writers this place is considered to be the same as the modern Fraga, on the river Cinca, five leagues from Lerida., the GraccuritaniThe people of Graccuris. Its former name of Ilurcis was changed in honour of Sempronius Gracchus, who placed new settlers there after the conquest of Celtiberia. It is supposed to be the same as the modern Agreda, four leagues from Tarazona., the Leo- nicensesThe people of Leonica, probably the modern Alcaniz, on the river Guadalope, in Arragon., and the Osicerdenses; of federate states, there are the TarragensesThe people of Tarraga, the present Tarrega, nine leagues east of Lerida, in Catalonia.; and of tributaries, the ArcobrigensesThe people of Arcobriga, now Los Arcos, in Navarre, five leagues south of Estella., the AndologensesPerhaps the same as the Andosini, a people mentioned by Polybius, B. iii. c. 35, as situate between the Iberus and the Pyrenees. There is a small town of Navarre called Androilla., the AracelitaniThe people probably of the site now occupied by Huarte Araquil, six leagues to the west of Pampeluna., the BursaonensesProbably the same as the Bursaones of Livy, the Bursavolenses of Hirtius, and the Bursadenses of Ptolemy. Their exact locality is unknown., the CalagurritaniMention has been made of Calagurris Fibularensis or Fibulicensis under Calagurris Nassica: see p. 168., who are also surnamed the Fibularenses, the ComplutensesThe people of Complutum, the modern Alcala de Henares, on the river Henares, six leagues to the east of Madrid. It is not quite certain whether it stood on the exact site of Alcala, or on the hill of Zulema, on the other side of the Henares., the CarensesThe town of Cares, adjoining the more modern one of Puente la Reyna, probably marks their site., the CincensesProbably so called from the river Cinga, the modern Cinca: or they may have given their name thereto., the Cortonenses, the DamanitaniThe people probably of the present Mediana on the Ebro, six leagues below Zaragoza., the LarnensesTheir town was Larnum, situate on a river of the same name. It was probably the present Torderas, situate on the river of that name., the LursensesOf this people nothing appears to be known. In the old editions the next people mentioned are the "Ispalenses," but since the time of Hardouin, they have been generally omitted, as wrongly introduced, and as utterly unknown. Spanish coins have however been more recently discovered with the name 'Sblaie' or 'Splaie,' inscribed in Celliberian characters, and numismatists are of opinion that they indicate the name of the town of this people, which in Latin would be Ispala. This at all events is the opinion of M. de Saulcy., the LumberitaniThe people of the present town of Lumbier in Navarre, called by its inhabitants Irumberri., the Lacetani, the Lubienses, the PompelonensesThe people of the present city of Pampeluna., and the Segienses.

Sixty-five different nations resort to CarthageCarthago Nova, or New Carthage., besides the inhabitants of the islands. Of the AccitanianThe colony of Acci was called Colonia Julia Gemella Accitana. The town of Acci or Accis was on the site of the present Guadix el Viejo, between Granada and Baza. It was colonized by the third and sixth legions under Julius or Augustus, from which it obtained the name of' Gemella,' the origin of which name is previously mentioned, p. 161. colony, there are the Gemellenses, and the town of LibisosonaThe ruins of this place are supposed to be those seen at Lebazuza or Lezuza, not far from the city of Cuença., surnamed Foroaugustana, to both of which have been granted ItalianThe "jus Italicum" or "Italiæ," "Italian rights" or "privileges," differed from the "jus Latinum." It was granted to provincial towns which were especially favoured by the magistracy of Rome, and consisted of exemption from taxes, a municipal constitution, after the manner of the Italian towns, and many other rights and exemptions. rights. Of the colony of SalariaAccording to Hardouin, the people of the town formerly called Saliotis, now Cazorla. They are called "Cæsari venales," from the circumstance of their territory having been purchased by Cæsar.—Castulo or Cazlona has been previously mentioned., there are the people of the following towns, enjoying the rights of ancient Latium: the Castulonenses, also called the Cæsari Venales, the SætabitaniThe people of Sætabis, now Xativa in Valencia. This town was famous for its manufacture of fine table-napkins, to which reference is made by Pliny at the beginning of his Introduction addressed to Titus, in his quotation from the lament of Catullus on the loss of his table-napkins which his friends had filched from him. See p. 1 of the present volume. or Augustani, and the ValeriensesAccording to some writers, the present Cuença was the ancient Valeria; but perhaps it was situate at the present village of Valera la Vieja, or Old Valeria, eight leagues south of Cuença.. The best known among the tributaries are the AlabanensesThe people of Alaba, not far from the present town of Ergavica., the BastitaniThey were so called from their town of Basti, now Baza, on the river Guadalentin in Granada., the ConsaburrensesTheir town was probably the present Consuegra, twelve leagues from the city of Toledo., the DianensesSo called from the promontory Dianium or Artemisium, named from a temple of Diana there situate, and having in its vicinity a town of the same name. The present town of Denia still retains nearly the original name. Its lake, now called Albufera de Valencia, has been previously mentioned, p. 166., the EgelestaniThe modern Yniesta marks the site of their town., the IlorcitaniThe people probably of Eliocroca, now Lorca, on the high road from Carthago Nova to Castulo., the Laminitani, the MentesaniThere were two places of the name of Mentesa, one in the district of the Oritani, and the other in that of the Bastitani or Bastuli., both those called Oritani and those called Bastuli, and the Oretani who are surnamed GermaniPtolemy, B. ii., mentions a city of this nation, called 'Oretum Grermanorum.' It has been supposed that it was the present Calatrava, five leagues from Ciudad Real., the people of SegobrigaSupposed to be in the vicinity of the present Calatajud. the capital of Celtiberia, those of ToletumThe present Toledo. the capital of Carpetania, situate on the river Tagus, and after them the Viatienses and the VirgiliensesTheir town is supposed to have stood on the site of the present Murcia..

To the jurisdiction of CluniaNow Coruña del Conde. the Varduli contribute fourteen nations, of whom we need only particularize the AlbanensesThe people of the present Alava on the Ebro.—A small town there still bears the name of Alvana., the TurmodigiThis nation is not mentioned elsewhere. Possibly they are the Murbogi, mentioned by Ptolemy., consisting of four tribes, among which are the SegisamonensesTheir town Segisamon was either the present Veyzama in Guipuzcoa, or, more probably, Sasamon, eight leagues north-west of Burgos. and the Segisamaiulienses. To the same jurisdiction belong the CarietesThe people of Carissa, on the site of the present Carixa near Seville. and the Vennenses with five states, among which are the Velienses. Thither too resort the Pelendones of the Celtiberians, in four different nations, among whom the NumantiniStrabo assigns the Numantini to the Arevacæ, and not the Pelendones. The ruins of the city of Numantia were still to be seen at Puente Garray near the city of Soria, in Hardouin's time, the 17th century. were especially famous. Also, among the eighteen states of the Vaccæi, there are the IntercatiensesD'Anville places their city, Intercatia, at the place called Villa nueva de Azuague, forty miles from the present Astorga; others again make it to have been sixty miles from that place., the PallantiniTheir town was on the site of the modern city of Palencia, on the river Carion., the Lacobrigenses, and the CaucensesThe people of Cauca, the present Coca, situate between Segovia and Valladolid, on the river Eresma.. But among the seven peoples belonging to the Cantabri, JuliobrigaThis was the chief city of the Cantabri. It has been already mentioned, but we may add that it stood near the sources of the Ebro, on the eminence of Retortillo, south of Reynosa. Five stones still mark the boundaries which divided the territory from that of the Fourth Legio. is the only place worthy of mention; and of the ten states of the Autrigones, Tritium and VirovescaSupposed to be the present Briviesca; the site of Tritium does not appear to be known, but it has been suggested that it was near Najara, in the vicinity of Logrono.. The river ArevaIt does not appear to be certain whether the Areva was the present Ucero, or the Arlanzon, which flows near Valladolid. gives its name to the Arevaci; of whom there are six towns, SegontiaThe modern Siguenza. and UxamaNow El Burgo d'Osma, in the province of Soria., names which are frequently given to other places, as also SegoviaThis must not be mistaken for the modern Segovia, between Madrid and Valladolid: it was a small town in the vicinity of Numantia. and Nova Augusta, TermesProbably the present Lerma, on the river Arlanza., and Clunia itself, the frontier of Celtiberia. The remaining portion turns off towards the ocean, being occupied by the Varduli, already mentioned, and the Cantabri.

Next upon these touch the twenty-two nations of the Astures, who are divided into the AugustaniThe people of Asturica Augusta, now Astorga, in the province of Leon. The ruins of this fine city are said still to give a perfect idea of a fortified Roman town. and the Transmontani, with the magnificent city of Asturica. Among these we have the CigurriTheir chief city stood on the site of the present Cigarrosa, or San Estevan de Val de Orres. Its ruins are still to be seen, and a Roman bridge, the people preserving a tradition that an old town once stood there called Guigurra., the Pæsici, the LanciensesThe people of Lance or Lancia, probably the present Lollanco or Mansilla; though Oviedo has been suggested. This however may be the Ovetum mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiv. c. 17., and the ZoëlæMentioned by Pliny in B. xix. c. 2, as famous for their flax. Their locality near the coast does not appear to be exactly known. The Pæsici previously mentioned were situate on the peninsula of Cabo de Penas.. The total number of the free population amounts to 240,000 persons.

The jurisdiction of LucusNow the city of Lugo in Gallicia. embraces, besides the Celtici and the Lebuni, sixteen different nations, but little known and with barbarous names. The number however of the free population amounts to nearly 166,000.

In a similar manner the twenty-four states of the jurisdiction of the Bracari contain a population of 175,000, among whom, besides the BracariThe people of Bracara Augusta, now Braga. Among the ruins of the ancient city are the remains of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre. This people probably derived their name from their fashion of wearing braccæ, "breeches" or "trowsers," like their neighbours of Gallia Braccata. The exact localities of the various other tribes here mentioned do not appear to be exactly known. themselves, we may mention, without wearying the reader, the Bibali, the Cœlerni, the Gallæci, the Hequæsi, the Limici, and the Querquerni.

The length of the Nearer Spain, from the Pyrenees to the frontier of Castulo, is 607Our author is mistaken here, even making allowance for the shortness of the Roman mile (1618 yards), as the length is only 470 miles. Coastwise it is 620. miles, and a little more if we follow the line of the coast; while its breadth, from Tarraco to the shore of OlarsonNow Oyarzun. It is also mentioned in B. iv. c. 34., is 307He is also in error here; for, taken in a straight line, this distance is but 210 miles. miles. From the foot of the Pyrenees, where it is wedged in by the near approach of the two seas, it gradually expands until it touches the Farther Spain, and thereby acquires a width more than doubleThe distance is about 560 miles..

Nearly the whole of Spain abounds in minesIt may be worth while here to take some notice of the mineral productions of Spain in modern times, from which we shall be able to form a more accurate judgement as to the correctness of the statement here made by Pliny. Grains of gold are still to be found in the rivers Tagus and Douro; but there is not found sufficient of the precious metal to pay for the search. Silver is found in the mines of the Guadal canal. Copper and lead are to be found in abundance. There is a mine of plumbago four leagues from Ronda; and tin is found in Gallicia. In every province there are iron mines, those in Biscay being the most remarkable. Lodestone is found in Seville, cobalt on the Pyrenees, quicksilver and cinnabar at Almaden, arsenic in Asturias, and coal in Asturias and Arragon. There are salt-mines at Mingrilla and Cardona; alum is found in Arragon, antimony at Alcaraz. On the Sierra Morena, and in Gallicia, there is saltpetre in numerous localities; amber in Asturias and Valencia, and sulphur in Murcia, Arragon, and Seville. Pipe-clay of a peculiar quality is found in the vicinity of Andujar. Gypsum and marble are found in great abundance, and stone for building purposes, of the best quality. Amethysts, white cornelians, rubies, agates, garnets, and rock crystals, with other precious stones, are also found in abundance and of the finest quality. of lead, iron, copper, silver, and gold; in the Nearer Spain there is also found lapis specularisTransparent stone. Further mention is made of it by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 45.; in Bætica there is cinnabar. There are also quarries of marble. The Emperor Vespasianus Augustus, while still harassed by the storms that agitated the Roman state, conferred the Latian rights on the whole of Spain. The Pyrenean mountains divide Spain from Gaul, their extremities projecting into the two seas on either side.

That part of the Gallias which is washed by the inland seaOr Mediterranean. is called the province of [Gallia] NarbonensisFrom the chief city Narbo Martius, and later Narbona, now Narbonne, situate on the river Atax, now Aude. It was made a Roman colony by the Consul Q. Martius B.C. 118, and from him received its surname. It was the residence of the Roman governor of the province and a place of great commercial importance. There are scarcely any remains of the ancient city, but some vestiges of the canal, by which it was connected with the sea at twelve miles' distance., having formerly borne the name of BraccataFrom the linen breeches which the inhabitants wore, a fashion which was not adopted by the Romans till the time of the Emperors. Severus wore them, but the use of them was restricted by Honorius.. It is divided from Italy by the river VarusStill called the 'Var.' It divides France from Nice, a province of Sardinia., and by the range of the Alps, the great safeguards of the Roman Empire. From the remainder of Gaul, on the north, it is separated by the mountains CebennaNow the Cevennes. They lie as much to the west as the north of Gallia Narbonensis. and JuraThe range of the Jura, north of the Lake of Geneva.. In the cultivation of the soil, the manners and civilization of the inhabitants, and the extent of its wealth, it is surpassed by none of the provinces, and, in short, might be more truthfully described as a part of Italy than as a province. On the coast we have the district of the SordonesInhabiting the former Comte de Roussillon, or Département des Pyrénées Orientales. They were said to have been originally a Bebrycian or Thracian colony., and more inland that of the ConsuaraniProbably the inhabitants of the present Conserans, on the west of the Département de l' Arriége.. The rivers are the Tecum and the VernodubrumProbably the Tech, and the Verdouble, which falls into the Gly.. The towns are IlliberisProbably the present Elne, on the Tech., the scanty remains of what was formerly a great city, and RuscinoThe present Castel Roussillon., a town with Latian rights. We then come to the river AtaxThe Aude of the present day., which flows from the Pyrenees, and passes through the Rubrensian LakeThe bodies of water now called Etangs de Bages et de Sigean., the town of Narbo Martius, a colony of the tenth legion, twelve miles distant from the sea, and the rivers AraurisNow the Herault. and LiriaNow called the Lez, near the city of Montpellier.. The towns are otherwise but few in number, in consequence of the numerous lakesNow called Etangs de Leucate, de Sigean, de Gruissan, de Vendres, de Thau, de Maguelonne, de Perols, de Mauguio, du Repausset; Marais d'Escamandre, de Lermitane et de la Souteyrane, and numerous others. which skirt the sea-shore. We have AgathaNow the town of Agde. Strabo also informs us that this place was founded by the Massilians., formerly belonging to the Massilians, and the district of the Volcæ TectosagesThis people seems to have inhabited the eastern parts of the departments of l'Arriége and the Haute Garonne, that of Aude, the south of that of Tarn, and of that of Herault, except the arrondissement of Montpellier.; and there is the spot where RhodaDalechamp takes this to be Foz les Martigues; but the locality is doubtful. Most probably this is the same place that is mentioned by Strabo as Rhoë, in conjunction with the town of Agathe or Agde, and the Rodanusia of Stephen of Byzantium, who places it in the district of Massilia or Marseilles., a Rhodian colony, formerly stood, from which the river takes its name of RhodanusNow the Rhone.; a stream by far the most fertilizing of any in either of the Gallias. Descending from the Alps and rushing through lake LemanusNow the Lake of Geneva., it carries along with it the sluggish ArarThe modern Saone., as well as the torrents of the Isara and the DruentiaNow the rivers Isère and Durance., no less rapid than itself. Its two smaller mouths are called LibicaMost probably from Libici, a town in the south of Gaul, of which there are coins in existence, but nothing else seems to be known. At the present day there are four mouths of the Rhone, the most westerly of which is called the "Dead" Rhone; the next the "Lesser" Rhone; the third the "Old" Rhone; and the fourth simply the Rhone. D'Anville considers the "Lesser" Rhone to have been the "Spanish" mouth of the ancients. In consequence of the overflowings of this river there is great confusion upon this subject., one being the Spanish, and the other the Metapinian mouth; the third and largest is called the MassilioticThis mouth of the Rhone was much used by the Massilians for the purposes of commerce with the interior of Gaul, and the carriage of the supplies of tin which they obtained thence.. There are some authors who state that there was formerly a town called HeracleaThe manner in which Pliny here expresses himself shows that he doubts the fact of such a place having even existed; it is mentioned by none of the preceding geographers, and of those who followed him Stephen of Byzantium is the only one who notices it. An inscription was found however in the reign of Charles V. of France, in which it was stated that Ataulphus, king of the Visigoths, selected Heraclea as his place of residence. On the faith of this inscription, Spon and Ducange have placed Heraclea at the modern Saint-Gilles, and other writers at Saint-Remy, where the inscription was found. Unfortunately, however, Messrs. Devic and Vaissette, in their "History of Languedoc," have proved that this inscription is of spurious origin. at the mouth of the Rhodanus or Rhone.

Beyond this are the CanalsThe "Fossæ Marianæ" are also mentioned by Ptolemy and Solinus; though they differ in the situation which they have respectively assigned them. They were formed by Marius when advancing to dispute the passage of the Rhone with the Cimbri, who had quitted Spain for the purpose of passing the Pyrenees and invading Italy, in the year B.C. 102. There is considerable difficulty in determining their position, but they are supposed to have commenced at the place now called the Camp of Marius, and to have terminated at the eastern mouth of the Rhone near the present Arles. leading out of the Rhone, a famous work of Caius Marius, and still distinguished by his name; the Lake of MastramelaPliny is the first who mentions the name of this lake, though previous writers had indicated its existence. Strabo informs us that above the mouth of the Rhone there is a large lake that communicates with the sea, and abounds in fish and oysters. Brotier and D'Anville identify it with the present lake of Martigues or of Berre., the town of MaritimaD'Anville takes this place to be the present town of Martigues; Brotier thinks that it was situate on the spot now called Le Cap d'Œil, near the town of Saint-Chamas; and Bouche, the historian of the Province, places it at Marignane, on the east side of the lake already mentioned. of the Avatici, and, above this, the Stony Plains"Campi Lapidei," called by the natives at the present day "LaCrau;" probably from the same Celtic root as our word "Crags;" though Bochart derives it from the Hebrew. Æschylus and Hyginus speak of this combat of Hercules, and Mela relates that being engaged in a mortal struggle with Albion and Geryon, the sons of Neptune, he invoked the aid of Jupiter, on which a shower of stones fell from the heavens and destroyed his antagonists. Those on this plain are said to be the remains of the stony shower. It is supposed by the scientific that many of these stones are aërolites, and that tradition has ingeniously adapted this story to their real origin. The vicinity of Tunbridge Wells presents a somewhat similar appearance., memorable for the battles of Hercules; the district of the AnatiliiThe people probably of the site of the present isle of Camargue., and more inland, that of the DesuviatesThey probably inhabited the district south of the Durance, between it and the Rhone. and the Cavari. Again, close upon the sea, there is that of the TricoriiThey inhabited the country in which the present Avignon, Orange, Cavaillon, and perhaps Carpentras are situate., and inland, there are the TricolliThey are thought by Hardouin to have dwelt in the vicinity of the present town of Talard in the department of the Hautes Alpes., the VocontiiThey inhabited the eastern part of the departments of the Drôme and the Vaucluse., and the Segovellauni, and, after them, the AllobrogesTheir territory comprehended the southern part of the department of the Ain, the department of the Isère, the canton of Geneva, and part of Savoy..

On the coast is Massilia, a colony of PhocæanIt was said to have been colonized from Phocæa, a town of Ionia in Asia Minor. Lucan in his Third Book more than once falls into the error of supposing that it was colonized from Phocis in Greece. Greeks, and a federateWe learn from Justin, B. xliii., that this privilege, as well as others, and a seat at the public shows, were granted to the Massilians by the Roman Senate, in return for their sympathy and assistance after the city had been taken and plundered by the Gauls. city; we then have the Promontory of ZaoAccording to D'Anville the present Cap de l'Aigre, though Mannert takes it to be the Cap de la Croisette., the port of CitharistaD'Anville takes this to be the same as the present Port de la Ciotat., and the district of the CamatulliciProbably occupying the south-east of the department of the Var. It is supposed by Hardouin that the village of Ramatuelle, near the coast, south of the Gulf of Grimaud, represents the ancient name; and D'Anville and other writers are of the same opinion.; then the SuelteriProbably the country around the modern Brignole and Draguignan was inhabited by them., and above them the VerruciniThey inhabited Verignon and Barjols in the southern part of the department of the Var.. Again, on the coast, we find AthenopolisD'Anville takes this to be the place called Agaï, between Frejus and La Napoule: but in so doing he disregards the order in which they are given by Pliny., belonging to the Massilians, Forum Julii"The Forum of Julius." Now Frejus. As its name implies, it was a colony of the Eighth Legion. It was probably called 'Pacensis,' on some occasion when peace had happily been made with the original inhabitants, and 'Classica' from the fleet being stationed there by Augustus. Octavanorum, a colony, which is also called Pacensis and Classica, the river ArgenteusStill known as the Argens, from the silvery appearance of the water. It has choked up the harbour with sand, in which probably the ships of Augustus rode at anchor., which flows through it, the district of the OxubiiThey inhabited the coast, in the vicinity of the modern Cannes. and that of the LigauniThey are supposed to have inhabited the country of Grasse, in the south-east of the department of the Var.; above whom are the SuetriAccording to Ptolemy they had for their capital the town of Salinæ; which some take to be the modern Saluces, others Castellane, and others again Seillans, according to Holstein and D'Anville., the QuariatesD'Anville thinks that they lived in the valley of Queyras, in the department of the Hautes Alpes, having a town of the same name. and the AdunicatesThe Adunicates are supposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the department of the Basses Alpes, between the towns of Senez and Digne.. On the coast we have AntipolisThe modem Antibes. Mount Cema is the present Monte-Cemelione., a town with Latian rights, the district of the Deciates, and the river Varus, which proceeds from Mount Cema, one of the Alps.

The colonies in the interior are Arelate Sextanorum"Arelate of the Sixth Legion," a military colony; now the city of Arles. It is first mentioned by Cæsar, who had some ships built there for the siege of Massilia or Marseilles. It was made a military colony in the time of Augustus., Beterræ Septimanorum"Beterræ of the Seventh Legion." The modern town of Beziers., and Arausio"Arausio of the Second Legion," now Orange, a town in the department of Vaucluse. Secundanorum; ValentiaNow Valence, in the department of the Drôme. in the territory of the Cavari, and ViennaNow Vienne, in the department of the Isère. in that of the Allobroges. The towns that enjoy Latian rights are Aquæ SextiæAix, in the department of the Bouches du Rhône. in the territory of the Saluvii, AvenioAvignon, in the Vaucluse. in that of the Cavari, Apta JuliaApt, in the department of Vaucluse. in that of the Volgientes, AlebeceRiez, in the department of the Basses Alpes. in that of the Reii Apollinares, AlbaThe modern Alps, near Viviers, is probably built on the site of this town. The text shows that it was different from Augusta, probably the Alba Augusta mentioned by Ptolemy, though D'Anville supposes them to have been the same place. in that of the Helvi, and AugustaSome writers take this place to be the present Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux, in the department of the Drôme. in that of the Tricastini, Anatilia, AeriaProbably so called from its lofty position, and supposed by D'Anville to have been situate on the modern Mont Ventoux, or "Windy Mountain." Other writers place it at La Croix Haute, near the city of Avignon., the BormanniThere is a village in the department of the Var, six leagues from Toulon, called Bormes, not improbably from these people., the Comaci, CabellioThe modern Cavaillon, in the department of the Vaucluse., CarcasumNow Carcassone, in the department of the Aude. in the territory of the Volcæ Tectosages, CesseroProbably Saint Tibéry, on the river Hérault., CarpentoracteNow Carpentras. Ptolemy also makes mention of the Memini. in the territory of the Memini, the CenicensesProbably situate on the river Cœnus of Ptolemy, between the eastern mouth of the Rhone and Massilia. Probably the name in Pliny should be "Cœnienses.", the CambolectriWalckenaer places this people in the vicinity of Cambo, in the arrondissement of Bayonne, in the department of the Basses Pyrenees., surnamed the Atlantici, ForumIn names similar to this, as Festus remarks, "Forum" has the meaning of "Market;" much as that word is used as a compound in our names, such as Market Drayton, &c. Bouche thinks that by this place is meant the modern Le Canet: but D'Anville takes it to be Gonfaron, a corruption, he thinks, of Voconfaron from the Latin name. Voconi, Glanum LiviThe site of Glanum was about a mile to the south of the village of Saint Remi, between Cavaillon and Aries. On the spot there are the remains of a Roman mausoleum and a triumphal arch., the LutevaniThe people of Luteva, now Lodève, in the department of the Hérault., also called the Foroneronienses"The people of Forum Neronis," which place has been supposed by some to have been the same with Carpentoracte: D'Anville supposes Forcalquier to have been Forum Neronis, while Walckenaer takes Momas to have been that place. From the text it would appear to have been identical with Luteva., NemausumThe modern Nismes, which in its ruins contains abundant marks of its ancient splendour. The family of the Antonines came from this place. The remains of its aqueduct still survive, containing three rows of arches, one above the other, and 180 feet in height. in the territory of the Arecomici, PiscenæThe people of the present Pézenas, in the department of the Hérault., the RuteniTheir chief town is supposed to have been Albiga, now Albi, in the department of Tarn., the SanagensesThe inhabitants of the present Senez in the Basses Alpes. De la Saussaye says that their coins read 'Samnagenses,' and not' Sanagenses,' and that they inhabited Senas, a town in the vicinity of Aix., the TolosaniTheir chief town was Tolosa, now Toulouse, in the department of the Haute-Garonne. in the territory of the Tectosages on the confines of Aquitania, the TasconiThey probably lived in the vicinity of the present Montauban, in the department of the Tarn et Garonne., the TarusconiensesProbably the inhabitants of the site of the modern town of Tarascon. There is, however, considerable doubt as to these two names., the UmbraniciPoinsinet thinks that they occupied Vabres, a place situate in the south of the department of Aveyron., VasioNow Vaison, in the department of Vaucluse. and Lucus Augusti"The Grove of Augustus." This town appears to have been overflowed by the river Druma, which formed a lake on its site. Its remains were still to be seen in the lake in modern times, and from it the town on the margin of the lake takes its name of Le Luc., the two capitals of the federate state of the Vocontii. There are also nineteen towns of less note, as well as twenty-four belonging to the people of Nemausum. To this listUnder the name "formula" Pliny perhaps alludes to the official list of the Roman government, which he had consulted for the purposes of accuracy. the Emperor Galba added two tribes dwelling among the Alps, the AvanticiBouche places the site of this people at the village of Avançon, between Chorges and Gap, in the department of the Hautes Alpes. and the Bodiontici, to whom belongs the town of DiniaThe present town of Digne, in the department of the Basses Alpes.. According to Agrippa the length of the province of Gallia Narbonensis is 370 miles, and its breadth 248It is not known from what points these measurements of our author are taken..

Next comes Italy, and we begin with the LiguresThe modern names of these localities will form the subject of consideration when we proceed, in c. 7, to a more minute description of Italy., after whom we have Etruria, Umbria, Latium, where the mouths of the Tiber are situate, and Rome, the Capital of the world, sixteen miles distant from the sea. We then come to the coasts of the Volsci and of Campania, and the districts of Picenum, of Lucania, and of Bruttium, where Italy extends the farthest in a southerly direction, and projects into the [two] seas with the chain of the AlpsThis passage is somewhat confused, and may possibly be in a corrupt state. He here speaks of the Apennine Alps. By the "lunata juga" he means the two promontories or capes, which extend east and west respectively., which there forms pretty nearly the shape of a crescent. Leaving Bruttium we come to the coast of [Magna] Græcia, then the Salentini, the Pediculi, the Apuli, the Peligni, the Frentani, the Marrucini, the Vestini, the Sabini, the Picentes, the Galli, the Umbri, the Tusci, the Veneti, the Carni, the Iapydes, the Histri, and the Liburni.

I am by no means unaware that I might be justly accused of ingratitude and indolence, were I to describe thus briefly and in so cursory a manner the land which is at once the foster-childThis seems to be the meaning of "alumna," and not "nurse" or "foster-mother," as Ajasson's translation has it. Pliny probably implies by this antithesis that Rome has been "twice blessed," in receiving the bounties of all nations of the world, and in being able to bestow a commensurate return. Compared with this idea, "at once the nurse and mother of the world" would be tame indeed! and the parent of all lands; chosen by the providence of the Gods to render even heaven itself more gloriousBy adding its deified emperors to the number of its divinities. After what Pliny has said in his Second Book, this looks very much like pure adulation., to unite the scattered empires of the earth, to bestow a polish upon men's manners, to unite the discordant and uncouth dialects of so many different nations by the powerful ties of one common language, to confer the enjoyments of discourse and of civilization upon mankind, to become, in short, the mother-country of all nations of the Earth.

But how shall I commence this undertaking? So vast is the number of celebrated places (what man living could enumerate them all?), and so great the renown attached to each individual nation and subject, that I feel myself quite at a loss. The city of Rome alone, which forms a portion of it, a face well worthy of shoulders so beauteous, how large a work would it require for an appropriate description! And then too the coast of Campania, taken singly by itself! so blest with natural beauties and opulence, that it is evident that when nature formed it she took a delight in accumulating all her blessings in a single spot—how am I to do justice to it? And then the climate, with its eternal freshness and so replete with health and vitality, the sereneness of the weather so enchanting, the fields so fertile, the hill sides so sunny, the thickets so free from every danger, the groves so cool and shady, the forests with a vegetation so varying and so luxuriant, the breezes descending from so many a mountain, the fruitfulness of its grain, its vines, and its olives so transcendent; its flocks with fleeces so noble, its bulls with necks so sinewy, its lakes recurring in never-ending succession, its numerous rivers and springs which refresh it with their waters on every side, its seas so many in number, its havens and the bosom of its lands opening everywhere to the commerce of all the world, and as it were eagerly stretching forth into the very midst of the waves, for the purpose of aiding as it were the endeavours of mortals!

For the present I forbear to speak of its genius, its manners, its men, and the nations whom it has conquered by eloquence and force of arms. The very Greeks themselves, a race fond in the extreme of expatiating on their own praises, have amply given judgment in its favour, when they named but a small part of it 'Magna GræciaOr "Great Greece." This is a poor and frivolous argument used by Pliny in support of his laudations of Italy, seeing that in all probability it was not the people of Greece who gave this name to certain cities founded by Greek colonists on the Tarentine Gulf, in the south of Italy; but either the Italian tribes, who in their simplicity admired their splendour and magnificence, or else the colonists themselves, who, in using the name, showed that they clung with fondness to the remembrance of their mother-country; while at the same time the epithet betrayed some vanity and ostentation in wishing thus to show their superiority to the people of their mother-country..' But we must be content to do on this occasion as we have done in our description of the heavens; we must only touch upon some of these points, and take notice of but a few of its stars. I only beg my readers to bear in mind that I am thus hasten- ing on for the purpose of giving a general description of everything that is known to exist throughout the whole earth.

I may premise by observing that this land very much resembles in shape an oak leaf, being much longer than it is broad; towards the top it inclines to the leftThe comparison of its shape to an oak leaf seems rather fanciful; more common-place observers have compared it to a boot: by the top (cacumen) he seems to mean the southern part of Calabria about Brundisium and Tarentum; which, to a person facing the south, would incline to the coast of Epirus on the left hand., while it terminates in the form of an Amazonian bucklerThe 'Parma' or shield here alluded to, would be one shaped like a crescent, with the exception that the inner or concave side would be formed of two crescents, the extremities of which join at the central projection. He says that Cocinthos (now Capo di Stilo) would in such case form the central projection, while Lacinium (now Capo delle Colonne) would form the horn at the extreme right, and Leucopetra (now Capo dell' Armi) the horn on the extreme left., in which the spot at the central projection is the place called Cocinthos, while it sends forth two horns at the end of its crescent-shaped bays, Leucopetra on the right and Lacinium on the left. It extends in length 1020 miles, if we measure from the foot of the Alps at Prætoria Augusta, through the city of Rome and Capua to the town of Rhegium, which is situate on the shoulder of the Peninsula, just at the bend of the neck as it were. The distance would be much greater if measured to Lacinium, but in that case the line, being drawn obliquely, would incline too much to one side. Its breadth is variable; being 410 miles between the two seas, the Lower and the UpperThe Tuscan or Etrurian sea, and the Adriatic., and the rivers Varus and ArsiaThe Varus, as already mentioned, was in Gallia Narbonensis, while the Arsia, now the Arsa, is a small river of Istria, which became the boundary between Italy and Illyricum, when Istria was annexed by order of Augustus to the former country. It flows into the Flanaticus Sinus, now Golfo di Quarnero, on the eastern coast of Istria, beyond the town of Castel Nuovo, formerly Nesactium.: at about the middle, and in the vicinity of the city of Rome, from the spot where the river AternusNow the Pescara. flows into the Adriatic sea, to the mouth of the Tiber, the distance is 136 miles, and a little less from Castrum-novum on the Adriatic sea to AlsiumNow Palo, a city on the coast of Etruria, eighteen miles from Portus Augusti, at the mouth of the Tiber. on the Tuscan; but in no place does it exceed 200 miles in breadth. The circuit of the whole, from the Varus to the Arsia, is 3059 milesThis distance is overstated: the circuit is in reality about 2500 miles..

As to its distance from the countries that surround it- Istria and Liburnia are, in some placesFor instance, from Pola to Ravenna, and from Iadera to Ancona., 100 miles from it, and Epirus and Illyricum 50; Africa is less than 200, as we are informed by M. Varro; SardiniaSardinia is in no part nearer to Italy than 140 miles. is 120, Sicily 1 1/2, Corsica less than 80, and IssaIssa, now Lissa, is an island of the Adriatic, off the coast of Liburnia; it is not less than eighty miles distant from the nearest part of the coast of Italy. 50. It extends into the two seas towards the southern parts of the heavens, or, to speak with more minute exactness, between the sixthThat is to say, the south, which was so called by the Romans: the meaning being that Italy extends in a south-easterly direction. hour and the first hour of the winter solstice.

We will now describe its extent and its different cities; in doing which, it is necessary to premise, that we shall follow the arrangement of the late Emperor Augustus, and adopt the division which he made of the whole of Italy into eleven districts; taking them, however, according to their order on the sea-line, as in so hurried a detail it would not be possible otherwise to describe each city in juxtaposition with the others in its vicinity. And for the same reason, in describing the interior, I shall follow the alphabetical order which has been adopted by that Emperor, pointing out the colonies of which he has made mention in his enumeration. Nor is it a very easy task to trace their situation and origin; for, not to speak of others, the Ingaunian Ligurians have had lands granted to them as many as thirty different times.

To begin then with the river Varus; we have the town of NicæaThe modern Nizza of the Italians, or Nice of the French., founded by the Massilians, the river PauloNow the Paglione., the Alps and the Alpine tribes, distinguished by various namesLivy mentions four of these tribes, the Celelates, the Cerdiciates, the Apuani, and the Friniates., but more especially the CapillatiOr "Long-haired." Lucan, B. i. 1. 442, 3, refers to this characteristic of the Alpine Ligurians: Et nunc tonse Ligur, quondam per colla decora Crinibus effusis toti prælate Comatæ., CemenelioIt is probably the ruins of this place that are to be seen at the present day at Cimiez in the vicinity of Nice., a town of the state of the Vediantii, the port of Hercules MonæcusThe modern Monaco., and the Ligurian coast. The more celebrated of the Ligurian tribes beyond the Alps are the Salluvii, the Deciates, and the OxubiiThese tribes have been already mentioned in c. 5, as belonging to the province of Gallia Narbonensis.; on this side of the Alps, the VeneniIt is supposed that they dwelt near the present Vinadio in Piedmont., and the Vagienni, who are derived from the CaturigesIt is supposed that they inhabited the vicinity of the present town of Chorges, between Embrun and Gap., the StatielliThey probably dwelt near the modern town of Montserrat., the BimbelliThey probably dwelt near the modern Biela, eight leagues from Verceil in Piedmont., the Magelli, the Euburiates, the CasmonatesSome writers place them near the modern city of Casale., the VeleiatesTheir locality is supposed by some writers to be near the present Cortemiglia, five leagues from the town of Alba., and the peoples whose towns we shall describe as lying near the adjoining coast. The river RutubaNow the Roya, flowing between very high banks.—Lucan, B. ii. 1. 422, speaks of the Rutuba as "Cavus," "flowing in deep cavities.", the town of Albium IntemeliumProbably the present Vintimiglia., the river MerulaThe modern Arozia., the town of Albium IngaunumThe present town of Albenga.—Livy, B. xxix. c. 5, calls the inhabitants Albingauni., the port of Vadum SabatiorumNow called Vaï or Ve, and Savona., the river PorciferaThe modern Bisagna, which waters Genua, the modern Genoa., the town of Genua, the river FeritorNow the Lavagna, which also washes Genoa., the Portus Delphini"The Port of the Dolphin;" now Porto Fino., TigulliaProbably the ruins called those of Tregesa or Trigoso are those of Tigullia., TegestaNow Sestri di Levante. of the Tigullii, and the river MacraThe modern Magra., which is the boundary of Liguria.

Extending behind all the before-mentioned places are the Apennines, the most considerable of all the mountains of Italy, the chain of which extends unbroken from the AlpsOf which they were considered as a chain, and called the Apennine Alps. to the Sicilian sea. On the other side of the Apennines, towards the PadusNow the Po., the richest river of Italy, the whole country is adorned with noble towns; LibarnaAccording to D'Anville, now Castel Arqua., the colony of DertonaNow Tortona. It was a city of importance, and there are considerable ruins still in existence., IriaThe modern Voghera, upon the river Staffora., BarderateProbably the present Verrua., IndustriaCalled by the Ligurians Bodincomagus, by the Romans Industria. Its remains are to be found at Monteù di Po, a few miles below Chevasso, on the right bank of the river., PollentiaThe modern Pollenza, a small town on the river Tenaro near Alba., Carrea surnamed PotentiaIts site has been placed at Chieri near Turin, and at Carrù on the Tanaro, a few miles south of Bene, which is perhaps the most probable., Foro Fulvî or ValentinumThe modern Valenza., AugustaPlaced by D'Anville at Vico near Mondovi, and by other writers at Carmagnole and Saluzzo: but Durandi has shown that the ruins still to be seen near Bene in Piedmont are those of Augusta Vagiennorum. Bene is supposed to be a corruption of Bagienna, the name of the town in the middle ages. The name of the Vagienni also probably survives in that of Viozenna, an obscure place in that vicinity. of the Vagienni, Alba PompeiaStill called Alba; a town near the northern foot of the Apennines. It probably had its appellation from Cn. Pompeius Strabo, the father of Pompey the Great, who conferred many privileges on the Cisalpine Gauls. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Helvius Pertinax., AstaThe modern Aste., and Aquæ StatiellorumThe modern Acqui, so called from its mineral springs. It is again mentioned by Pliny in B. XXXI. Numerous remains of the ancient town have been discovered.. This is the ninth region, according to the arrangement of Augustus. The coast of Liguria extends 211 milesAnsart observes that this measurement is nearly correct., between the rivers Varus and Macra.

Next to this comes the seventh region, in which is Etruria, a district which begins at the river Macra, and has often changed its name. At an early period the Umbri were expelled from it by the Pelasgi; and these again by the Lydians, who from a king of theirsFor an account of this see Herodotus, B. i. c. 94, Tacitus, Ann. B. iv. c. 55, and Velleius Paterculus, B. i. c. 1. These writers all agree as to the fact of the migration of a colony of Lydians under the conduct of Tyrrhenus to the part of Italy afterwards called Etruria. This subject however, as well as the migrations of the Pelasgi, is involved in the greatest obscurity. were named Tyrrheni, but afterwards, from the rites observed in their sacrifices, were called, in the Greek languageFrom the Greek verb qu/ein "to sacrifice," he implies:—from their custom of frequently sacrificing, says Servius, on the Xth Book of the Æneid. Dionysius of Halicarnassus says that they were from their frequent sacrifices called quo/skooi. These are probably fanciful derivations; but there is no doubt that the people of Etruria were for several centuries the instructors of the Romans in the arts of sacrifice, augury, and divination., Tusci. The first town in Etruria is LunaThe ruins of Luna, which was destroyed by the Normans in the middle ages, are still visible on the banks of the Magra. The modern name of the port is Golfo della Spezzia., with a noble harbour, then the colony of LucaThe modern city of Lucca has its site and name.—Livy, B. xli. c. 13, informs us that this colony was founded in the year of the city 576, during the Consulship of Claudius Pulcher and Sempronius Gracchus., at some distance from the sea, and nearer to it again the colony of PisæThe modern city of Pisa. See Virgil, B. x. 1. 179, as to the origin of this place., between the rivers AuserThe modern Serchio. and ArnusNow the Arno., which owes its origin to Pelops and the PisansThe people of Pisa or Pisæ, a city of Elis in the Peloponnesus., or else to the Teutani, a people of Greece. Next is VadaNow Vadi, a small village on the sea-shore. Volaterrana, then the river CecinnaStill called the Cecina. It entered the Tyrrhenian sea, near the port of Vada Volaterrana just mentioned., and PopuloniumThe present Piombino is supposed to have arisen from the ruins of this place. formerly belonging to the Etrurians, the only town they had on this coast. Next to these is the river PrileNow the Bruno., then the UmbroThe modern Ombrone., which is navigable, and where the district of Umbria begins, the port of TelamonNow known as Telamone Vecchio., CosaThere are ruins near lake Orbitello, which bear the name of Cosa: Ansedonia was said to have risen from its ruins, and in its turn fallen to decay. of the Volcientes, founded by the Roman people, GraviscæTwo localities have been mentioned as the site of Graviscæ, at both of which there are ancient remains: one on the right bank of the Marta, about a mile from its mouth, and the other on the sea-coast at a spot called Santo Clementino or Le Saline, a mile south of the mouth of the Marta. Probably the latter are the remains of Graviscæ, although Dennis (Etruria, i. pp. 387–395) inclines to be in favour of the former., Castrum novumThe modern Torre Chiaruccia, five miles south of Civita Vecchia., PyrgiThe modern Torre di Santa Severa., the river CæretanusNow the Vaccina., and CæreThe remains of this once powerful city are marked by the village of Cervetri or Old Cære. According to Strabo it received its name from the Greek word xai=re "hail!" with which the inhabitants saluted the Tyrrhenian or Lydian invaders. It was to this place that the Romans sent their most precious sacred relics when their city was taken by the Gauls. Its most interesting remains are the sepulchres, of which an account is given in Dennis's Etruria. itself, four miles inland, called Agylla by the Pelasgi who founded it, AlsiumIts remains are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Palo., FregenæIts site is supposed to have been at the spot now called the Torre di Maccarese, midway between Palo and Porto, and at the mouth of the river Arone. Its situation was marshy and unhealthy., and the river Tiber, 284This exceeds the real distance, which is about 230 miles. miles from the Macra.

In the interior we have the colonies of FalisciThe site of the Etruscan Falerii or Falisci is probably occupied by the present Civita Castellana; while that of the Roman city of the same name, at a distance of four miles, is marked by a single house and the ruins of a church, called Santa Maria di Falleri. The ancient city was captured by the Romans under Camillus., founded by the Argives, according to the account of CatoIn his book of "Origines," which is now lost., and surnamed Falisci Etruscorum, Lucus Feroniæ"The Grove of Feronia." The town was so called from the grove of that Sabine goddess there situate. In the early times of Rome there was a great resort to this spot not only for religious purposes, but for those of trade as well. Its traces are still to be seen at the village of Saint Orestes, near the south-east extremity of the hill there, which is still called Felonica. This is in southern Etruria, but Ptolemy mentions another place of the same name in the north-west extremity of Etruria, between the Arnus and the Macra., Rusellana, the SeniensesThe people of the spot now called Siena, in Tuscany., and SutrinaNow Sutri, on the river Pozollo.. The remaining peoples are the ArretiniThe people of Arretium, one of the most powerful cities of Etruria. The three tribes or peoples here mentioned probably did not occupy distinct towns, but constituted separate communities or municipal bodies, being distinct colonies or bodies of settlers. The Julienses were the colonists settled there by Augustus. The Fidentes had probably settled at an earlier period. The modern Arezzo has risen on the remains of the Roman city, while the remains of the Etruscan city are pointed out on an elevated spot called Poggio di San Cornellio, two or three miles southeast of Arezzo. Many valuable relics of antiquity have been discovered here. The family of Mæcenas sprang from this place. Veteres, the Arretini Fidentes, the Arretini Julienses, the Amitinenses, the Aquenses, surnamed TauriniThe people of Aquæ Tauri, a watering-place of Etruria, situate about three miles north of the present Civita Vecchia, and now called Bagni di Ferrata. The baths are described by Rutilius in his Itinerary, who calls them Tauri Thermæ (the Bull's Baths), and ascribes their name to the fact of their having been accidentally discovered by a bull., the BleraniThe people of Blera, on the site of the modern village of Bieda, about twelve miles south of Viterbo. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been found here.—See Dennis's Etruria, vol. i. pp. 260–272., the CortonensesThe people of Cortona, a powerful city of Etruria, which is still known by the same name. It was probably in the number of the cities of Etruria that were ravaged by Sylla, and then recolonized by him. Numerous remains of Etruscan antiquity have been discovered there., the CapenatesThe people of Capena, an ancient and important city of Etruria, which, after long opposing the inroads of the Romans, was reduced to submission shortly after the fall of Veii, B.C. 393. It existed and held municipal rank till the time of the Emperor Aurelian, after which all traces of its name or existence were lost, till 1750, when Galetti fixed its site with great accuracy at Civitucola or San Martino, about 24 miles from Rome. It was situate on the banks of a small river now called the Grammiccia, and in its territory was the celebrated 'Lucus Feroninæ' previously mentioned., the Clusini Novi, the Clusini VeteresThe new and old colonists of the city of Clusium, who probably enjoyed distinct municipal rights. The modern Chiusi stands on its site., the FlorentiniThe modern Fiorenze or Florence occupies the site of their city., situate on the stream of the Arnus, FæsulæThe village of Fiesole stands on its site. Extensive remains of the ancient city are still to be found., FerentinumThe site of Ferentinum is now uninhabited, but is still known by the name of Ferento. The rivers of the ancient city are very considerable; it was finally destroyed by the people of Viterbo in the 12th century., FescenniaAn ancient town of Etruria near Falisci. Cluver thinks that it was situate at Gallese, a village nine miles north of Civita Castellana; but Dennis considers its site to have been between Borghetto on the Tiber and Corchiano, where there are considerable remains of an Etruscan city. The spot is named San Silvestro, from a ruined church there., HortanumOr Horta; the spot now called Orte, where numerous Etruscan remains are found; it probably derived its name from the Etruscan goddess Horta. Hortanum, the name given to it by Pliny, is perhaps an adjective form of the name, "oppidun" being understood., HerbanumPossibly the same as 'Urbs Vetus,' on the side of which the present Orvieto stands., NepetaNow Nepi, near the river Pozzolo., Novem PagiAccording to Hardouin the site of the Novem Pagi, or nine Boroughs, is occupied by the modern Il Mignone, near Civita Vecchia., the Claudian præfecture of ForoclodiumIts site is generally supposed to have been at Oriuolo, about five miles north of Bracciano; but Dennis informs us that there are no ancient remains at that place. Being a præfecture it may have consisted of only a number of little villages, united in one jurisdiction., PistoriumThe modern Pistoia stands on its site., PerusiaNow Perugia., the Suanenses, the Saturnini, formerly called the Aurinini, the SubertaniSupposed by Hardouin to have inhabited the site of the modern Sovretto., the StatonesProbably situate in the modern duchy of Castro., the TarquiniensesThe people of Tarquinii near Rome, the head of the Etruscan confederation. It was here that Demaratus the Corinthian, the father of Tarquinius Priscus, settled. It was deserted by its inhabitants in the eighth or ninth century, who founded the town of Corneto on a hill opposite to it. The ruins are known as Turchina, a corruption of the ancient name., the TuscaniensesThe site of their town is probably marked by the modern Toscanella., the VetuloniensesThe ruins of their town still retain somewhat of their ancient name in that of "Vetulia.", the VeietaniThe people of the powerful city of Veii, subdued by Camillus. Its ruins have been discovered in the vicinity of the village of Isola Farnese., the VesentiniTheir town stood on the site of the present Bisontia., the VolaterraniThe people of Volaterræ, the present Volterra, one of the twelve cities of the Etruscan Confederation. It was for a time the residence of the kings of Lombardy. The modern town covers only a small portion of the area of the ancient city, of which there are some interesting remains., the VoleentiniThe people of Volci or Vulci, of which the ruins bear the same name. Its sepulchres have produced vast treasures of ancient art., surnamed Etrusci, and the VolsiniensesThe people of Volsinii or Vulsinii, now called Bolsena. This was one of the most ancient and powerful of the twelve cities of the Etruscan confederation. On their subjugation by the Romans the Etruscan city was destroyed, and its inhabitants were compelled to settle on a less defensible site. The new city was the birth-place of Sejanus, the worthless favourite of Tiberius. Of the ancient city there are scarcely any remains.. In the same district the territories of CrustumeriumCalled also Crustumeria, Crustumium, and Crustuminium. It was a city of Latium on the borders of the Sabine country, and was subdued by Romulus, though it afterwards appears as independent in the time of Tarquinius Priscus. The territory was noted for its fertility. The exact site of the city is unknown; a place called Marcigliana Vecchia, about nine miles from Rome, seems the most probable. and CaletraThe site of Caletra is quite unknown. It was situate at some point in the present valley of the Albegna. retain the names of the ancient towns.

The Tiber or Tiberis, formerly called Thybris, and previously AlbulaLivy, B. i. c. 3, and Ovid, Fasti, B. iii. 1. 389, inform us that the name of Albula was changed into Tiberis in consequence of king Tiberinus being accidentally drowned in it., flows down from nearly the central part of the chain of the Apennines, in the territory of the Arretini. It is at first small, and only navigable by means of sluices, in which the water is dammed up and then discharged, in the same manner as the TimiaStill known by that name. The Glanis is called la Chiana. and the Glanis, which flow into it; for which purpose it is found necessary to collect the water for nine days, unless there should happen to be a fall of rain. And even then, the Tiber, by reason of its rugged and uneven channel, is really more suitable for navigation by rafts than by vessels, for any great distance. It winds along for a course of 150 miles, passing not far from TifernumAccording to D'Anville, now known as Citta di Castello., Perusia, and OcriculumA municipal town of Umbria, situate near the confluence of the rivers Nar and Tiber, and on the Flaminian Way. There are the ruins of an aqueduct, an amphitheatre, and some temples, now the modern Otricoli., and dividing Etruria from the UmbriThe territory of Umbria extended from the left bank of the Tiber, near its rise, to the Adriatic. and the SabiniThe Sabines occupied the left bank of the Tiber from the Umbri to the Anio. The Crustumini and the Fidenates probably occupied the southern part of the district about the river Alba., and then, at a distance of less than sixteen miles from the city, separating the territory of Veii from that of Crustuminum, and afterwards that of the Fidenates and of Latium from Vaticanum.

Below its union with the Glanis from Arretinum the Tiber is swollen by two and forty streams, particularly the NarThe Nera and the Tevcrone. The exact situation of the district of Vaticanum has not been ascertained with exactness. and the Anio, which last is also navigable and shuts in Latium at the back; it is also increased by the numerous aqueducts and springs which are conveyed to the City. Here it becomes navigable by vessels of any burden which may come up from the Italian sea; a most tranquil dispenser of the produce of all parts of the earth, and peopled and embellished along its banks with more villas than nearly all the other rivers of the world taken together. And yet there is no river more circumscribed than it, so close are its banks shut in on either side; but still, no resistance does it offer, although its waters frequently rise with great suddenness, and no part is more liable to be swollen than that which runs through the City itself. In such case, however, the Tiber is rather to be looked uponAs not so much causing mischief by its inundations, as giving warning thereby of the wrath of the gods and of impending dangers; which might be arrested by sacrifices and expiatory rites.—See Horace, Odes, B. i. 2. 29. as pregnant with prophetic warnings to us, and in its increase to be considered more as a promoter of religion than a source of devastation.

LatiumThe frontier of ancient Latium was at Circeii, but that of modern Latium extended to Sinuessa. has preserved its original limits, from the Tiber to CirceiiA town of Latium, situate at the foot of the Mons Circeius, now Monte Circello. It was used as a place of retirement, and Tiberius and Domitian had villas there. The Triumvir Lepidus was banished thither by Octavius after his deposition. It was also famous for its oysters, which were of the finest quality. Considerable remains of it are still to be seen on the hill called Monte di Citadella, about two miles from the sea., a distance of fifty miles: so slender at the beginning were the roots from which this our Empire sprang. Its inhabitants have been often changed, and different nations have peopled it at different times, the Aborigines, the Pelasgi, the Arcades, the Seculi, the Aurunci, the Rutuli, and, beyond Circeii, the Volsci, the Osci, and the Ausones whence the name of Latium came to be extended as far as the river LirisNow the Garigliano, the same river which he previously calls the Glanis. It was the boundary between Latium and Campania..

We will begin with OstiaFounded by Ancus Martius, as we learn from Livy. It was abandoned under the Emperor Claudius, who built the Portus Romanus or Portus Augusti in its vicinity; and it only continued famous for its salt-works, which had been established there by Ancus Martius. Its ruins, still called Ostia, are nearly three miles from the coast, in consequence of the receding of the sea., a colony founded by a king of Rome, the town of LaurentumNow San Lorenzo. It was between Ostia and Antium., the grove of Jupiter IndigesBy some, Æneas was supposed to have been worshiped by that name., the river NumiciusNow the river Numico., and ArdeaThe ruins of this once great city may still be seen near the present village of the same name. Its situation was peculiarly unhealthy. Another tradition, besides the one mentioned by Pliny, was, that it was founded by a son of Ulysses and Circe. It was twenty-four miles distant from Rome., founded by Danaë, the mother of Perseus. Next come the former site of AphrodisiumA temple of Venus, of which the ruins are still to be seen., the colony of AntiumIts few ruins are still known as Anzio Rovinato. It was famous for its temple of Fortune, addressed by Horace, Odes, i. 35. Near the site is the modern village of Porto d'Anzo., the river and island called AsturaThis island was occupied by villas of the Roman nobility, and was the resort of Cicero, Augustus and Tiberius. There is still a fortified town called the Torre di Astura., the river NymphæusThe modern Ninfa., the Clostra Romana"The Roman Bulwarks." They were thrown up to protect the frontier of the ancient kingdom of Rome from the inroads of the Volscians, and CirceiiTo our previous note we may add that this spot was supposed to have been once inhabited by the enchantress Circe, the daughter of the Sun, and from her to have taken its name., formerly an island, and, if we are to believe Homer, surrounded by the open sea, though now by an extensive plain. The circumstances which we are enabled to publish on this subject for the information of the world are very remarkable. Theophrastus, the first foreigner who treated of the affairs of Rome with any degree of accuracy (for Theopompus, before whose time no Greek writer had made mention of us, only stated the fact that the city had been taken by the Gauls, and Clitarchus, the next after him, only spoke of the embassy that was sent by the Romans to Alexander)—Theophrastus, I say, following something more than mere rumour, has given the circuit of the island of Circeii as being eighty stadia, in the volume which he wrote during the archonship of Nicodorus at AthensThis has been also translated "dedicated to Nicodorus, the Archon of Athens," but nothing appears to be known of such a fact as the dedication to Nicodorus of any of his works., being the 440th year of our city. Whatever land therefore has been annexed to that island beyond the circumference of about ten miles, has been added to Italy since the year previously mentioned.

Another wonderful circumstance too.—Near Circeii are the Pomptine MarshesNow called the "Palude Pontine." They are again mentioned in B. xxvi. c. 9., formerly the site, according to Mucianus, who was thrice consul, of four-and-twenty cities. Next to this comes the river UfensNow called Il Portatore., upon which is the town of TerracinaIt was situate fifty-eight miles from Rome; the modern town of Terracina stands on its site. The remains of the ancient citadel are visible on the slope of Montecchio., called, in the language of the Volsci, Anxur; the spot too where AmyclæThe exact site of this place is unknown. Servius, in his Commentary on B. x. of the Æneid, l. 564, tells the same story of the serpents. stood, a town destroyed by serpents. Next is the site of the GrottoThis was near Amyclæ. A villa was situate there called "Speluncæ," from the cavities in the rock, in one of which the Emperor Tiberius nearly lost his life by the falling in of the roof. The modern village of Sperlonga, eight miles west of Gaëta, marks its site., Lake FundanusNow Lago di Fondi., the port of CaietaNow Gaëta, said to have received its name from being the burial place of Caieta, the nurse of Æneas. The shore was studded with numerous villas of the Roman nobility. It is now a city of great opulence; in its vicinity extensive ruins are to be seen., and then the town of FormiæOn the spot now called Mola di Gaëta. Many of the wealthy Romans, and among them Cicero, had villas here: and at this place he was put to death. It was destroyed by the Saracens in the year 856. The remains of antiquity to be seen on this spot are very extensive., formerly called Hormiæ, the ancient seat of the LæstrygonesHomer places these Cannibals on the coast of Sicily, but the Romans in general transplanted them to the vicinity of Circeii, and suppose Formiæ to have been built by Lamus, one of their kings. It is more probable however that it was founded by the Laconians, from whom it may have received its name of Hormiæ (from the Greek o(/rmos), as being a good roadstead for shipping., it is supposed. Beyond this, formerly stood the town of Pyræ; and we then come to the colony of MinturnæIts site is occupied by the present Trajetta. In its marshes, formed by the overflow of the Liris, Caius Marius was taken prisoner, concealed in the sedge., which still exists, and is dividedThe town of Minturnæ stood on both banks of the river. by the river Liris, also called the Glanis. The town of SinuessaIts ruins are probably those to be seen in the vicinity of Rocca di Mondragone. It was a place of considerable commercial importance. On its site Livy says there formerly stood the Greek city of Sinope. is the last in the portion which has been added to Latium; it is said by some that it used to be called Sinope.

At this spot begins that blessed country Campania"Felix illa Campania.", and in this vale first take their rise those hills clad with vines, the juice of whose grape is extolled by Fame all over the world; the happy spot where, as the ancients used to say, father Liber and Ceres are ever striving for the mastery. Hence the fields of SetiaNow Sezza. and of CæcubumA marshy district of Latium, extending about eight miles along the coast from Terracina to Speluncæ, famous in the time of Horace for the first-rate qualities of its wines. extend afar. and, next to them those of FalernumA district famous for its wines, extending from the Massican Hills to the north bank of the Volturnus. and of CalinumAccording to Hardouin, the town of Calenum was on the site of the present Calvi near Capua.. As soon as we have passed these, the hills of MassicaNow called Monte Marsico, and as famous for its wine (called Museatella) as it was in the Roman times., of GaurusNow Monte Barbaro. The wines of most of these places will be found fully described by Pliny in B. xiv., and of Surrentum rise to our view. Next, the level plains of LaboriumMore fully mentioned, B. xviii. c. 29, where the 'alicæ' or fermenty made from the spelt grown here is again referred to. are spread out far and wide, where every care is bestowed on cultivating crops of spelt, from which the most delicate fermenty is made. These shores are watered by warm springsOf Baiæ, Puteoli, and Stabiæ, for instance., while the seas are distinguished beyond all others for the superlative excellence of their shell and other fish. In no country too has the oil of the olive a more exquisite flavour. This territory, a battle-ground as it were for the gratification of every luxurious pleasure of man, has been held successively by the Osci, the Greeks, the Umbri, the Tusci, and the Campani.

On the coast we first meet with the river SavoThe modern Saove., the town of Volturnum with a riverNow called the Volturno, with a small place on its banks called Castel Volturno. of the same name, the town of LiternumThe present village of Torre di Patria is supposed to occupy its site., CumæStrabo describes Cumæ as a joint colony of the Chalcidians of Eubœa and the Cymæans of Æolis. Its sea-shore was covered with villas of the Roman aristocracy, and here Sylla spent the last years of his life. Its site is now utterly desolate and its existing remains inconsiderable., a Chalcidian colony, MisenumNow Capo or Punta di Miseno; a town built on a promontory of Campania, by Æneas, it was said, in honour of his trumpeter, Misenus, who was drowned there. It was made by Augustus the principal station of the Roman fleet. Here was the villa of Marius, which afterwards belonged to Lucullus and the Emperor Tiberius, who died here., the port of BaiæFamous for its warm springs, and the luxurious resort of the Roman patricians. Marius, Lucullus, Pompey, and Cæsar had villas here. In later times it became the seat of every kind of pleasure and dissipation. It is now rendered unwholesome by the Malaria, and the modern Castello di Baja, with numerous ruins, alone marks its site., BauliThe modern village of Baolo stands near its site. It was here that Hortensius had his fish-ponds, mentioned by Pliny in B. ix. c. 55. It rivalled its neighbour Baiæ in ministering to the luxury of the wealthy Romans, and was occupied by numerous villas so late as the reign of Theodosius., the Lucrine LakeProbably the inner part of the Gulf of Cumæ or Puteoli, but separated from the remainder by an embankment eight stadia in length. It was famous for its oyster-beds. Behind it was the Lake Avernus, occupying the crater of an extinct volcano, and supposed by the Greeks to be the entrance to the Infernal Regions. Agrippa opened a communication with the Lucrine Lake to render Lake Avernus accessible to ships. The Lucrine Lake was filled up by a volcanic eruption in 1538, and a mountain rose in its place. The Lake Avernus is still called the Lago di Averno., and Lake Avernus, near which there stood formerly a townOr "the town Cimmerium." Nothing is known of it. of the Cimmerians. We then come to PuteoliNow Pozzuolo. The Romans called it Puteoli, from the strong smell of its mineral springs. There are still many ruins of the ancient town, which was destroyed by Alaric, Genseric, and Totila, and as many times rebuilt., formerly called the colony of Dicæ- archia, then the PhlegrænNow called Salpatara. This was the name given to the volcanic plain extending from Cumæ to Capua, and supposed to have been once covered with fire; whence the name, from fle/gw, "to burn." Plains, and the Marsh of AcherusiaNow the Lago di Fusaro. It seems to have had its name from its vicinity to Avernus, the supposed entrance to the infernal regions. Its banks were, in the later times of the Roman republic, adorned with the villas of the wealthy. in the vicinity of Cumæ.

Again, on the coast we have NeapolisNeapolis, or the "New City," was founded by the Chalcidians of Cumæ on the site of Parthenope, the supposed burial-place of the Siren of that name. It was so called as being only a 'new quarter' of the neighbouring city of Cumæ. The modern city of Naples stands nearly on its site., also a colony of the Chalcidians, and called Parthenope from the tomb there of one of the Sirens, HerculaneumSaid to have been founded by Hercules. It was on the occasion of its destruction by an eruption of Vesuvius, A.D. 79, that our author unfortunately met his death, a martyr to his thirst for knowledge. Its closer proximity to Vesuvius caused it to be buried under a more solid body of materials ejected from the mountain than was the case with Pompeii; which seems to have been suffocated with ashes, while Herculaneum was covered with volcanic tufa most probably hardened by the agency of water. A few scattered inhabitants are supposed to have afterwards settled upon the site where it was buried, which for many centuries was utterly forgotten, till brought to light in 1738. Part of the site over the buried town is occupied by the villages of Resina and Portici. The works of art found here far exceed in value and interest those discovered at Pompeii., PompeiiThis seems to have been a town of Oscan origin. The first traces of it were found in 1689, but excavations were not commenced till 1721. It perished in the same eruption of Vesuvius as Herculaneum., from which Mount Vesuvius may be seen at no great distance, and which is watered by the river SarnusNow the Sarno. Its course was changed by the great eruption of Vesuvius previously mentioned.; the territory of Nuceria, and, at the distance of nine miles from the sea, the town of that nameThe modern Nocera stands on its site. Pompeii was used as its harbour., and then SurrentumNow Sorrento., with the Promontory of MinervaNow also called Capo della Minerva., formerly the abode of the Sirens. The distance thence by sea to Circeii is seventy-eight miles This region, beginning at the Tiber, is looked upon as the first of Italy according to the division of Augustus.

Inland there are the following colonies:—CapuaIt probably had its name from Campania, of which it was the capital, and which was so called from its extensive campi or plains. The site of this luxurious and magnificent city is now occupied by the village of Santa Maria di Capoua, the modern city of Capua being on the site of ancient Casilinum. Of ancient Capua there are but few remains. It was made a Roman colony by Julius Cæsar., so called from its champaign country, AquinumOriginally a city of the Volscians: Cicero had a villa there, and Juvenal and the emperor Pescennius Niger were natives of it. The present Aquino stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of it to be seen., SuessaOr Suessa Aurunca, to distinguish it from the Volscian city of Suessa Pometia. The poet Lucilius was a native of it. The modern Sessa stands in its vicinity., VenafrumThe modern Venafri stands near its site. It was famous for the excellence of its olives., SoraOn the banks of the Suris, and the most northerly town of the Volsci. The modern Sora is in its vicinity, and the remains of its walls are still to be seen., Teanum surnamed SidicinumThe modern Teano occupies its site. It was famous for the medicinal springs in its vicinity. There was another Teanum, in Apulia., NolaThe town on its site still preserves the name. Bells were made here, whence in the later writers they are called "Nolæ." There is also an ecclesiastical tradition that church bells were first used by Saint Paulinus, bishop of this place, whence they were called 'Campanæ.' The emperor Augustus died here.; and the towns of AbellaThe remains of the ancient town, of which the ruins are very extensive, are called Avella Vecchia. It was famous for its fruit, especially its filberts, to which it gives name in the French "Avelines." It was first a Greek colony, and then a town of the Oscans., AriciaA city of Latium, sixteen miles from Rome, and said to have been of Sicilian origin. The modern town of La Riccia occupies the site of its citadel. It was celebrated for the temple and grove of Diana, whose high priest was always a fugitive slave who had killed his predecessor, and was called "Rex nemorensis," or "king of the grove." See Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. 1. 59; Art of Love, B. i. 1. 260; and Lucan, B. vi. 1. 74., Alba LongaThe ancient city was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, king of Rome. The Roman colony here was probably but small. The Roman patrician families, the Julii, Servilii, Tullii, and Quintii, are said to have migrated from Alba Longa, which, according to tradition, had given to Rome her first king., the Acer- raniThe people of Acerra, still called by the same name; it was plundered and burnt by Hannibal, B.C. 216, but was rebuilt by order of the Roman senate., the AllifaniThe people of Allifæ, a former city of Samnium, on the borders of Campania. The modern city of A life, a decayed place, stands on its site. There are considerable remains., the AtinatesThe people of Atina, an ancient city of the Volscians. The modern city of Atina, noted for the bleakness of its situation, stands on its site. There are extensive ruins of the ancient city., the AletrinatesThe people of Aletrium or Alatrium, an ancient city of the Hernici. The modern Alatri stands on its site; there are but few ancient remains., the AnagniniThe people of Anagnia in Latium, still called Anagni. There are scarcely any remains of the ancient place, which was of considerable importance., the AtellaniThe people of Atella, an ancient city of Campania. Some remains of its ruins are to be seen two miles east of the town of Aversa, near the villages of San Arpino and San Elpidio., the AffilaniThe people of Affilæ, an ancient Hernican town. It is still called Affile, and has many ancient remains., the ArpinatesThe people of Arpinum, once a famous city of the Volscians. The present Arpino occupies its site; there are few Roman remains, but its ancient walls, of Cyclopean construction, still exist. It was the birthplace of Marius and Cicero. The villa of the latter was on the banks of the adjoining river Fibrenus. It was, and is still, famous for its woollen manufactures., the AuximatesThe people of Auximum, a city of Picenum. Its site is occupied by the modern Osimo; there are numerous remains of antiquity to be seen., the AbellaniOr perhaps "Abellini," people of Abelliacum; which, if meant, ought not to be included in this division, being a city of the Hirpini. This city was finally destroyed in the wars of the Greeks and Lombards, and the modern Avellino rose on its site. There are considerable ruins in the vicinity. According to Hardouin, this place also claimed the honour of giving name to filberts, which grew abundantly in its vicinity. If such is the case, it seems probable that both it and Abella took their names from that fruit as called by the early inhabitants. See Note in p. 198., the Alfaterni (both those who take their names from the Latin, the Hernican and the Labicanian territory), BovillæAn ancient city of Latium. Its ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the Via Appia. See a curious story connected with it in Ovid's Fasti, B. iii. 1. 667 et seq., CalatiaThere were two cities of this name on the confines of Samnium and Campania, one in the valley of the Volturnum, the modern Caiazzo, the other in Campania, between Capua and Beneventum, whose ruins are probably those to be seen at Le Galazzi, between Caserta and Maddaloni., Casi- numOnce a considerable city of Latium. The modern city of San Germano has risen on its ruins, while the name of Monte Casino has been retained by the monastery founded near it by St. Bernard A.D. 529., CalenumThe present Calvi probably occupies its site., CapitulumIt is not named in history. Its site was probably between Palestrina and Il Piglio. of the Hernici, the CereatiniThe people of Cereatæ, a town of Latium. It is supposed that the ancient monastery of Casamari occupied its site., surnamed Mariani, the CoraniThe people of Cora, an ancient city of Latium. The present Cori stands on its site, and there are considerable remains of the ancient walls and other buildings., descended from the Trojan Dardanus, the Cubulterini, the CastrimœniensesThe people of Castrimœnium, a colony of Sylla. It has been suggested that these were the same people whom Pliny speaks of at a subsequent place in this chapter as the Munienses, an extinct people of Latium. If so, the name was perhaps changed on the establishment here by Sylla of his colony. It probably stood near the modern city of Marino., the CingulaniThe people of Cingulum, a city of Picenum, the site of which is occupied by the modern Cingoli., the FabiensesIt is conjectured that Fabia was on the same site as the present village of Rocca di Papa. on the Alban Mount, the ForopopuliensesThe inhabitants of Forum Popilii in Campania; its site is unknown. of the Falernian district, the FrusinatesThe people of Frusino, originally a Volscian city. The modern Frosinone occupies its site., the FerentinatesThe people of Ferentinum, a city of the Hernici: the present city of Ferentino stands on its site. The ruins are very extensive., the FreginatesProbably the people of Fregellæ, an ancient city of the Volscians. Its site is now unknown, but it was probably on the banks of the Liris, opposite to the modern Ceprano., the old FrabaterniThe people of Fabrateria or Frabateria, a Volscian city. A Roman colony was placed there B.C. 124, by C. Gracchus, and probably the old inhabitants for that reason styled themselves "Veteres." The ruins at San Giovanni in Cerico, about three miles from Falvaterra, are supposed to be those of this place, or at least of the new town or colony. In such case Falvaterra may occupy the site of the original city., the new Frabaterni, the FicolensesThe people of Ficulnea or Ficulia, a city of ancient Latium, on the Via Nomentana. It is supposed to have decayed soon after the reign of M. Aurelius. Its site was probably on the modern domain of Cesarini, though some separate the ancient Latin city from the Roman town, and fix the locality of the former on the hill called Monte Gentile, or that of the Torre Lupara., the Fre- gellaniThese are omitted in most editions, but if a correct reading, the word must signify the "people of Fregellæ," and the Freginates must be the people of Fregenæ in Etruria; although they do not appear properly to belong to this locality., Forum Appî"The Market of Appius." It was distant forty-three miles from Rome, and we learn from Horace, that it was the usual resting-place for travellers at the end of one day's journey from Rome. It is also mentioned in the account of the journey of St. Paul (Acts xxviii. 15) as one of the usual resting-places on the Appian way. There are now no inhabitants on the spot, but considerable ruins still exist, as well as the forty-third milestone, which is still to be seen., the ForentaniProbably the inhabitants of Ferentium or Ferentinum, now Ferento, five miles from Viterbo, a city of Etruria, of which very considerable remains exist., the GabiniThe people of Gabii, formerly one of the most famous cities of Latium. On its site the ruins of a mediæval fortress now stand, known as Castiglione. Some remains of the walls still exist., the Interamnates SuccasiniThe people of Interamna Lirmas, a Roman colony on the banks of the Liris; and as there were several cities of the same name, it was generally distinguished by the epithet "Lirinas." Pliny no doubt calls it "Succasina," from its vicinity to Casinum. Its site, though uninhabited, is still called Terame, and there are numerous remains of antiquity., also surnamed Lirinates, the Ilionenses LaviniiProbably the people of Lavinium were thus called from their supposed Trojan descent. The town was said to have been founded by Æneas in honour of his wife Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. In the times of the Antonines it was united with Laurentum; their ruins are to be seen at Casale di Copocotta., the NorbaniThe people of Norba, a town of Latium. It is now called Norma, and there are still some remains of the ancient walls., the NomentaniNomentum, now called La Mentana, was a Latin town, fourteen miles from Rome., the PrænestiniThe people of Præneste, one of the most ancient towns of Latium. It was originally a Pelasgic city, but claimed a Greek origin, and was said to have been built by Telegonus, the son of Ulysses. During summer it was much frequented by the Romans for its delightful coolness. The remains of its ancient walls are still to be seen at Palestrina. (whose city was formerly called Stephané), the PrivernatesThe people of Privernum, now Piperno, an ancient city of Latium., the SetiniThe people of Setia, now Sesse or Sezza, an ancient town of Latium, to the east of the Pomptine marshes. It was famous for its wine., the SigniniThe people of Signia, now Segni, a town of Latium founded by Tarquinius Priscus. There are still some remains of its walls., the SuessulaniThe people of Suessula, now Castel di Sessola., the TelesiniThe people of Telesia, a town of Samnium seven leagues from Capua, now called Telese., the Trebulani, surnamed BaliniensesTrebula was distinguished probably by this surname from a town of that name in Samnium. There seem to have been two places of the name in the Sabine territory, but it is not known which is here meant. The ruins of one of them are supposed to be those not far from Maddaloni., the TrebaniThe people of Treba, now Trevi, a town of Latium., the TusculaniThe people of Tusculum, an ancient town of Latium, the ruins of which are to be seen on a hill about two miles distant from the modern Frascati. Cicero's favourite residence was his Tusculan villa, and Cato the censor was a native of this place., the VerulaniThe people of Verulæ, a town of the Hernici, in Latium, now Veroli., the VeliterniThe people of Velitræ, an ancient town of the Volsci, now Velletri. It was the birth-place of the emperor Augustus., the UlubrensesThe people of Ulubræ, a small town of Latium, near the Pomptine Marshes; its site is unknown., the UrbinatesThe people of Urbinum; there were two places of that name in Umbria, now called Urbeno and Urbania., and, last and greater than all, Rome herself, whose other nameThe name probably by which the city was called in the mystical language of the priesthood. It has been said that this mysterious name of Rome was Valentia; if so, it appears to be only a translation of her name Græcized—(Rw/mh, "strength." This subject will be found again mentioned in B. xxviii. c. 4. the hallowed mysteries of the sacred rites forbid us to mention without being guilty of the greatest impiety. After it had been long kept buried in secresy with the strictest fidelity and in respectful and salutary silence, Valerius Soranus dared to divulge it, but soon did he pay the penaltySolinus says that he was put to death as a punishment for his rashness. M. Sichel has suggested that this mysterious name was no other than Angerona. of his rashness.

It will not perhaps be altogether foreign to the purpose, if I here make mention of one peculiar institution of our forefathers which bears especial reference to the inculcation of silence on religious matters. The goddess AngeronaIt is not known whether this mystical divinity was the goddess of anguish and fear, or of silence, or whether she was the guardian deity of Rome. Julius Modestus says that she relieved men and cattle when visited by the disease called "angina," or "quinsy," whence her name., to whom sacrifice is offered on the twelfth day before the calends of January [21st December], is represented in her statue as having her mouth bound with a sealed fillet.

Romulus left the city of Rome, if we are to believe those who state the very greatest number, having threeThe Carmental, the Roman, and the Pandanian or Saturnian gates, according to Varro. gates and no more. When the Vespasians were emperorsTitus was saluted Imperator after the siege of Jerusalem, and was associated with his father Vespasian in the government. They also acted together as Censors. and censors, in the year from its building 826, the circumference of the walls which surrounded it was thirteen miles and two-fifths. Surrounding as it does the Seven Hills, the city is divided into fourteen districts, with 265 cross-roadsThe Lares Compitales presided over the divisions of the city, which were marked by the compita or points where two or more streets crossed each other, and where 'ædiculæ' or small chapels were erected in their honour. Statues of these little divinities were erected at the corner of every street. It was probably this custom which first suggested the idea of setting up images of the Virgin and Saints at the corners of the streets, which are still to be seen in many Roman Catholic countries at the present day. under the guardianship of the Lares. If a straight line is drawn from the mile-columnThis was a gilded column erected by Augustus in the Forum, and called "milliarium aureum;" on it were inscribed the distances of the principal points to which the "viæ" or high-roads conducted. placed at the entrance of the Forum, to each of the gates, which are at present thirty-seven in number (taking care to count only once the twelve double gates, and to omit the seven old ones, which no longer exist), the result will be [taking them altogether], a straight line of twenty miles and 765 pacesSupposing the circuit of the city to have been as he says, 13 2/5 miles, he must either make a great miscalculation here, or the text must be very corrupt. The average diameter of the city would be in such case about 4 1/2 miles, the average length of each radius drawn from the mile-column 2 1/4 miles, and the total amount 83 1/4 miles, whereas he makes it but 20 3/4 miles, or little better than an average of half-a-mile for each radius. We may also remark that the camp of the Prætorian cohorts here mentioned was established by the emperor Tiberius, by the advice of Sejanus. Ajasson's translation makes the measurement to be made to twelve gates only, but the text as it stands will not admit of such a construction.. But if we draw a straight line from the same mile-column to the very last of the houses, including therein the Prætorian encampment, and follow throughout the line of all the streets, the result will then be something more than seventy miles. Add to these calculations the height of the houses, and then a person may form a fair idea of this city, and will certainly be obliged to admit that there is not a place throughout the whole world that for size can be compared to it. On the eastern side it is bounded by the agger of Tarquinius Superbus, a work of surpassing grandeur; for he raised it so high as to be on a level with the walls on the side on which the city lay most exposed to attack from the neighbouring plains. On all the other sides it has been fortified either with lofty walls or steep and precipitous hillsThe Aventine, Cælian, and Quirinal hills., but so it is, that its buildings, increasing and extending beyond all bounds, have now united many other cities to itSuch as Ocriculum, Tibur, Aricia, &c..

Besides those previously mentioned, there were formerly in the first region the following famous towns of Latium: SatricumNear Antium. Casale di Conca stands on its site., PometiaSuæssa Pometia. It was destroyed by the consul Servilius, and its site was said, with that of twenty-two other towns, to have been covered by the Pomptine Marsh, to which it gave its name., Scaptia, PolitoriumA town of Latium destroyed by Ancus Martius., Tellene, Tifata, CæninaAn ancient city of Latium, conquered by Romulus; on which occasion he slew its king Acron and gained the spolia opima. Nibby suggests that it stood on the Magugliano, two miles south-east of Monte Gentile. Holstein says that it stood where the present Sant' Angelo or Monticelli stands., FicanaAlso destroyed by Ancus Martius. A farm called Dragonello, eleven miles from Rome, is supposed to have stood upon its site. Tellene was also destroyed by the same king. Tifata was a town of Campania., Crustumerium, AmeriolaA city of Latium, which was conquered by Tarquinius Priscus. It has been suggested that its ruins are visible about a mile to the north of Monte Sant' Angelo., MedullumA Sabine town, the people of which were incorporated by Tarquinius Priscus with the Roman citizens. It is supposed to have stood on the present Monte Sant' Angelo., CorniculumAn ancient city of Latium, subdued by Tarquinius Priscus, on which occasion Ocrisia, the mother of Servius Tullius, fell into the hands of the Romans as a captive. It was probably situate on one of the isolated hills that rise from the plain of the Campagna., SaturniaBoth Virgil and Ovid allude to this tradition., on the site of the present city of Rome, AntipolisSaid to have been so called from being "opposite" to the ancient city of Saturnia. The Janiculus or Janiculum was a fortress on the opposite bank of the Tiber, and a suburb of Rome, connected with it by the Sublician bridge., now Janiculum, forming part of Rome, AntemnæA very ancient city situate three miles from Rome, and said to have been so called from its position on the Tiber, ante amnem. In the time of Strabo it had become a mere village. It stood at the confluence of the Anio and the Tiber., CarneriumAn ancient city of Latium reduced by Tarquinius Priscus. It has been suggested that the town of Palombara, near the foot of Monte Gennaro, stands on its site., CollatiaAn ancient city of Latium. It probably gradually fell into decay. Lucius Tarquinius, the husband of Lucretia, is represented as dwelling here during the siege of Ardea. Its site is thought by some to have been at Castellaccio or Castel dell' Osa, and by others at Lunghezza, which is perhaps the most probable conjecture., AmitinumAn ancient city of the Sabines. Its ruins are visible at San Vittorino, a village near Aquila., Norbe, SulmoAn ancient town of the Volsci, five leagues from Velletri. Sermonata now stands on its site. It must not be confounded with the town of the Peligni, the birth-place of Ovid., and, with these, those Alban nations"Populi Albenses." It does not appear to be exactly known what is the force of this expression, but he probably means either colonies from Alba, or else nations who joined in the confederacy of which Alba was the principal. Niebuhr looks upon them as mere demi or boroughs of the territory of Alba. who used to take part in the sacrifices"Accipere carnem." Literally, "to take the flesh." It appears that certain nations, of which Alba was the chief, were in early times accustomed to meet on the Alban Mount for the purposes of sacrifice. The subject is full of obscurity, but it has been suggested that this minor confederacy co-existed with a larger one including all the Latin cities, and there can be little doubt that the common sacrifice was typical of a bond of union among the states that partook therein. It does not necessarily appear from the context that more than the thirty-one states after mentioned took part therein, though the text may be so construed as to imply that the Latin nations previously mentioned also shared in the sacrifice; if so, it would seem to imply that Alba was the chief city of the whole Latin confederacy. See this subject ably discussed in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Ancient Geography, under the article Latini. upon the Alban Mount, the Albani, the ÆsulaniThe people of Æsulæ. Of this Latin city nothing is known. The territory is mentioned by Horace, and Gell places its site on the Monte Affiliano., the Accienses, the Abolani, the Bube- taniThe people of Bubentum. Nothing is known of this Latin city or of the preceding ones., the BolaniBola was an ancient city of Latium, taken successively by Coriolanus and M. Postumius. Its site is supposed to have been five miles from the modern Palestrina, at the modern village of Lugnano., the Cusuetani, the CoriolaniThe people of Corioli. It was probably a Latian town, but fell into the possession of the Volsci, from whom it was taken by Cn. Marcius, who thence obtained the name of "Coriolanus." Monte Giove, nineteen miles from Rome, has been suggested as its site., the FidenatesPliny is supposed to be in error in representing Fidenæ, the early antagonist of Rome, as being extinct in his time, and he will be found in the sequel reckoning it in the Fourth Region. This ancient Latian town never lost its municipal rank, though it had no doubt in his time become a mere country town. The present Castel Giubileo is supposed to be situate on its site., the Foretii, the HortensesThe people of Horta, a town of Etruria, now Horte. Many Etruscan remains have been discovered there., the Latinienses, the LongulaniThe people of Longula, a Volscian town. Buon Riposo now occupies its site., the Manates, the Macrales, the Mutucumenses, the Munienses, the Numinienses, the Olliculani, the Octulani, the PedaniThe people of Pedum; nothing is known of it. The rest of these nations are either almost or entirely unknown., the Polluscini, the Querquetulani, the Sicani, the Sisolenses, the Tolerienses, the Tutienses, the Vimitellarii, the Velienses, the Venetulani, and the Vitellenses. Thus we see, fifty-three peoples of ancient Latium have passed away without leaving any traces of their existence.

In the Campanian territory there was also the town of StabiæThis was an ancient town between Pompeii and Surrentum. After its overthrow, as mentioned by Pliny, it was in some measure rebuilt, possibly after this passage was penned. It was finally destroyed by the great eruption of Vesuvius in the year A.D. 79, and it was here that our author breathed his last., until the consulship of Cneius Pompeius and L. Cato, when, on the day before the calends of May [30th of April], it was destroyed in the Social War by L. Sulla the legatus, and all that now stands on its site is a single farmhouse. Here also Taurania has ceased to exist, and the remains of CasilinumA town three miles west of Capua. It was of much importance as a military position, and played a considerable part in the second Punic war. The period of its final destruction is unknown; but modern Capua is built on its site. are fast going to ruin. Besides these, we learn from Antias that king L. Tarquinius took ApiolæThis city took the lead in the war of the Latin cities against Tarquinius Priscus. Gell and Nibby think that it was situate about eleven miles from Rome, a mile to the south of the Appian way, where there are some remains that indicate the site of an ancient city, near the stream called the Fosso delle Fratocche. Livy tells us that with the spoils thence derived, Tarquinius celebrated the Ludi Magni for the first time., a town of the Latins, and with its spoils laid the first foundations of the Capitol. From SurrentumOpposite Capreæ, and situate on the Promontory of Minerva. Sorrento now stands on its site. to the river SilarusThe modern Silaro; it was the boundary between Lucania and Campania, and rises in the Apennines., the former territory of PicentiaA town in the south of Campania, at the head of the Gulf of Pæstum. In consequence of the aid which they gave to Hannibal, the inhabitants were forced to abandon their town and live in the adjoining villages. The name of Picentini was given, as here stated, to the inhabitants of all the territory between the Promontory of Minerva and the river Silarus. They were a portion of the Sabine Picentes, who were transplanted thither after the conquest of Picenum, B.C. 268. The modern Vicenza stands on its site. extends for a distance of thirty miles. This belonged to the Etruscans, and was remarkable for the temple of the Argive Juno, founded by JasonThe Argonaut. Probably this was only a vague tradition.. In it was Picentia, a townBy using the genitive 'Salerni,' he would seem to imply that the Roman colony of Salernum then gave name to the district of which Picentia was the chief town. Ajasson however has translated it merely "Salernum and Picentia." 'Intus' can hardly mean "inland," as Picentia was near the coast, and so was Salernum. of the territory of SalernumThis was an ancient town of Campania, at the innermost corner of the Gulf of Pæstum, situate near the coast, on a height at the foot of which lay its harbour. It attained great prosperity, as Salerno, in the middle ages, and was noted for its School of Health established there; which issued periodically rules for the preservation of health in Latin Leonine verse..

At the Silarus begins the third region of Italy, consisting of the territory of Lucania and Bruttium; here too there have been no few changes of the population. These districts have been possessed by the Pelasgi, the Œnotrii, the Itali, the Morgetes, the Siculi, and more especially by people who emigrated from Greece"Græciæ maxime populi." This may also be rendered "a people who mostly emigrated from Greece," in reference to the Siculi or Sici- lans, but the other is probably the correct translation., and, last of all, by the Leucani, a people sprung from the Samnites, who took possession under the command of Lucius. We find here the town of PæstumA town of Lucania, colonized by the Sybarites about B.C. 524. In the time of Augustus it seems to have been principally famous for the exquisite beauty of its roses. Its ruins are extremely magnificent., which received from the Greeks the name of Posidonia, the Gulf of PæstumNow the Golfo di Salerno., the town of Elea, now known as VeliaA Greek town founded by the Phocæans. It was the birth-place of the philosophers Parmenides and Zeno, who founded a school of philosophy known as the Eleatic. Castell' a Mare della Brucca stands on its site., and the Promontory of PalinurumNow Capo di Palinuro; said to have received its name from Palinurus, the pilot of Æneas, who fell into the sea there and was murdered by the natives. See Virgil, Æneid, B. vi. 1. 381 et seq., a point at which the land falls inwards and forms a bayNow the Golfo di Policastro., the distance across which to the pillarThis tower or column was erected in the vicinity of Rhegium on the Straits of Sicily. It was 100 stadia, or about eight miles, from the town, and at it passengers usually embarked for Sicily. The spot is now called Torre di Carallo. of Rhegium is 100 miles. Next after Palinurum comes the river MelpesNow the Faraone., then the town of BuxentumA Greek colony. The present Policastro occupies very nearly its site. It seems to have received its name from the cultivation of box trees in its vicinity., called in [Magna] Græcia Pyxus, and the river Laus; there was formerly a townOr more properly Laos, originally a Greek colony. In the vicinity is the modern town of Laino, and the river is called the Lao. also of the same name.

At this spot begins the coast of Bruttium, and we come to the town of BlandaPtolemy mentions it as an inland town, and Livy speaks of it as a Lucanian city. It probably stood near the modern Maratea, twelve miles south-east of Policastro., the river BatumThe modern Bato., Parthenius, a port of the Phocians, the bay of ViboThe bay of Bivona, formerly Vibo, the Italian name for the Greek city of Hippo or Hippona. On its site stands the modern Bivona., the place"Locus Clampetiæ." Clampetia or Lampetia stood in the vicinity of the modern Amantia. From other authors we find that it was still existing at this time. If such is the fact, the meaning will be "the place where the former municipal town of Clampetia stood," it being supposed to have lost in its latter years its municipal privileges. where Clampetia formerly stood, the town of TemsaOne of the ancient Ausonian towns, and afterwards colonized by the Ætolians. Like its namesake in Cyprus it was famous for its copper. Its site is now occupied by Torre di Lupi., called Temese by the Greeks, and Terina founded by the people of CrotonaA Greek city, almost totally destroyed by Hannibal; Santa Eufemia occupies its site., with the extensive Gulf of Terina; more inland, the town of ConsentiaOne of the cities of the Bruttii; now Cosenza.. Situate upon a peninsulaThe part which now constitutes the Farther Calabria. is the river AcheronSupposed to be the same as the Arconte, which falls into the Crathis near Consentia. Nothing is known of the town here alluded to, but it must not be confounded with Acherontia, the modern Acerenza, in Apulia, which was a different place., from which the people of Acherontia derive the name of their town; then Hippo, now called Vibo Valentia, the Port of HerculesSupposed to have been the same as the modern port of Tropea., the river MetaurusThe modern Marro., the town of TauroentumIts ruins are supposed to be those seen near Palmi., the Port of Orestes, and MedmaProbably the modern Melia stands on its site.. Next, the town of ScyllæumA town on the promontory of the same name, now called Scilla or Sciglio, where the monster Scylla was fabled to have dwelt., the river CratæisHomer says (Odyssey, xii. 124), that it had its name from the nymph Cratæis, the mother of Scylla. It is probably the small stream now called Fiume di Solano or dei Pesci., the mother of Scylla it is said; then the Pillar of Rhegium, the Straits of Sicily, and the two promontories which face each other, CænysThe modern Capo di Cavallo, according to the older commentators; but more recent geographers think that the Punta del Pezzo was the point so called. on the Italian, and PelorusNow called Capo di Faro, from the lighthouse there erected. on the Sicilian side, the distance between them being twelve stadia. At a distance thence of twelve miles and a half, we come to RhegiumOriginally a Greek colony; a Roman colony was settled there by Augustus. The modern city of Reggio occupies its site., after which begins SilaIt extended south of Consentia to the Sicilian Straits, a distance of 700 stadia. It produced the pitch for which Bruttium was so celebrated. Its site still has the name of Sila., a forest of the Apennines, and then the pro- montory of LeucopetraOr White Rock, now Capo dell' Armi. It forms the extremity of the Apennine Chain., at a distance of fifteen miles; after which come the LocriThe site of the city of Locri is supposed to have been that of the present Motta di Burzano., who take their surname from the promontory of ZephyriumHe says that they were called Epizephyrii, from the promontory of Zephyrium, now the Capo di Burzano; but according to others, they had this name only because their colony lay to the west of their native Greece. Strabo says that it was founded by the Locri Ozolæ, and not the Opuntii, as most authors have stated., being distant from the river Silarus 303 miles.

At this spot ends the firstThis expression is explained by a reference to the end of the First Chapter of the present Book. great Gulf of Europe; the seas in which bear the following names:—That from which it takes its rise is called the Atlantic, by some the Great Atlantic, the entrance of which is, by the Greeks, called Porthmos, by us the Straits of Gades. After its entrance, as far as it washes the coasts of Spain, it is called the Hispanian Sea, though some give it the name of the Iberian or BalearicCalled by some the Canal de Baleares. Sea. Where it faces the province of Gallia Narbonensis it has the name of the Gallic, and after that, of the Ligurian, Sea. From Liguria to the island of Sicily, it is called the Tuscan Sea, the same which is called by some of the Greeks the NotianOr Southern Sea., by others the Tyrrhenian, while many of our people call it the Lower Sea. Beyond Sicily, as far as the country of the Salentini, it is styled by Polybius the Ausonian Sea. Eratosthenes however gives to the whole expanse that lies between the inlet of the ocean and the island of Sardinia, the name of the Sardoan Sea; thence to Sicily, the Tyrrhenian; thence to Crete, the Sicilian; and beyond that island, the Cretan Sea.

The first islands that we meet with in all these seas are the two to which the Greeks have given the name of PityussæThe modern Iviza and Formentera., from the pine-treeThe Greek for which is pi/tus., which they produce. These islands now bear the name of Ebusus, and form a federate state. They are separated by a narrow straitLess than two leagues in width. of the sea, and are forty-sixThe real distance is 34 miles from the northern point of Iviza, called Punta de Serra, to the southern point of Formentera, namely—across Iviza 22 miles, across the sea 5, and across Formentera 7. miles in extent. They are distant from DianiumNow Denia. 700 stadia, Dianium being by land the same distanceThis is not correct: the distance is but 45 miles. from New Carthage. At the same distanceThis is incorrect: taken at the very greatest, the distance is only 522 stadia, eight to the mile. from the Pityussæ, lie, in the open sea, the two Baleares, and, over against the river SucroThe Xucar in Spain., ColubrariaWe more generally find it stated that the isle of Formentera, one of the Pityusse, was called Colubraria. He probably refers to the islands of the group about twenty leagues from the coast of Spain, now known by the name of Columbrete; but they are not near the Xucar, from which, as well as from the Pityusss, they are distant about seventy miles. The latter islands are now generally considered as part of the group of the Baleares.. The BalearesNow Majorca and Minorca, with the ancient Pityussæ., so formidable in war with their slingersThey served as mercenaries, first under the Carthaginians and afterwards under the Romans. The ancient writers generally derive the name of the people from their skill as archers—balearei=s, from ba/llw, "to throw "; but Strabo assigns to the name a Phœnician origin, as being equivalent to the Greek gumnh=tai "light-armed soldiers." It is probably from their light equipment that the Greeks gave to the islands the name of Gumnhsi(ai. Livy says that they used to go naked during the summer., have received from the Greeks the name of Gymnasiæ.

The larger island is 100Seventy miles is the real length of Majorca, and the circumference is barely 250 miles. miles in length, and 475 in circumference. It has the following towns; PalmaStill called Palma. This and Pollentia were Roman colonies settled by Metellus. and PollentiaNow Pollenza., enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, CiniumNow Sineu on the Borga. and Tucis, with Latin rights: Bocchorum, a federate town, is no longer in existence. At thirty miles' distance is the smaller island, 40 miles in length, and 150The circumference is about 110 miles, the length 32. in circumference; it contains the states of JamnonNow Ciudadela., Sanisera, and MagonNow Port Mahon. The site of Sanisera, which was probably more inland, is unknown..

In the open sea, at twelve miles' distance from the larger island, is CaprariaNow Cabrera. The distance is not twelve, but nine miles. with its treacherous coast, so notorious for its numerous shipwrecks; and, opposite to the city of Palma, are the islands known as the MænariæNow called the Malgrates., TiquadraNow Dragonera., and Little HannibalisNow El Torre..

The earth of Ebusus has the effect of driving away serpents, while that of Colubraria produces them; hence the latter spot is dangerous to all persons who have not brought with them some of the earth of Ebusus. The Greeks have given it the name of OphiusaAs already mentioned he seems to confound Formentera, which was called Ophiusa, with the present group of Columbrete, which islands were probably called Colubraria.. Ebusus too produces noThe former editions mostly omit "nec"; and so make it that Ebusus does produce the rabbits. Certainly, it does seem more likely that he would mention that fact than the absence of it, which even to Pliny could not appear very remarkable. rabbits to destroy the harvests of the Baleares. There are also about twenty other small islands in this sea, which is full of shoals. Off the coast of Gaul, at the mouth of the Rhodanus, there is MetinaD'Anville thinks that this is Metapina, but D'Astruc thinks that the flat islands, called Les Tignes, are meant., and near it the island which is known as BlasconNow called Brescon, near Agde, according to D'Anville., with the three Stœchades, so called by their neighbours the MassiliansWho were of Greek origin, and so called them, because they stood in a row, stoi=xos., on account of the regular order in which they are placed; their respective names are ProteNow called Porqueroles. Prote signifies the first, Mese the middle one, and Hypæa the one below the others., MeseNow Port Croz. D'Anville considers that Pliny is mistaken in identifying this island with Pomponiana or Pompeiana, which he considers to be the same with the peninsula now called Calle de Giens, which lies opposite to Porqueroles., also called Pomponiana, and HypæaNow called the Ile du Levant or du Titan. The group is called the Islands of Hières or Calypso.. After these come SturiumThese are probably the little islands now known as Ratoneau, Pomègue, and If. It has however been suggested that these names belong to the islands of Hières already mentioned in the text, and that Sturium is the present Porquerolles, Phœnice Port-Croz, and Phila, Levant or Titan., Phœnice, Phila, Lero, and, opposite to AntipolisNow Antibes, or Antiboul in the Provençal idiom., LerinaNow Saint Honorat de Lérins. The island of Lero is the present Sainte Marguerite de Lérins, and is nearer to Antibes than Lerina. The Lerinian monastery was much resorted to in the early ages of Christianity., where there is a remembrance of a town called Vergoanum having once existed.

In the Ligurian Sea, but close to the Tuscan, is Corsica, by the Greeks called Cyrnos, extending, from north to south 150 miles, and for the most part 50 miles in breadth, its circumference being 325. It is 62 miles distant from the Vada VolaterranaIn ancient Etruria, now Torre di Vada. The distance is, in reality, about ninety miles.. It contains thirty-two states, and two colonies, that of MarianaMariana was situate in the northern part of the island, and the ruins of Aleria are still to be seen on the banks of the river Tavignano, near the coast., founded by C. Marius, and that of Aleria, founded by the Dictator Sylla. On this side of it is OglasaProbably near the present Monte Cristo., and, at a distance of less than sixty miles from Corsica, PlanariaHe probably means the group of islands called Formicole, which are situate only thirty-three miles from Corsica, and not near sixty., so called from its appearance, being nearly level with the sea, and consequently treacherous to mariners.

We next have UrgoNow La Gorgona., a larger island, and Capraria, which the Greeks have called ÆgilionBoth of these names meaning "Goat island." It is now called Capraia.; then IgiliumThe modern Giglio. and DianiumNow Gianuto, opposite Monte Argentaro on the main-land., which they have also called Artemisia, both of them opposite the coast of Cosa; also BarpanaThese are probably the small islands now called Formiete or Formicole di Grossetto, Troja, Palmajola, and Cervoli., Mænaria, Co- lumbaria, and Venaria. We then come to IlvaThe modern Elba. with its iron mines, an island 100 miles in circumference, 10 miles distant from Populonium, and called Æthalia by the Greeks: from it the island of PlanasiaNow Pianosa. is distant 28 miles. After these, beyond the mouths of the Tiber, and off the coast of Antium, we come to AsturaAstura still retains its ancient name, Palmaria is the present Palmarola, Sinonia is now Senone, and Pontiæ is the modern Isola di Ponza., then Palmaria and Sinonia, and, opposite to Formiæ, Pontiæ. In the Gulf of Puteoli are PandateriaNow Ventotiene., and Prochyta, so called, not from the nurse of Æneas, but because it has been poured forthDeriving its name from the Greek word proxuto\s, meaning "poured forth." or detached from ÆnariaThe present island of Ischia, off the coasts of Campania. The name of Pithecusæ appears to have been given by the Greeks to the two islands of Ænaria and Prochyta collectively., an island which received its name from having been the anchorage of the fleet of Æneas, though called by Homer InarimeOvid, like many other writers, mentions Inarime as though a different island from Pithecusæ. See Met. B. xiv. 1.89. As is here mentioned by Pliny, many persons derived the name "Pithecusæ" from pi/qhkos "an ape," and, according to Strabo, "Aremus" was the Etrurian name for an ape. Ovid, in the Metamorphoses, loc. cit., confirms this tradition by relating the change of the natives into apes. The solution of its name given by Pliny appears however extremely probable, that it gained its name from its manufacture of piqhka\, or earthen vessels. Virgil is supposed to have coined the name of "Inarime."; it is also called Pithecusa, not, as many have fancied, on account of the multitudes of apes found there, but from its extensive manufactories of pottery. Between PausilipumNow Posilippo. It is said to have derived its name from the Greek pausi)lupon, as tending to drive away care by the beauty of its situation. Virgil was buried in its vicinity. and Neapolis lies the island of MegarisThe modern Castel del' Ovo., and then, at a distance of eight miles from Surrentum, CapreæNow Capri. Here Tiberius established his den of lustfulness and iniquity. He erected twelve villas in the island, the remains of several of which are still to be seen., famous for the castle of the emperor Tiberius: it is eleven miles in circumference.

Leucothea comes next, and after it, but out of sight, as it lies upon the verge of the African Sea, Sardinia. It is situate somewhat lessThe distance between is hardly five miles. than eight miles from the nearest point of Corsica, and the Straits between them are even still more reduced by the small islands there situate, called the CuniculariæThese rocks appear at the present day to be nameless. The old name seems to mean, the "Rabbit Warrens.", as also those of PhintonisPhintonis, according to Hardouin, is the modern Isola di Figo, according to Mannert, Caprera. Cluver makes Fossæ to be the present Isola Rossa, while Mannert considers it to be the same with Santa Maddalena. and Fossæ, from which last the Straits themselves have obtained the name of TaphrosTafro\s being the Greek for the Latin word "fossa," the ordinary meaning of which is an "excavation.".

(7.) Sardinia extends, upon the east side, a distance of 188 miles, on the west 175, on the south 77, and on the north 125, being 565 miles in circumference. Its promontory of CaralisProbably the Cape of Carbonara, from which however Africa is distant only 121 miles, and the gulf of Gades or Cadiz 980. is distant from Africa 200, and from Gades 1400 miles. Off the promontory of GordisNow Capo Falcone. it has two islands called the Isles of HerculesNow Asinara or Zavara, and Isola Piana., off that of Sulcis, the island of EnosisNow called Santo Antiocho, off La Punta dell' Ulga., and off that of Caralis, FicariaAccording to Cluver, the modern Coltelalzo.. Some writers place Beleris not far from it, as also Callodis, and the island known as Heras LutraThe "Baths of Juno." The identity of these islands does not appear to have been ascertained..

The most celebrated peoples of this island are the IliensesSaid by Pausanias to have been descended from persons who escaped on the fall of Troy under the command of Iolaüs., the Balari, and the Corsi; and among its eighteen towns, there are those of the SulcitaniOf the town of Sulcis. Its ruins are probably those seen at the village of Sulci, near the port Palma di Solo., the ValentiniTheir town was probably on the site of the present Iglesias., the Neapoli- taniTheir town was probably either the present Napoli or Acqua di Corsari., the BosensesTheir town is probably indicated by the ruins on the river Gavino., the CaralitaniTheir town was Caralis, the present Cagliari., who enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, and the NorensesTheir town was probably Nora, the present Torre Forcadizo.. There is also one colony which is called Ad Turrim Libysonis"At Libyso's Tower.". Timæus has called this island Sandaliotis, on account of the similarity of its shape to the sole of a shoe, while Myrtilus has given it the name of IchnusaFrom the Greek i)/xnos, "a footstep.", from its resemblance to the print of a footstep. Opposite to the Gulf of Pæstum is LeucasiaNow La Licosa, a small rocky island., so called from a Siren who is buried there; opposite to Velia are Poiitia and Isacia, both known by one name, that of Œnotrides, a proof that Italy was formerly possessed by the Œnotrians. Opposite to Vibo are the little islands called IthacesiæNow Torricella, Praca, and Brace, with other rocks. from the watch-tower of Ulysses situate there.

But more celebrated than all is Sicily, called Sicania by Thucydides, and by many writers Trinacria or Trinacia, from its triangular appearance. According to Agrippa it is 618Posidonius, quoted by Strabo, says 550. miles in circumference. In former times it was a continuation of the territory of Bruttium, but, in consequence of the overflowing of the sea, became severed from it; thus forming a strait of 15 miles in length, and a mile and a half in width in the vicinity of the Pillar of Rhegium. It was from this circumstance of the land being severed asunder that the Greeks gave the name of RhegiumMeaning that it comes from the Greek verb r(hlnumi, "to break." This is probably only a fanciful origin of the name. to the town situate on the Italian shore.

In these Straits is the rock of Scylla, as also CharybdisThe present Garofalo. At the present day small boats approach it without danger., a whirlpool of the sea, both of them noted for their perils. Of this triangle, the promontory, which, as we have alreadyIn Chap. x. Pelorus is the modern Capo di Faro. mentioned, is called Pelorus, faces Scylla and juts out towards Italy, while PachynumNow Capo di Passaro. extends in the direction of Greece, Peloponnesus being at a distance from it of 440 miles, and LilybæumThe present Capo di Boco Marsala., towards Africa, being distant 180 miles from the promontory of MercuryNow Cape Bon. The real distance is but seventy-eight miles., and from that of Caralis in Sardinia 190. These promontories and sides are situate at the following distances from each other: by land it is 186 miles from Pelorus to Pachynum, from Pachynum to Lilybæum 200, and from Lilybæum to Pelorus 170The following are more probably the correct distances: 150, 210, and 230 miles..

In this island there are five colonies and sixty-three cities or states. Leaving Pelorus and facing the Ionian Sea, we have the town of MessanaNow Messina., whose inhabitants are also called Mamertini and enjoy the rights of Roman citizens; the promontory of DrepanumThe modern Capo di Santo Alessio., the colony of TauromeniumNow called Taormini; the remains of the ancient town are very considerable., formerly called Naxos, the river AsinesProbably the present Alcantara., and Mount Ætna, wondrous for the flames which it emits by night. Its crater is twenty stadia in circumference, and from it red-hot cinders are thrown as far as Tauromenium and Catina, the noise being heard even at MaroneumThe present Madonia and Monte di Mele. and the Gemellian Hills. We then come to the three rocks of the CyclopesNow called I Fariglioni., the Port of UlyssesIn modern times called "Lognina Statione," according to Hardouin., the colony of CatinaThe modern city of Catania stands on its site., and the rivers SymæthusThe Fiume di Santo Leonardo, according to Hardouin, but Mannert says the river Lentini. Ansart suggests the Guarna Lunga. and Terias; while more inland lie the Læstrygonian Plains.

To these rivers succeed the towns of LeontinumNow Lentini. The ruins of Megaris are still to be seen, according to Mannert. and Megaris, the river PantagiesNow the Porcaro., the colony of SyracuseThe modern city of Siracosa., with the fountain of ArethusaSee B. xxxi. c. 30, for particulars of this fountain., (the people in the Syracusan ter- ritory drink too of the fountains of TemenitisAccording to Mirabella, these springs are in modern times called Fonte di Canali, Cefalino, Fontana della Maddalena, Fonte Ciane, and Lampismotta., Archidemia, Magæa, Cyane, and Milichie,) the port of NaustathmusThe modern Fonte Bianche. The Elorus, according to Hardouin, is the modern Acellaro, according to Mannert, the Abisso., the river Elorus, and the promontory of Pachynum. This sideThe southern side. of Sicily begins with the river HirminiusNow the Maulo, or Fiume di Ragusa., then follow the town of CamarinaStill called Camarina. Scarcely any vestiges of the ancient city now remain., the river GelasAccording to Hardouin the Fiume Salso; but according to D'Anville and Mannert, the Fiume Ghiozzo., and the town of AgragasNow Girgenti. Gigantic remains of the ancient city are still to be seen., which our people have named Agrigentum. We next come to the colony of ThermæSee note 15 in this page., the rivers AchatesThe Achates is the modern Belice, the Mazara retains its name, and the Hypsa is now the Marsala., Mazara, and Hypsa; the town of SelinusSo called by the Greeks from its abundant growth of parsley, called by them se/linon. Its remains are still to be seen at the spot called Selenti., and then the Promontory of Lilybæum, which is succeeded by DrepanaNow Trapani. Some vestiges of its ancient mole are to be seen., Mount EryxThe present Monte San Juliano., the towns of PanhormusThe great city of Palermo stands on its site. It was founded by the Phœnicians., SolusThe modern Solunto. and HimeraHimera was destroyed by the Carthaginians, B.C. 408, upon which its inhabitants founded Thermæ, so called from its hot springs. This was probably the colony of Thermæ mentioned above by Pliny, though wrongly placed by him on the southern coast between Selinus and Agrigentum. The modern town of Termini stands on the site of Thermæ; remains of its baths and aqueduct are still to be seen. Himera stood on a river of the same name, most probably the present Fiume Grande, and Fazello is of opinion that the town was situate on the site now occupied by the Torre di Bonfornello. Himera was the birthplace of the poet Stesichorus., with a river of the same name, CephalœdisOr Cæphalœdium. Some remains of it are to be seen at the spot called Cefalu., AluntiumProbably on the site now occupied by the town of San Marco. Fazello and Cluver however place Aluntium near San Filadelfo, where some ruins were formerly visible, and regard San Marco as the site of Agathyrna or Agathyrnum., Agathyrnum, the colony of TyndarisProbably situate near the church of Santa Maria at Tindari, now the Capo di Mongioio., the town of MylæNow called Melazzo., and then Pelorus, the spot at which we began.

In the interior there are the following towns enjoying Latin privileges, those of the CenturipiniTheir city was Centuripa, on a hill S.W. of Ætna. The modern Centorbi occupies its site, and some of its ruins may still be seen., the NetiniNetum probably stood on the spot now known as Noto Anticho., and the SegestaniThe ruins of Segesta are supposed to be those near the river San Bartolomeo, twelve miles south of Alcamo.; tributary towns are those of the AssoriniAsaro occupies its site., the ÆtnensesA people dwelling at the foot of Mount Ætna, according to D'Anville, at a place now called Nicolosi., the AgyriniThe people of Agyrium; the site of which is now called San Filippo d'Argiro. Diodorus Siculus was a native of this place., the Acestæi, the AcrensesAcræ occupied a bleak hill in the vicinity of the modern Pallazolo, where its ruins are still to be seen., the BidiniTheir town was Bidis near Syracuse. The modern Bibino or San Giovanni di Bidini is supposed to stand on its site., the CetariniThe people of Cetaria, between Panormus and Drepanum. Its site is unknown., the CacyriniThe people of Cacyrum, supposed to have stood on the site of the modern Cassaro. The Drepanitani were so called from living on the promontory of Drepanum., the Drepanitani, the ErgetiniThe ruins near La Cittadella are probably those of Ergetium., the EchetliensesThe people of Echetla. According to Faziello and Cluver its ruins were those to be seen at the place called Occhiala or Occhula, two miles from the town of Gran Michele., the EryciniThe inhabitants of the city of Eryx, on the mountain of that name, now San Giuliano. The ancient city stood probably half-way down the mountain., the EntelliniThe town of Entella survived till the thirteenth century, when it was destroyed by the Emperor Frederic II. The ruins were formerly to be seen near Poggio la Reale., the EniniPerhaps the people of Enna, once a famous city. According to the story as related by Ovid and Claudian, it was from this spot that Proserpine was carried off by Pluto. It stood on the same site as the town of Castro Giovanni. This note may however be more applicable to the Hennenses, mentioned below., the EnguiniThe ruins of Enguinum are probably those in the vicinity of the modern town of Gangi., the GelaniThe people of Gela, one of the most important cities of Sicily. Its site was probably the modern Terranova, near the river Fiume di Terranova., the Gala- tiniThe people probably of Galata or Galaria; on the site of which the modern village of Galata is supposed to stand., the HalesiniThe people probably, of Halesa; its ruins are supposed to be those near the village of Tysa, near the river Pettineo., the Hennenses, the HyblensesThe people of Hybla. There were three cities of this name in Sicily, the Greater, the Less, and Hybla Megara. The name was probably derived from the local divinity mentioned by Pausanias as being so called., the HerbitensesThe people of Herbita; the site of which was probably at Nicosia, or else at Sperlinga, two miles south of it., the HerbessensesThere were two places in Sicily known as Herbessus or Erbessusone near Agrigentum, the other about sixteen miles from Syracuse, on the site, it is supposed, of the present Pantalica., the Herbulenses, the HalicyensesThe people of Halicyæ, in the west of Sicily. The modern town of Salemi is supposed to occupy its site., the HadranitaniThe people of Adranum or Hadranum, a town famous for its temple of the Sicilian deity Adranus. Its site is occupied by the modern town of Aderno. The ruins are very considerable., the Imacarenses, the Ipanenses, the IetensesThe people of Ietæ; the site of which town is said by Fazello to be the modern Iato. The sites of the places previously mentioned cannot be identified., the MytistratiniThe site of their town is situate at the modern Mistretta, where some ruins are still to be seen., the Magellini, the MurgentiniThe site of their town was probably the present village of Mandri Bianchi on the river Dittaino., the MutycensesProbably the people of Motuca, mentioned by Ptolemy, now Modica., the MenaniniTheir town probably stood on the site of the present Mineo., the NaxiiIt has been suggested that these are the same as the people of Tauromenium, said to have been a Naxian colony., the NoæiThey are supposed to have dwelt on the site of the present Noara., the PetriniThe ruins of the town of Petra are supposed to have been those to be seen near Castro Novo, according to Mannert., the ParopiniFazello is of opinion that the present Colisano occupies the site of the ancient Paropus., the PhthinthiensesThe city of Phthinthias was peopled by the inhabitants of Gela, by command of Phthinthias the despot of Agrigentum. Its ruins are probably those seen in the vicinity of the modern Alicata., the Semellitani, the Scherini, the SelinuntiiThe people of Selinus previously mentioned in p. 218., the Symæthii, the Talarienses, the TissinensesRandazzo, at the foot of Ætna, is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Tissa., the TriocaliniThe people of Triocala, now Troccoli, near Calata Bellota., the Tyraci- nenses, and the ZanclæiZancle was the ancient Greek name of Messina, which was so called from its similarity in shape to a sickle. The Messenian colony of the Zanclæi probably dwelt in its vicinity., a Messenian colony on the Straits of Sicily. Towards Africa, its islands are GaulosGaulos is the present Gozo, and Melita the important island of Malta. The distance here mentioned is in reality only sixty-one miles from Camerina., Melita, 87 miles from Camerina, and 113 from Lilybæum, CosyraNow Pantellaria., HieronnesosThe modern island of Maretimo., CæneProbably the present island of Limosa., GalataGalata still has the name of Calata, Lopadusa is the present Lam- pedosa, and Æthusa, according to Mannert, is called Favignana., Lopadusa, Æthusa, written by some Ægusa, BucinnaNow Levanzo., OsteodesAccording to Mannert, this is the island Alicur, to the west of the Æolian or Liparian islands. Ustica still retains its ancient name., distant from Soluntum 75 miles, and, opposite to Paropus, Ustica.

On this side of Sicily, facing the river Metaurus, at a di- stance of nearly 25The least distance between these localities is forty-five miles. miles from Italy, are the sevenThere are now eleven, some of which are supposed to have risen from the sea since the time of Pliny. islands called the Æolian, as also the Liparæan islands; by the Greeks they are called the Hephæstiades, and by our writers the VulcanianFrom Vulcan the god of fire, the Greek Hephaestus. Isles; they are called "Æolian" because in the Trojan times Æolus was king there.

(9.) LiparaNow called the Great Lipara., with a town whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, is so called from Liparus, a former king who succeededAccording to Solinus, c. vi., Æolus succeeded him. Its name Me- logonis was by some ascribed to its great produce of honey. Æolus, it having been previously called Melogonis or Meligunis. It is 25 milesThe shortest distance between these localities is forty-six miles. distant from Italy, and in circumference a little less. Between this island and Sicily we find another, the name of which was formerly Therasia, but now called Hiera, because it is sacred to VulcanNow called Volcano.: it contains a hill which at night vomits forth flames. The third island is StrongyleNow Strongoli and Stromboli. It is the only one of these mountains that is continually burning. Notwithstanding the dangers of their locality, this island is inhabited by about fifty families., lying one mileStrabo makes the same mistake; the distance is twenty miles. to the east of Lipara, over which Æolus reigned as well; it differs only from Lipara in the superior brilliancy of its flames. From the smoke of this volcano it is said that some of the inhabitants are able to predict three days beforehand what winds are about to blow; hence arose the notion that the winds are governed by Æolus. The fourth of these islands is DidymeAccording to Hardouin and D'Anville this is the modern Saline, but Mannert says Panaria. The geographers differ in assigning their ancient names to the other three, except that Euonymos, from its name, the "lefthand" island, is clearly the modern Lisca Bianca., smaller than Lipara, the fifth Ericusa, the sixth Phœnicusa, left to be a pasture-ground for the cattle of the neighbouring islands, and the last and smallest Euonymos. Thus much as to the first great Gulf of Europe.

At Locri begins the fore-part of Italy, called Magna Græcia, whose coast falls back in three baysThese are the Gulf of Locri, the Gulf of Scyllacium, and the Gulf of Tarentum. formed by the Ausonian sea, so called from the Ausones, who were the first inhabitants of the country. According to Varro it is 86 miles in extent; but most writers have made it only 75. Along this coast there are rivers innumerable, but we shall mention those only that are worthy of remark. After leaving Locri we come to the SagraNow called the Sagriano, though some make it to be the modern Alaro. The site of the town of Caulon does not appear to be known:, it is by some placed at Castel Vetere on the Alaro., and the ruins of the town of Caulon, MystiæSaid by Hardouin to be the modern Monasteraci or Monte Araci., Consilinum CastrumSupposed to have been situate on a hill near the modern Padula., CocinthumThe modern Punta di Stilo, or "Point of the Column.", in the opinion of some, the longest headland of Italy, and then the Gulf of ScylaciumThe modern Gulf of Squillace., and ScylaciumNow Squillace. itself, which was called by the Athenians, when they founded it, Scylletium. This part of Italy is nearly a peninsula, in consequence of the Gulf of TerinæumNow the Gulf of Saint Eufemia. running up into it on the other side; in it there is a harbour called Castra HannibalisHannibal's Camp." This was the seaport of Scyllacium, and its site was probably near the mouth of the river Corace.: in no part is Italy narrower than here, it being but twenty miles across. For this reason the Elder Dionysius entertained the idea of severingAccording to Strabo, B. vi., he intended to erect a high wall across, and so divide it from the rest of Italy; but if we may judge, from the use by Pliny of the word "intercisam," it would seem that it was his design to cut a canal across this neck of land. this portion from the main-land of Italy at this spot, and adding it to Sicily. The navigable rivers in this district are the CarcinesAccording to Hardouin, the Carcines is the present river Corace, the Crotalus the Alli, the Semirus the Simari, the Arocas the Crocchio, and the Targines the Tacina., the Crotalus, the Semirus, the Arocas, and the Targines. In the interior is the town of PetiliaThe present Strongolo, according to D'Anville and Mannert., and there are besides, Mount ClibanusThe present Monte Monacello and Monte Fuscaldo are supposed to form part of the range called Clibanus., the promontory of Lacinium, in front of which lies the island of DioscoronMeaning that it was sacred to Castor and Pollux. Such are the changes effected by lapse of time that these two islands are now only bleak rocks. The present locality of the other islands does not appear to be known., ten miles from the main-land, and another called the Isle of Calypso, which Homer is supposed to refer to under the name of Ogygia; as also the islands of Tiris, Eranusa, and Meloessa. According to Agrippa, the promontory of LaciniumNow Capo di Colonne. is seventy miles from Caulon.

(11.) At the promontory of Lacinium begins the second Gulf of Europe, the bend of which forms an are of great depth, and terminates at Acroceraunium, a promontory of Epirus, from which it is distantThe real distance from Acroceraunimn, now Capo Linguetta, is 153 miles, according to Ansart. seventy-five miles. We first come to the town of CrotonOr Crotona, one of the most famous Greek cities in the south of Italy. No ruins of the ancient city, said by Livy to have been twelve miles in circumference, are now remaining. The modern Cotrone occupies a part of its site. Pythagoras taught at this place., and then the river NeæthusThe modern Neto., and the town of ThuriiNow called Turi, between the rivers Crati and Sibari or Roscile., situate between the two rivers Crathis and Sybaris, upon the latter of which there was once a cityA Greek town, famous for the inordinate love of luxury displayed by its inhabitants, whence a voluptuary obtained the name of a "Sybarite." It was destroyed by the people of Crotona, who turned the waters of the Crathis upon the town. Its site is now occupied by a pestilential swamp. of the same name. In a similar manner HeracliaA famous Greek city founded on the territory of the former Ionian colony of Siris. The foundations of it may still be seen, it is supposed, near a spot called Policoro, three miles from the sea. The rivers are now called the Sinno and the Agri., sometimes called Siris, lies between the river of that name and the Aciris. We next come to the rivers Acalandrus and CasuentumThe modern Salandra or Salandrella, and the Basiento., and the town of MetapontumSo called from its lying between the two seas. It was once a celebrated Greek city, but was in ruins in the time of Pausanias. The place called Torre di Mare now occupies its site., with which the third region of Italy terminates. In the interior of Bruttium, the AprustaniThe site of Aprustum is supposed to be marked by the village of Argusto, near Chiaravalle, about five miles from the Gulf of Squillace. Atina was situate in the valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. The ruins of Atina, which are very extensive, are to be seen near the village of Atena. Livy and Acron speak of Bantia as in Apulia, and not in Lucania. An ancient abbey, Santa Maria di Vanze, still marks its site. are the only people; but in Lucania we find the Atinates, the Bantini, the EburiniThe ruins of Eburi are supposed to be those between the modern Eboli and the right bank of the Silarus. The remains of Grumentum, a place of some importance, are still to be seen on the river Agri, half a mile from the modern Saponara. Potenza occupies the site of ancient Potentia., the Grumentini, the Potentini, the SontiniThe Sontini were probably situate on the river Sontia, now the Sanza, near Policastro. The Sirini probably had their name from the river Siris., the Sirini, the Tergilani, the Ursentini, and the VolcentaniVolcentum was situate near the Silarus, probably on the spot now called Bulcino or Bucino. The site of Numistro appears to be unknown., whom the Numestrani join. Besides these, we learn from CatoIn his work "De Originibus." that Thebes in Lucania has disappeared, and Theopompus informs us that there was formerly a city of the Lucani called PandosiaLivy, B. viii., and Justin mention how that Alexander I. (in the year B.C. 326) was obliged to engage under unfavourable circumstances near Pandosia, on the Acheron, and fell as he was crossing the river; thus accomplishing a prophecy of Dodona which had warned him to beware of Pandosia and the Acheron. He was uncle to Alexander the Great, being the brother of Olympias. The site of Pandosia is supposed to have been the modern Castro Franco., at which Alexander, the king of Epirus, died.

Adjoining to this district is the second region of Italy, which embraces the Hirpini, Calabria, Apulia, and the Salentini, extending a distance of 250 miles along the Gulf of Tarentum, which receives its name from a town of the Laconians so called, situate at the bottom of the Gulf; to which was annexed the maritime colony which had previously settled there. TarentumThis word is understood in the text, and Ansart would have it to mean that the "Gulf of Tarentum is distant," &c., but, as he says, such an assertion would be very indefinite, it not being stated what part of the Gulf is meant. He therefore suggests that the most distant point from Lacinium is meant; which however, according to him, would make but 117 miles straight across, and 160 by land. The city of Tarentum would be the most distant point. is distant from the promontory of Lacinium 136 miles, and throws out the territory of Calabria opposite to it in the form of a peninsula. The Greeks called this territory Messapia, from their leaderMessapus, a Beotian, mentioned by Strabo, B. ix.; before which it was called Peucetia, from PeucetiusA son of Lycaon., the brother of Œnotrius, and was comprised in the territory of Salentinum. Between the two promontoriesOf Lacinium and Acra Iapygia. About seventy miles seems to be the real distance; certainly not, as Pliny says, 100. there is a distance of 100 miles. The breadth across the peninsula from TarentumThe modern Taranto to Brindisi. to Brundusium by land is 35 miles, considerably less if measured from the port of SasinaProbably situate at the further extremity of the bay on which Tarentum stood.. The towns inland from Tarentum are VariaAccording to D'Anville and Mannert, the modern Oria. Messapia is the modern Mesagna. surnamed Apulia, Messapia, and AletiumThe modern Santa Maria dell' Alizza, according to D'Anville.; on the coast, Senum, and CallipolisThe modern Gallipoli, in the Terra di Otranto. The real distance from Tarentum is between fifty and sixty miles., now known as Anxa, 75 miles from Tarentum. Thence, at a distance of 32 miles, is the Pro- montory of Acra IapygiaThe "Iapygian Point," the present Capo di Santa Maria di Leuca., at which point Italy projects the greatest distance into the sea. At a distance of 19 miles from this point is the town of BastaIts site is occupied by the little village of Vaste near Poggiordo, ten miles S.W. of Otranto. In the sixteenth century considerable remains of Basta were still to be seen., and then HydruntumThe modern Otranto stands on its site. In the fourth century it became the usual place of passage from Italy to Greece, Apollonia, and Dyrrhachium. Few vestiges of the ancient city are now to be seen., the spot at which the Ionian is separated from the Adriatic sea, and from which the distance across to Greece is the shortest. The town of the ApolloniatesAnciently Apollonia, in Illyria, now called Pallina or Pollona. lies opposite to it, and the breadth of the arm of the sea which runs between is not more than fifty miles. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, was the first who entertained the notion of uniting these two points and making a passage on foot, by throwing a bridge across, and after him M. VarroThis was M. Terentius Varro, called "the most learned of the Romans." His design, here mentioned, seems however to have evinced neither learning nor discretion., when commanding the fleet of Pompey in the war against the Pirates. Other cares however prevented either of them from accomplishing this design. Passing Hydruntum, we come to the deserted site of SoletumNow called Soleto. The ruins of the ancient city, described by Galateo as existing at Muro, are not improbably those of Fratuertium, or, perhaps more rightly, Fratuentum., then Fratuertium, the Portus Tarentinus, the haven of Miltopa, LupiaThe modern Lecce is supposed to occupy its site., BalesiumCalled Valetium by Mela. Its ruins are still to be seen near San Pietro Vernotico, on the road from Brindisi to Lecce. The site is still called Baleso or Valesio., CæliaAnsart takes this to be the modern village of Cavallo, on the promontory of that name; but it is more probably the modern Ceglie, situate on a hill about twelve miles from the Adriatic, and twenty-seven miles west of Brindisi. Extensive ruins still exist there. There was another town of the same name in the south of Apulia., and then BrundusiumNow Brindisi. Virgil died here. The modern city, which is an impoverished place, presents but few vestiges of antiquity. The distance to Dyrrhachium is in reality only about 100 miles., fifty miles from Hydruntum. This last place is one of the most famous .ports of Italy, and, although more distant, affords by far the safest passage across to Greece, the place of disembarkation being Dyrrachium, a city of Illyria; the distance across is 225 miles.

Adjoining Brundusium is the territory of the PediculiThey occupied probably a portion of the modern Terra di Bari.; nine youths and as many maidens, natives of Illyria, became the parents of sixteen nations. The towns of the Pediculi are RudiæSaid by Hardouin to be the modern Carouigna or Carovigni; but Mannert asserts it to be the same as the modern Ruvo., EgnatiaOr Gnatia, called by Strabo and Ptolemy a city of Apulia. It was probably the last town of the Peucetians towards the frontiers of Calabria. Horace, in the account of his journey to Brundusium (I. Sat. i. 97–100), makes it his last halting-place, and ridicules a pretended miracle shown by the inhabitants, who asserted that incense placed on a certain altar was consumed without fire being applied. The same story is referred to by Pliny, B. ii. c. 111, where he incorrectly makes Egnatia a town of the Salentini. Its ruins are visible on the sea-coast, about six miles S.E. of Monopali, and an old town still bears the name of Torre d'Agnazzo., and BariumNow Bari, a considerable city. In the time of Horace it was only a fishing town. It probably had a considerable intercourse with Greece, if we may judge from the remains of art found here.; their rivers are the Iapyx (so called from the son of Dædalus, who was king there, and who gave it the name of Iapygia), the PactiusIt is difficult to identify these rivers, from the number of small torrents between Brindisi and the Ofanto or Aufidus. According to Mannert, the Pactius is the present Canale di Terzo., and the Aufidus, which rises in the Hirpinian mountains and flows past CanusiumAn important city of Apulia, said to have been founded by Diomedes. Horace alludes to its deficiency of water. The modern Canosa is built on probably the site of the citadel of the ancient city, the ruins of which are very extensive..

At this point begins Apulia, surnamed the Daunian, from the Daunii, who take their name from a former chief, the father-in-law of Diomedes. In this territory are the towns of SalapiaThe ruins of this place are still to be seen at some little distance from the coast, near the village of Salpi. The story about Hannibal was very probably of Roman invention, for Justin .and Frontinus speak in praise of his continence and temperance. Appian however gives some further particulars of this alleged amour., famous for Hannibal's amour with a courtezan, SipontumThe present Manfredonia has arisen from the decay of this town, in consequence of the unhealthiness of the locality. Ancient Uria is supposed to have occupied the site of Manfredonia, and the village of Santa Maria di Siponto stands where Siponti stood., Uria, the river CerbalusProbably the Cervaro. Hardouin says the Candelaro., forming the boundary of the Daunii, the port of AgasusThe present Porto Greco occupies its site., and the Promontory of Mount GarganusStill known as Gargano., distant from the Promontory of Salentinum or Iapygia 234 miles. Making the circuit of Garganus, we come to the port of GarnaProbably the present Varano., the Lake PantanusNow Lago di Lesina. The Frento is now called the Fortore., the river Frento, the mouth of which forms a harbour, Teanum of the ApuliTo distinguish it from Teanum of the Sidicini, previously mentioned., and Larinum, CliterniaBetween the Tifernus and the Frento. Its remains are said to be still visible at Licchiano, five miles from San Martino. The Tifernus is now called the Biferno., and the river Tifernus, at which the district of the FrentaniA people of Central Italy, occupying the tract on the east coast of the peninsula, from the Apennines to the Adriatic, and from the frontiers of Apulia to those of the Marrucini. begins. Thus there were three different nations of the Apulians, [the Daunii,] the Teani, so called from their leader, and who sprang from the Greeks, and the Lucani, who were subdued by CalchasStrabo (B. vi.) refers to this tradition, where he mentions the oracle of Calchas, the soothsayer, in Daunia in Southern Italy. Here answers were given in dreams, for those who consulted the oracle had to sacrifice a black ram, and slept a night in the temple, lying on the skin of the victim., and whose country is now possessed by the Atinates. Besides those already mentioned, there are, of the Daunii, the colonies of LuceriaThe modern Lucera in the Capitanata. and VenusiaThe birth-place of Horace; now Verosa in the Basilicata., the towns of CanusiumThe modern Canosa stands on the site of the citadel of ancient Canusium, an Apulian city of great importance. The remains of the ancient city are very considerable. and Arpi, formerly called Argos HippiumSo called, it was said, in remembrance of Argos, the native city of Diomedes. It was an Apulian city of considerable importance. Some slight traces of it are still to be seen at a spot which retains the name of Arpa, five miles from the city of Foggia. and founded by Diomedes, afterwards called Argyrippa. Here too Diomedes destroyed the nations of the Monadi and the Dardi, and the two cities of Apina and TricaThe names of these two defunct cities were used by the Romans to signify anything frivolous and unsubstantial; just as we speak of "castles in the air," which the French call "chatêaux en Espagne.", whose names have passed into a by-word and a proverb.

Besides the above, there is in the interior of the second region one colony of the Hirpini, BeneventumLivy and Ptolemy assign this place to Samnium Proper, as distinguished from the Hirpini. It was a very ancient city of the Sanmites, but in the year B.C. 268, a Roman colony was settled there, on which occasion, prompted by superstitious feelings, the Romans changed its name Maleventum, which in their language would mean "badly come," to Beneventun or "well come." The modern city of Benevento still retains numerous traces of its ancient grandeur, among others a triumphal arch, erected A.D. 114 in honour of the emperor Trajan., so called by an exchange of a more auspicious name for its old one of Maleventum; also the ÆculaniThe remains of Æculanum are to be seen at Le Grotte, one mile from Mirabella. The ruins are very extensive., the AquiloniiThere were probably two places called Aquilonia in Italy; the remains of the present one are those probably to be seen at La Cedogna. That mentioned by Livy, B. x. c. 38–43, was probably a different place., the Abellinates surnamed Protropi, the Compsani, the Caudini, the Ligures, both those called the Corneliani and Bebiani, the Vescellani, the Æclani, the Aletrini, the AbellinatesThese are supposed by some to be the people of Abellinum mentioned in the first region of Italy. Nothing however is known of these or of the Abellinates Marsi, mentioned below. surnamed Marsi, the Atrani, the ÆcaniAEcæ is supposed to have been situate about nineteen miles from Herdonia, and to have been on the site of the modern city of Troja, an episcopal see. The Compsani were the people of Compsa, the modern Conza; and the Caudini were the inhabitants of Caudium, near which were the Fauces Caudinæ or "Caudine Forks," where the Roman army was captured by the Samnites. The site of this city was probably between the modern Arpaja and Monte Sarchio; and the defeat is thought to have taken place in the narrow valley between Santa Agata and Moirano, on the road from the former place to Benevento, and traversed by the little river Iselero. The enumeration here beginning with the Æclani is thought by Hardouin to be of nations belonging to Apulia, and not to the Hirpini. The Æclani, here mentioned, were probably the people of the place now called Ascoli di Satriano, not far from the river Carapella. Of the Aletrini and Atrani nothing appears to be known., the AlfellaniProbably the people of Afiilæ, still called Affile, and seven miles from Subiaco. Inscriptions and fragments of columns are still found there., the AtinatesThe people of Atinum, a town of Lucania, situate in the upper valley of the Tanager, now the Valle di Diano. Its site is ascertained by the ruins near the village of Atena, five miles north of La Sala. Collatia was situate on the Anio, now called the Teverone., the Arpani, the Borcani, the Collatni, the Cori- nenses, the CannensesThe ruins of the town of Canuæ are still visible at a place called Canne, about eight miles from Canosa. The Romans were defeated by Hannibal, on the banks of the Aufidus in its vicinity, but there is considerable question as to the exact locality. The ruins of the town are still considerable., rendered famous by the defeat of the Romans, the Dirini, the ForentaniForentum was the site of the present Forenza in the Basilicate. It is called by Horace and Diodorus Siculus, Ferentum. The ancient town probably stood on a plain below the modern one. Some remains of it are still to be seen., the GenusiniOn the site of Genusium stands the modern Ginosa. The ruins of the ancient city of Herdonea are still to be seen in the vicinity of the modern Ordona, on the high road from Naples to Otranto. This place witnessed the defeat by Hannibal of the Romans twice in two years., the Herdo- nienses, the HyriniThe mention of the Hyrini, or people of Hyrium or Hyria, is probably an error, as he has already mentioned Uria, the same place, among the Daunian Apulians, and as on the sea-shore. See p. 228. It is not improbably a corrupted form of some other name., the Larinates surnamed FrentaniFrom the Frento, on the banks of which they dwelt., the MerinatesViesta, on the promontory of Gargano, is said to occupy the site of the ancient Merinum. of Garganus, the Mateolani, the NetiniAccording to Mannert, the modern town of Noja stands on the site of ancient Netium., the Ru- bustiniThey inhabited Ruvo, in the territory of Bari, according to Hardouin., the SilviniTheir town was Silvium; probably on the site of the modern Savigliano., the StrapelliniAccording to D'Anville their town was Strabellum, now called Rapolla., the Turmentini, the VibinatesTheir town is supposed to have been on the site of the modern Bovino, in the Capitanata., the Venusini, and the Ulurtini. In the interior of Calabria there are the Ægetini, the ApamestiniThe people of Apamestæ; probably on the site of the modern San Vito, two miles west of Polignano., the Argentini, the ButuntinensesThe people of Butuntum, now Bitonto, an inland city of Apulia, twelve miles from Barium, and five from the sea. No particulars of it are known. All particulars too of most of the following tribes have perished., the Deciani, the Grumbestini, the Norbanenses, the Palionenses, the SturniniD'Anville places their city, Sturni, at the present Ostuni, not far from the Adriatic, and fourteen leagues from Otranto., and the Tutini: there are also the following Salentine nations; the AletiniThe people of Aletium already mentioned., the BasterbiniTheir town possibly stood on the site of the present village of Veste, to the west of Castro. The Neretini were probably the people of the present Nardo., the Neretini, the Uxentini, and the VeretiniProbably the people of the town which stood on the site of the present San Verato..

We now come to the fourth region, which includes the most valiant probably of all the nations of Italy. Upon the coast, in the territory of the FrentaniThey occupied what is now called the Abruzzo Inferiore., after the river Tifernus, we find the river TriniumNow the Trigno., with a good harbour at its mouth, the towns of HistoniumOn the site of the present Vasto d'Ammone, five miles south of the Punta della Penna. There are numerous remains of the ancient city., BucaAccording to Strabo Buca bordered on the territory of Teanum, which would place its site at Termoli, a seaport three miles from the mouth of the Biferno or Tifernus. Other writers, however, following Pliny, have placed it on the Punta della Penna, where considerable remains were visible in the 17th century. Ortona still retains its ancient name., and Ortona, and the river AternusNow the Pescara.. In the interior are the Anxani surnamed Frentani, the Higher and Lower CarentiniThe sites of their towns are unknown; but D'Anville supposes the Higher or Upper Carentum to have occupied the site of the modern Civita Burella, and the Lower one the Civita del Conte., and the Lanuenses; in the territory of the Marrucini, the TeatiniTeate is supposed to be the present Chieti.; in that of the Peligni, the CorfiniensesThe people of Corfinium, the chief city of the Peligni. It is supposed to have remained in existence up to the tenth century. Its ruins are seen near Pentima, about the church of San Pelino., the SuperæquaniThe site of Superæquum is occupied by the present Castel Vecchio Subequo., and the SulmonensesThe people of Sulmo, a town ninety miles from Rome. It was the birth-place of Ovid, and was famous for the coldness of its waters, a circumstance mentioned by Ovid in his Tristia, B. iv. ch. x. 1. 4. It is now called Sulmona.; in that of the Marsi, the AnxantiniThe people of Anxanum or Anxa, on the Sangro, now known as the city of Lanciano; in the part of which, known as Lanciano Vecchio, remains of the ancient town are to be seen., the AtinatesThe people probably of Atina in Samnium, which still retains the same name., the FucentesThey probably took their name from the Lake Fucinus, the modern Lago Fucino, or Lago di Celano., the LucensesThey dwelt in a town on the verge of Lake Fucinus, known as Lucus., and the MarruviniThe ruins of Marruvium may still be seen at Muria, on the eastern side of Lake Fucinus.; in that of the Albenses, the town of Alba on Lake Fucinus; in that of the Æquiculani, the CliterniniIt has been suggested, from the discovery of a sepulchral inscription there, that Capradosso, about nine miles from Rieti in the upper valley of the Salto, is the site of ancient Cliternia. The small village of Alba retains the name and site of the former city of Alba Fucensis, of which there are considerable remains., and the CarseolaniThe modern town of Carsoli is situate three miles from the site of ancient Carseoli, the remains of which are still visible at Civita near the Ostoria del Cavaliere. Ovid tells us that its climate was cold and bleak, and that it would not grow olives, though fruitful in corn. He also gives some other curious particulars of the place.—Fasti, B. iv. 1. 683 et seq.; in that of the Vestini, the AngulaniThe modern Civita Sant Angelo retains nearly its ancient name as that of its patron saint. It is situate on a hill, four miles from the Adriatic, and south of the river Matrinus, which separated the Vestini from the territories of Adria and Picenum., the Pinnenses, and the Peltuinates, adjoining to whom are the AufinatesThe village of Ofena, twelve miles north of Popoli, is supposed to retain the site of ancient Aufina. Numerous antiquities have been found here. Cismontani; in that of the Samnites, who have been called SabelliCato in his 'Origines' stated that they were so called from the fact of their being descended from the Sabines., and whom the Greeks have called Saunitæ, the colony of old BovianumThe site of the town of Bovianum is occupied by the modern city of Bojano; the remains of the walls are visible. Mommsen however considers Bojano to be the site of only Bovianum Undecumanorum, or "of the Eleventh Legion," and considers that the site of the ancient Samnite city of Bovianum Vetus is the place called Piettrabondante, near Agnone, twenty miles to the north, where there appear to be the remains of an ancient city., and that of the Undecumani, the AufidenatesThe people of Aufidena, a city of northern Samnium, in the upper valley of the Sagrus or Sagro. Its remains, which show it to have been a place of very great strength, are to be seen near the modern village of Alfidena, on a hill on the left bank of the modern Sangro., the EserniniThe people of Esernia, now Isernia., the Fagifulani, the FicolensesThe people of Ficulia or Ficolea, a city of ancient Latium on the Via Nomentana. It is supposed that it was situate within the confines of the domain of Cesarini, and upon either the hill now called Monte Gentile, or that marked by the Torre Lupara., the SæpinatesSæpinum is supposed to be the same with the modern Supino or Sipicciano., and the Tereventinates; in that of the Sabini, the AmiterniniThe ruins of the ancient Sabine city of Amiternum are still visible at San Vittorino, a village about five miles north of Aquila. Considerable remains of antiquity are still to be seen there., the CurensesThe people of Cures, an ancient city of the Sabines, to the left of the Via Salaria, about three miles from the left bank of the Tiber, and twenty-four from Rome. It was the birth-place of Numa Pompilius. Its site is occupied by the present villages of Correse and Arci, and considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen., Forum DecîNothing is known of this place; but it has been suggested that it stood in the neighbourhood of Forum Novum (or 'New Market'), next mentioned, the present Vescovio., Forum Novum, the Fidenates, the InteramnatesThis Interamna must not be confounded with Interamna Lirinas, mentioned in C. 9, nor Interamna Nartis, mentioned in C. 19. It was a city of Picenum in the territory of the Prætutii. The city of Teramo stands on its site; and extensive remains of the ancient city are still in existence., the NursiniFrom their town, Norsia in the duchy of Spoleto is said to derive its name., the NomentaniThe people of Nomentum, now La Mentana., the ReatiniThe people of Reate, now Rieti, below Mursia., the Trebulani, both those called MutusciThe people of Trebule Mutuscæ, said to have stood on the site of the present Monte Leone della Sabina, below Rieti. This place is mentioned in the seventh Æneid of Virgil, as the "Olive-bearing Mutusca." and those called SuffenatesTheir town was Trebula Suffena, on the site of the present Montorio di Romagna. The Tiburtes were the people of Tibur, the modern Tivoli; and the Tarinates were the inhabitants of Tarinum, now Tarano., the Tiburtes, and the Tarinates.

In these districts, the CominiThe people of Cominium, the site of which is uncertain. It is supposed that there were three places of this name. One Cominiun is mentioned in the Samnite wars as being about twenty miles from Aquilonia, while Cominium Ceritum, probably another place, is spoken of by Livy in his account of the second Punic War. The latter, it is suggested, was about sixteen miles north-west of Beneventum, and on the site of the modern Cerreto. The Comini here mentioned by Pliny, it is thought, dwelt in neither of the above places. The sites of the towns of many of the peoples here mentioned are also equally unknown., the Tadiates, the Cædici, and the Alfaterni, tribes of the Æquiculi, have disappeared. From Gellianus we learn that ArchippeSolinus, B. ii., also states, that this place was founded by Marsyas, king of the Lydians. Hardouin mentions that in his time the remains of this town were said to be seen on the verge of the lake near Transaco., a town of the Marsi, built by Marsyas, a chieftain of the Lydians, has been swallowed up by Lake Fucinus, and Valerianus informs us that the town of the Viticini in Picenum was destroyed by the Romans. The Sabini (called, according to some writers, from their attention to religiousFrom the Greek te/besqai "to worship." observances and the worship of the gods, Sevini) dwell on the dew-clad hills in the vicinity of the Lakes of the VelinusThe river Velinus, now Velino, rising in the Apennines, in the vicinity of Reate, overflowed its banks and formed several small lakes, the largest of which was called Lake Velinus, now Pie di Lugo or Lago, while a smaller one was called Lacus Reatinus, now Lago di Santa Susanna. In order to carry off these waters, a channel was cut through the rocks by Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of the Sabines, by means of which the waters of the Velinus were carried through a narrow gorge to a spot where they fall from a height of several hundred feet into the river Nar. This fall is now known as the Fall of Terni or the Cascade Delle Marmore.. The Nar, with its sulphureous waters, exhausts these lakes, and, descending from Mount FiscellusStill called Monte Fiscello, near the town of Civita Reale. Virgil calls the Nar (now the Nera), "Sulphureâ Nar albus aquâ," "The white Nar with its sulphureous waters."—Æneid, vii. 517., unites with them near the groves of VacunaA Sabine divinity said to have been identical with Victory. The Romans however made her the goddess of leisure and repose, and represented her as being worshiped by the husbandmen at harvest home, when they were "vacui," or at leisure. She is mentioned by Ovid in the Fasti, B. vi. 1. 307. The grove here alluded to was one of her sanctuaries. and Reate, and then directs its course towards the Tiber, into which it discharges itself. Again, in another direction, the AnioThe modern Teverone, which rises near Tervi or Trevi., taking its rise in the mountain of the Trebani, carries into the Tiber the waters of three lakes remarkable for their picturesque beauty, and to which Subla- queumA town of the Æqui, now known as Subiaco. In its vicinity was the celebrated villa of Claudius and Nero, called the Villa Sublacencis. is indebted for its name. In the territory of Reate is the Lake of CutiliæThis was a town of the Sabines between Reate and Interocrea, in the vicinity of a small lake of the same name. It was a mere pool, according to Dionysius, being but 400 feet in diameter. It is supposed that the floating island was formed from the incrustations of carbonate of lime on the banks, which, becoming detached, probably collected in the middle. The lake still exists, but the floating island has disappeared. There are some fine ruins of Roman baths in the vicinity of the lake., in which there is a floating island, and which, according to M. Varro, is the navel or central point of Italy. Below the Sabine territory lies that of La- tium, on one side Picenum, and behind it Umbria, while the range of the Apennines flanks it on either side.

The fifth region is that of Picenum, once remarkable for the denseness of its population; 360,000 Picentines took the oaths of fidelity to the Roman people. They are descended from the Sabines, who had made a vow to celebrate a holy springIt was a custom with the early Italian nations, especially the Sabines, in times of danger and distress, to vow to the deity the sacrifice of all the produce of the ensuing spring, that is, of the period from the first day of March till the last day of April. It is probable that in early times human sacrifices were the consequence; but at a later period the following custom was adopted instead. The children were allowed to grow up, and in the spring of their twentieth or twenty-first year were with covered faces driven across the frontier of their native country, to go whithersoever chance or the guidance of the deity might lead them. The Mamertini in Sicily were said to have had this origin.. Their territory commenced at the river AternusNow the Aterno, which falls into the sea at Atri or Ortona., where the present district and colony of AdriaA famous city of Etruscan origin, which still retains its name of Adria or Atri. It had very considerable intercourse with Greece, and there are extensive remains of antiquity in its vicinity, towards Ravegnano. The river is still called the Vomano. is, at a distance of six miles from the sea. Here we find the river Vomanus, the territories of Prætutia and PalmaThese places are again mentioned in B. xiv. c. 8., Castrum NovumOr "New Castle." It probably occupied the site of the now deserted town of Santo Flaviano, near the banks of the river Tordino, the Batinus of Pliny, and below the modern town of Giulia Nova., the river Batinus; TruentumThe river still has the name of Tronto; Porto di Martin Scuro occupies the site of the town., with its river of the same name, which place is the only remnant of the LiburniWho had crossed over as colonists from the opposite coast of Illyricum. in Italy; the river AlbulaAccording to Mannert the river Tesino is the same as the Albula, and Tervium is the modern town of Grotte a Mare; but D'Anville makes the latter to be the town of Cupra next mentioned.; Tervium, at which the Prætutian district ends, and that of Picenum begins; the town of CupraThis was called Cupra Maritima, to distinguish it from the town of the Cuprenses Montani, afterwards mentioned. It is said by Strabo to have had its name from the Tyrrhenian name of Juno. From the discovery of an inscription belonging to her temple here, there is little doubt that D'Anville is right in his suggestion that the site of Cupra is at Grotte a Mare, eight miles from the mouth of the Truentus or Tronto., Castellum FirmanorumThe Fortress of the Firmani," five miles from Firmum, an important city of Picenum. The Fortress was situate at the mouth of the Leta, and was the port of the city. It is still called Porto di Fermo., and above it the colony of AsculumOften called "Asculum Picenum" to distinguish it from Asculum in Apulia. It was a place of considerable strength, and played a great part in the Social War. It is unknown at what period it became a Roman colony. The modern city of Ascoli stands on its site., the most illustrious in Picenum; in the interior there is the town of NovanaNow called Monte Novano, according to D'Anville and Brotier.. Upon the coast we have CluanaIts site is supposed to have been that of the small town called Santo Elpidio a Mare, four miles from the sea, and the same distance north of Fermo. The remains of Potentia are supposed to be those in the vicinity of the modern Porto di Recanati. Numana is supposed to be the modern Umana, near the Cuscione, where, in the seventeenth century, extensive ruins were to be seen., Potentia, Numana, founded by the Siculi, and AnconaIt still retains its ancient name, which was derived from the Greek a)gkw\n "the elbow," it being situate on a promontory which forms a curve, and almost encloses the port. The promontory is still called Monte Comero. A triumphal arch, erected in honour of Trajan, who constructed a new mole for the port, is still in fine preservation, and there are remains of an amphitheatre., a colony founded by the same people on the Promontory of Cumerus, forming an elbow of the coast, where it begins to bend in- wards, and distant from Garganus 183 miles. In the interior are the AuximatesThe modern city of Osimo stands on the site of Auximum, about twelve miles south-west of Ancona. Numerous inscriptions, statues, and other remains have been found there., the BeregraniCluver conjectures that Beregra stood at Civitella di Tronto, ten miles north of Teramo; but nothing further relative to it is known. Cingulum was situate on a lofty mountain; the modern town of Cingoli occupies its site., the Cingulani, the Cuprenses surnamed MontaniThe mountaineers." They inhabited Cupra Montana, which is supposed to have stood on the same site as the modern Ripa Transone., the FalariensesThe people of Falaria or Faleria. There are considerable remains of this town about a mile from the village of Falerona, among which a theatre and amphitheatre are most conspicuous. The remains of Pausula are supposed to be those seen on the Monte dell' Olmo. The town of the Ricinenses is supposed to have been on the banks of the Potenza, two miles from Macerata, where some remains were to be seen in the seventeenth century., the Pausulani, the Planinenses, the Ricinenses, the SeptempedaniSeptempeda is supposed to have occupied the site of the modern San Severino, on the river Potenza. Tollentinum or Tollentum was probably on the site of the modern Tolentino. The town of the Treienses is supposed to have occupied a site near the modern San Severino, in the vicinity of Montecchio., the Tollentinates, the Treienses, and the Pollentini of Urbs SalviaA colony of the people of Pollentia was established at Urbs Salvia, occupying the site of the modern Urbisaglia on the bank of the Chiento..

Adjoining to this is the sixth region, which includes Umbria and the Gallic territory in the vicinity of Ariminum. At Ancona begins the coast of that part of Gaul known as Gallia TogataCisalpine Gaul was so called because the inhabitants adopted the use of the Roman toga.. The Siculi and the Liburni possessed the greater part of this district, and more particularly the territories of Palma, of Prætutia, and of Adria. These were expelled by the Umbri, these again by the Etrurians, and these in their turn by the Gauls. The Umbri are thought to have been the most ancient race in Italy, it being supposed that they were called "Ombrii" by the Greeks, from the fact of their having survived the rainsThis fanciful derivation would make their name to come from the Greek o)/mbros "a shower." which had inundated the earth. We read that 300 of their towns were conquered by the Tusci; at the present day we find on their coast the river ÆsisNow the Esino., SenogalliaSo called from the Galli Senones. The modern city of Sinigaglia occupies its site. The river Metaurus is still called the Metauro., the river Metaurus, the colonies of Fanum FortunæThe Temple of Fortune." At this spot the Flaminian Way joined the road from Ancona and Picenum to Ariminum. The modern city of Fano occupies the site, but there are few remains of antiquity. and PisaurumThe modern Pesaro occupies the site of the town; the river is called the Foglia., with a river of the same name; and, in the interior, those of HispellumThis was a flourishing town of Umbria. Augustus showed it especial favour and bestowed on it the Grove and Temple of Clitumnus, though at twelve miles' distance from the town. The modern town of Spello occupies its site, and very extensive remains of antiquity are still to be seen. It probably received two Roman colonies, as inscriptions mention the "Colonia Julia Hispelli" and the "Colonia Urbana Flavia." It is considered probable that Hispellum, rather than Mevania, was the birth-place of the poet Propertius. Tuder is supposed to have occupied the site of the modern Todi, on the Tiber. and Tuder.

Besides the above, there are the AmeriniThe people of Ameria, an important and flourishing city of Umbria. There are still remains of the ancient walls; the modern town of Amelia occupies its site., the AttidiatesThe site of Attidium is marked by the modern village of Attigio, two miles south of the city of Fabriano, to which the inhabitants of Attidium are supposed to have migrated in the middle ages., the AsisinatesThe people of Asisium. The modern city of Assisi (the birth-place of St. Francis) occupies its site. There are considerable remains of the ancient town., the ArnatesThe people of Arna, the site of which is now occupied by the town of Civitella d'Arno, five miles east of Perugia. Some inscriptions and other objects of antiquity have been found here., the ÆsinatesThe people of Æsis, situate on the river of the same name. It is still called Iesi. Pliny, in B. xi. c. 97, mentions it as famous for the excellence of its cheeses., the CamertesThe people of Camerinum, a city of Umbria. The present Camerino occupies its site. Its people were among the most considerable of Umbria. The site of the Casuentillani does not appear to be known., the Casuentillani, the CarsulaniThe people of Carsulæ, an Umbrian town of some importance. Its ruins are still visible about half way between San Germino and Acqua Sparta, ten miles north of Narni. Holsten states that the site was still called Carsoli in his time, and there existed remains of an amphitheatre and a triumphal arch in honour of Trajan. Nothing seems to be known of the Dolates., the Dolates surnamed Salentini, the FulginiatesThe people of Fulginium. From Cicero we learn that it was a municipal town. The modern city of Foligno has risen on its site. An inscription discovered here has preserved the name of Fulginia, probably a local divinity., the ForoflaminiensesThe people of Forum Flaminii, situated on the Flaminian Way, where it first entered the Apennines, three miles from Fulginium. It was here that the Emperors Gallus and Volusianus were defeated and slain by Æmilianus, A.D. 256. The ruins at the spot called Giovanni pro Fiamma mark its site. The site of Forum Julii appears to be unknown, as also that of Forum Brentani., the Forojulienses surnamed Concupienses, the Forobrentani, the ForosemproniensesThe people of Forum Sempronii, the only town in the valley of the Metaurus. The modern city of Fossombrone, two miles distant, has thence taken its name. Considerable vestiges of the ancient town are still to be seen. The battle in which Hasdrubal was defeated by the Roman consuls Livius and Nero, B.C. 207, was probably fought in its vicinity., the IguviniThe people of Iguvium, an ancient and important town of Umbria. Its site is occupied by the modern city of Gubbio. Interamna on the Nar has been previously mentioned., the Interamnates surnamed Nartes, the MevanatesThe people of the town of Mevania, now called Bevagna, in the duchy of Spoleto. The Mevanionenses were the people of Mevanio, or Mevaniolæ, in the vicinity of Mevania, and thought by Cluver to be the modern Galeata., the Mevanionenses, the MatilicatesTheir town was Matilica, which still retains that name. It is situate in the Marches of Ancona., the NarniensesTheir town still retains the name of Narni., whose town used formerly to be called Nequinum; the NuceriniTheir town was surnamed Favonia and Camellaria, to distinguish it from several others of the same name. The present Nocera stands on its site., both those surnamed Favonienses and those called Camellani; the OcriculaniThe people of Ocriculum, now Otricoli, previously mentioned., the OstraniAccording to Hardouin, the ruins of Ostra are those near Monte Nuovo, now Sinigaglia, but D'Anville thinks that the modern Corinaldo marks its site., the Pitulani, both those surnamed Pisuertes and the others called Mergentini; the PlestiniNothing is known of the Plestini, nor yet of the Pitulani, who seem to have been a different people to those mentioned in the First Region., the SentinatesThe town of Sentis, according to D'Anville and Mannert, was in the vicinity of the modern town of Sasso Ferrato., the Sarsi- natesThe people of Sarsina, an important town of Umbria, famous as being the birth-place of the comic poet Plautus. It is now called Sassina, on the Savio., the SpoletiniThe people of Spoletum, now Spoleto. It was a city of Umbria on the Via Flaminia, colonized by the Romans B.C. 242. In the later days of the Empire it was taken by Totilas, and its walls destroyed. They were however restored by Narses., the SuasiniThe people of Suasa; the remains of which, according to D'Anville and Mannert, are those seen to the east of the town of San Lorenzo, at a place called Castel Leone., the SestinatesThe monastery of Sestino is supposed to stand on the site of Sestinum, their town, at the source of the river Pesaro., the SuillatesThe site of their town is denoted by the modern Sigello in the Marches of Ancona., the TadinatesTheir town is supposed to have been also situate within the present Marches of Ancona, where they join the Duchy of Spoleto., the TrebiatesTheir town was Trebia. The modern Trevi stands on its site., the TuficaniThe people of Tuficum, which Holsten thinks was situate between Matelica and Fabrianum, on the river called the Cesena., the TifernatesThe site of Tifernum Tiberinum is occupied by the present Citta di Castello, and that of Tifernum Metaurense, or "on the Metaurus," by Sant Angelo in Vado in the Duchy of Urbino. The first-named place was in the vicinity of the estates of the Younger Pliny. surnamed Tiberini, and the others called Metaurenses, the Vesinicates, the Urbinates, both those surnamed MetaurensesD'Anville and Mannert are of opinion that Urbania on the Metaurus, two leagues south-east of Urbino, marks the site of their town. The Hortenses probably dwelt on the site of the present Urbino. and the others called Hortenses, the VettonensesThe site of their town was probably the present Bettona. The site of the towns of the peoples next mentioned is unknown., the Vindinates, and the Viventani. In this district there exist no longer the Feliginates who possessed Clusiolum above Interamna, and the Sarranates, with their towns of AcerræNothing is known of its position. There were cities in Campania and Cisalpine Gaul also called Acerræ. The first has been mentioned under the First Region. Of the other places and peoples mentioned in this Chapter no particulars seem to have come down to us., surnamed Vafriæ, and Turocelum, also called Vettiolum; as also the Solinates, the Curiates, the Fallienates, and the Apiennates. The Arienates also have disappeared with the town of Crinovolum, as well as the Usidicani, the Plangenses, the Pæsinates, and the Cælestini. Cato writes that Ameria above-mentioned was founded 964 years before the war with Perseus.

The eighth region is bounded by Ariminum, the Padus, and the Apennines. Upon the coast we have the river CrustumiumNow the Conca. It is called "rapax Crustumium" by Lucan, B. ii. l. 406., and the colony of AriminumOne of the most important cities of Umbria. It played a conspicuous part in most of the internal wars of the Romans. The modern city of Rimini which stands on its site, still retains two striking monuments of its grandeur; the Roman bridge of marble, which crosses the river Ariminus, erected by Augustus and Tiberius, and a triumphal arch of marble, erected in honour of Augustus. The river Ariminus is now called the Marocchia, and the Aprusa is the Ausa., with the rivers Ariminus and Aprusa. Next comes the river RubicoA papal decree, issued in 1756, declared the river Lusa to have been the ancient Rubicon, but the more general opinion is that the Pisatello, a little to the north of it, has better claims to that honour. On the north bank of the Rubicon a pillar was placed by a decree of the Senate, with an inscription giving notice that whoever should pass in arms into the Roman territory would be deemed an enemy to the state. It is especially celebrated in history by Cæsar's passage across it at the head of his army, by which act he declared war against the republic. See Lucan, B. i. 1. 200–230., once the boundary of Italy, and after it the SapisThe Sapis is the modern Savio, or Rio di Cesena; the Vitis is the Bevano, and the Anemo is the Roncone., the Vitis, and the Anemo, and then, Ravenna, a town of the SabinesStrabo and Zosimus however state that it was first founded by the Thessalians. Ravenna first came into notice on being made one of the two chief stations of the Roman fleet. The harbour which was made for it was called "Classes," and between it and Ravenna sprang up the town of Cæsarea. Though not deemed unhealthy, it lay in a swampy district. Theodoric made it the capital of the kingdom of the Goths. The modern city stands on the site of the ancient town. The river Bedesis is now called the Montone., with the river Bedesis, 105 miles from Ancona; and, not far from the sea, ButriumNo remains of it are extant; but it is supposed that it stood near the entrance of the Lagunes of Comacchio., a town of the Umbri. In the interior there are the colonies of BononiaThe modern Bologna stands on its site, and there are but few remains of antiquity to be seen., formerly called Felsina, when it was the chief place of EtruriaHe probably means only the Etruscan cities north of the Apennines., BrixillumThe modern town of Brescello occupies its site. Here the Emperor Otho put an end to his life on learning the defeat of his troops by Vitellius. It appears to have been a strong fortress in the time of the Lombard kings., MutinaThe modern Modena stands on its site. It was famous in the history of the civil wars after Cæsar's death. Decimus Brutus was besieged here by M. Antonius, in the years B.C. 44 and 43, and under its walls the consuls Hirtius and Pansa were slain. Its vicinity, like that of Parma, was famous for the excellence of its wool., ParmaThis was a Roman colony, which was enlarged by Augustus, and from him received the name of Colonia Julia Augusta. It was called, after the fall of the Western Empire, Chrysopolis or the "Golden City." The modern city of Parma occupies its site., and PlacentiaA Roman colony. The present city of Piacenza stands on its site.. There are also the towns of CæsenaIt still retains the name of Cesena, and is a considerable place. After the fall of the Western Empire it was used as a fortress of great strength. We shall find Pliny again mentioning it in B. xiv. c. 6, as famous for the goodness of its wines, a reputation which it still maintains. The name of Claterna, once a municipal town of importance, is still retained in part by a small stream which crosses the road nine miles from Bologna, and is called the Quaderna. An old church and a few houses, called Santa Maria di Quaderna, probably mark the site of the vicinity of the town, which was situate on the high road., Claterna, Forum ClodîThis Forum Clodii is said by D'Anville to be the modern Fornocchia. Forum Livii is supposed to have occupied the site of the present city of Forli. Forum Popili or Forli Piccolo occupies the site of Forum or Foro Popili., Forum Livî, Forum Popilî, Forum TruentinorumThis place is supposed to have stood on the spot where the episcopal town of Bertinoro now stands. In inscriptions it is called Forodruentinorum. Forum Cornelii, said to have been so called from the Dictator Sylla, occupied the site of the modern town of Imola. The poet Martial is said to have resided for some time in this town., Forum Cornelî, Forum Licinî, the FaventiniThe people of Faventia, now Faenza. Pliny, B. xix. c. i., speaks of the whiteness of its linen, for the manufacture of which it was celebrated. At this place Carbo and Norbanus were defeated with great loss by Metellus, the partisan of Sylla, in B.C. 82., the FidentiniThe people of Fidentia. The present Borga di San Donnino stands on its site, which is between Parma and Placentia, fifteen miles from the former city., the Otesini, the PadinatesCluver thinks that their town was on the site of the modern Castel Bondino., the Regi- ensesSo named after Æmilius Lepidus. The people of Regium Lepidum, the site of whose town is occupied by the modern Reggio., who take their name from Lepidus, the SolonatesSolonatium is supposed to have had the site of the modern Citta di Sole or Torre di Sole., the Saltus GallianiNothing certain is known of this people or their town, but it is thought by Rezzonico that by this name were meant those who occupied the wood-clad heights of the Apennines, above Modena and Parma. Cicero mentions a Saltus Gallicanus as being a mountain of Campania, but that is clearly not the spot meant here., surnamed Aquinates, the TannetaniTheir town is thought to have stood on the same site as the modern Tenedo., the VeliatesTheir town was perhaps on the same site as the modern Villac, on the river Nura., who were anciently surnamed Regiates, and the UrbanatesThe modern city of Ombria probably stands on the site of Urbana, their town, of which considerable remains are still to be seen.. In this district the BoiiThese and the Senones were nations of Cisalpine Gaul. The Boii emigrated originally from Transalpine Gaul, by the Penine Alps, or the Pass of Great St. Bernard. They were completely subdued by Scipio Nasica in B.C. 191, when he destroyed half of their population, and deprived them of nearly half of their lands. They were ultimately driven from their settlements, and established themselves in the modern Bohemia, which from them takes its name. The Senones, who had taken the city of Rome in B.C. 390, were conquered and the greater part of them destroyed by the Consul Dolabella in B.C. 283. have disappeared, of whom there were 112 tribes according to Cato; as also the Senones, who captured Rome.

(16.) The PadusThe Po, which rises in Monte Viso in Savoy. descends from the bosom of Mount Vesulus, one of the most elevated points of the chain of the Alps, in the territories of the Ligurian VagienniAlready mentioned in C. 7 of the present Book., and rises at its source in a manner that well merits an inspection by the curious; after which it hides itself in a subterranean channel until it rises again in the country of the Forovibienses. It is inferior in fame to none whatever among the rivers, being known to the Greeks as the Eridanus and famous as the scene of the punishment of PhaëtonOvid in his account of the adventure of Phaëton (Met. B. ii.) states that he fell into the river Padus.. At the rising of the Dog-star it is swollen by the melted snows; but, though it proves more furious in its course to the adjoining fields than to the vessels that are upon it, still it takes care to carry away no portion of its banks, and when it recedes, renders them additionally fertile. Its length from its source is 300 miles, to which we must add eighty-eight for its sinuosities; and it receives from the Apennines and Alps not only several navigable rivers, but immense lakes as well, which discharge themselves into its waters, thus conveying altogether as many as thirty streams into the Adriatic Sea.

Of these the best known are the following—flowing from the range of the Apennines, the Jactus, the TanarusThe Tanarus is still called the Tanaro. The Trebia, now the Trebbia, is memorable for the defeat on its banks of the Romans by Hannibal, B.C. 218. The Incia is the modern Enza or Lenza, the Tarus the Taro, the Gabellus the Secchia, the Scultenna the Panaro, and the Rhenus the Reno., the Trebia which passes Placentia, the Tarus, the Incia, the Gabellus, the Scultenna, and the Rhenus: from the chain of the Alps, the SturaThe Stura still has the same name; the Orgus is the modern Orco. The streams called Duriæ are known as the Dora Baltea and the Dora Riparia; the Sessites is the Sesia, the Ticinus the Tessino, the Lambrus the Lambro, the Addua the Adda, the Ollius the Oglio, and the Mincius the Menzo., the Orgus, the two Duriæ, the Sessites, the Ticinus, the Lambrus, the Addua, the Ollius, and the Mincius. There is no river known to receive a larger increase than this in so short a space; so much so indeed that it is impelled onwards by this vast body of water, and, invading the landThis seems to be the meaning of "gravis terræ," unless it signifies "pressing heavily upon the land," and so cutting out channels for its course. He has previously stated that, though rapid, it is not in the habit of carrying away its banks. See a very able article on the question whether the name Eridanus belonged originally to this river or to some other in the north of Europe, in Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Ancient Geography under the word "Eridanus.", forms deep channels in its course: hence it is that, although a portion of its stream is drawn off by rivers and canals between Ravenna and Altinum, for a space of 120 miles, still, at the spot where it discharges the vast body of its waters, it is said to form seven seas.

By the Augustan Canal the Padus is carried to Ravenna, at which place it is called the PadusaThat is to say, the canal made by Augustus was so called., having formerly borne the name of Messanicus. The nearest mouth to this spot forms the extensive port known as that of Vatrenus, where Claudius CæsarIt was on this occasion that, after a stay of only a few days in Britain, he quitted the island, returned to Rome, and celebrated a splendid triumph. This outlet of the Po has now the name of Po di Primero., on his triumph over the Britons, entered the Adriatic in a vessel that deserved rather the name of a vast palace than a ship. This mouth, which was formerly called by some the Eridanian, has been by others styled the Spinetic mouth, from the city of Spina, a very powerful place which formerly stood in the vicinity, if we may form a conclusion from the amount of its treasure deposited at Delphi; it was founded by Diomedes. At this spot the river VatrenusNow the Santerno, noted for the sluggishness of its waters., which flows from the territory of Forum Corneli, swells the waters of the Padus.

The next mouth to this is that of CaprasiaThe Ostium Caprasiæ is now called the Porto Interito di Bell' Ochio, the Ostium Sagis the Porto di Magnavacca; Volane, or Volana, is the south main branch of the river. The Ostia Carbonaria, mentioned below, was the north main branch, subdivided into several small branches; and the Fossæ or Fossiones Philistinæ connected the river, by means of the Tartarus, with the Athesis., then that of Sagis, and then Volane, formerly called Olane; all of which are situate upon the Flavian CanalThe reading is doubtful here, and even this, which is perhaps the best, appears to be corrupt; for it is difficult to conceive how all the mouths previously mentioned could have been upon one canal, and besides it would seem that Olane was one of the natural mouths of the river., which the Tuscans formerly made from Sagis, thus drawing the impetuous stream of the river across into the marshes of the Atriani, which they call the Seven Seas; and upon which is the noble port of AtriaMore generally Adria, from which, as Pliny says, the Adriatic takes its name. Either a Greek, or, what is more probable, as Pliny states, an Etruscan colony, it became the principal emporium of trade with the Adriatic, in consequence of which it was surrounded with canals and other works to facilitate its communications with other rivers. It is still called Adria, and in its vicinity to the south, considerable remains of the ancient city are still to be seen., a city of the Tuscans, from which place the sea was formerly called the Atriatic, though now the Adriatic.

We next come to the overflowing mouths of Carbonaria, and the Fosses of PhilistinaSo called from the Philistæi, said to have been the ancient inhabitants of the spot. They are now called the Bocca della Gnoca, the Bocca della Scovetta, the Busa delle Tole, the Sbocco dell'Asinino, &c. The Ostia Carbonaria and the Fosse Philistinæ were to the north of the ones previously mentioned., by some called Tarta- rusHe seems to confound the Fosses of Philistina with the Tartarus (now Tartaro). That river however connected the Fosses of Philistina with the Athesis, now the Adige., all of which originate in the overflow of the waters in the Philistinian Canal, swollen by the streams of the Atesis, descending from the Tridentine Alps, and of the TogisonusNow the Bacchiglione., flowing from the territory of the Patavini. A portion of them also forms the adjoining port of BrundulumThe modern Brondolo., in the same manner as EdronNow Chioggia, formed by the rivers Brenta and Brentella. Hardouin thinks the Clodian Canal to be the same as the modern Fossa Paltana. is formed by the two rivers Meduacus and the Clodian Canal. With the waters of these streams the Padus unites, and with them discharges itself into the sea, forming, according to most writers, between the Alps and the sea-shore a triangular figure, 2000 stadia in circumference, not unlike the Delta formed by the Nile in Egypt. I feel somewhat ashamed to have to borrow from the Greeks any statement in reference to Italy; Metrodorus of Scepsos, however, informs us that this river has obtained its name of Padus from the fact, that about its source there are great numbers of pine-trees, which in the Gallic language are called "padi." In the tongue of the Ligurians this river is called "Bodincus," which signifies "the bottomless." This derivation is in some measure supported by the fact that near this river there is the town of IndustriaNow Monteu di Po, below Chevasso, mentioned in the 7th Chapter., of which the ancient name was Bodincomagum, and where the river begins to be of greater depth than in other parts.

From the river Padus the eleventh region receives its name of Transpadana; to which, situate as it is wholly in the interior, the river, by its bounteous channel, conveys the gifts of all the seas. The towns are Vibî ForumThis place is supposed to have been situate in the vicinity of the modern Saluzzo, on the north bank of the Po. Segusio occupied the site of the modern Susa. and Segusio; and, at the foot of the Alps, the colony of Augusta TaurinorumAugusta of the Taurini. The present city of Turin stands on its site. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus. With the exception of some inscriptions, Turin retains no vestiges of antiquity., at which place the Padus becomes navigable, and which was founded by the ancient race of the Ligurians, and of Augusta PrætoriaThe present city of Aosta occupies its site. This was also a Roman colony founded by Augustus, after he had subdued the Salassi. It was, as Pliny says in C. 5, the extreme point of Italy to the north. The remains of the ancient city are of extreme magnificence. of the Salassi, near the two passes of the Alps, the GrecianThe Grecian pass of the Alps was that now known as the Little St. Bernard; while the Penine pass was the present Great St. Bernard. Livy in his History, B. xxi. c. 38, points out the error of taking these mountains to have derived their name from the Pœni or Carthaginians. There is no doubt that they took their name from the Celtic word signi fying a mountain, which now forms the "Pen" of the Welsh and the "Ben" of the Scotch. and the Penine (by the latter it is said that the Carthaginians passed into Italy, by the Grecian, Hercules)—the town of EporediaNow called Ivrea or Lamporeggio, at the entrance of the valley of the Salassi, the present Val d'Aosta. There are some remains of the ancient town to be seen., the foundation of which by the Roman people was enjoined by the Sibylline books; the Gauls call tamers of horses by the name of "Epore- diæ"—VercellæThe present town of Vercelli stands on its site., the town of the Libici, derived its origin from the Salluvii, and NovariaNow called Novara, in the Duchy of Milan., founded by the Vertacoma- cori, is at the present day a district of the Vocontii, and not, as Cato supposes, of the Ligurians; of whom two nations, called the Lævi and the Marici, founded TicinumIt became a Roman municipal town, but owes its greatness to the Lombard kings who made it their capital, and altered the name to Papia, now Pavia., not far from the Padus, as the Boii, descended from the Transalpine nations, have founded Laus PompeiaPompey's Praises." The present Lodi Vecchio marks its site. and the Insubres Me- diolanumIt was the capital of the Insubres, a Gallic nation, and was taken by the Romans in B.C. 222, on which it became a municipium and Roman colony. On the division of the empire by Diocletian, it became the residence of his colleague Maximianus, and continued to be the abode of the Emperors of the West till it was plundered by Attila, who transferred the seat of government to Ravenna. It afterwards became the capital of the kingdom of the Ostro-Goths, and was again sacked by the Goths in A.D. 539, and its inhabitants put to the sword. The present city, known to us as Milan, contains no remains of antiquity..

From Cato we also learn that Comum, BergomumThe modern Como and Bergamo stand on their sites., and LicinîforumFrom its name, signifying the "market of Licinius," it would appear to be of Roman origin. Its site is supposed to have been at a place called Incino, near the town of Erba, between Como and Lecco, where inscriptions and other antiquities have been found., and some other peoples in the vicinity, originated with the Orobii, but he admits that he is ignorant as to the origin of that nation. Cornelius Alexander however informs us that they came from Greece, interpreting their name as meaning "those who live upon the mountainsDeriving it from the Greek o)/ros, "a mountain," and bi/os, "life."." In this district, Parra has disappeared, a town of the Orobii, from whom, according to Cato, the people of Bergomum are descended; its site even yet shows that it was situate in a position more elevated than fruitfulEtiamnum prodente se altius quam fortunatius situm." Hardouin seems to think that "se" refers to Cato, and that he informs us to that effect; but to all appearance, it relates rather to the town, which even yet, by its ruins, showed that it was perched too high among the mountains to be a fertile spot.. The Caturiges have also perished, an exiled race of the Insubres, as also Spina previously mentioned; Melpum too, a place distinguished for its opulence, which, as we are informed by Cornelius Nepos, was destroyed by the Insubres, the Boii, and the Senones, on the very day on which Camillus took Veii.

We now come to the tenth region of Italy, situate on the Adriatic Sea. In this district are VenetiaThe district of the Veneti. These people, taking refuge in the adjoining islands in the fifth century to escape the Huns under Attila, founded the modern city of Venice., the river SilisNow called the Sile, which flows past Trevigio or Treviso., rising in the TarvisanianThe mountainous district in the vicinity of Tarvisium, the modern Treviso. mountains, the town of Alti- numSituate in a marsh or lagune on the river Sile. It became a Roman colony after Pliny's time, under the Emperor Trajan. Its villas are described by Martial as rivalling those of Baiæ. The Emperor Verus died here A.D. 169. The modern village of Altino is a very impoverished place. The Liquentia is now called the Livenza., the river Liquentia rising in the mountains of OpitergiumNow called Oderzo, on the river Montegano, which flows into the Liquenza. The conduct of the people of this place, in the wars between Pompey and Cæsar, is mentioned by Lucan, in his Pharsalia, B. iv. 1. 462., and a port with the same name, the colony of ConcordiaFrom inscriptions we find that this place was called Colonia Julia Concordia, from which it seems probable that it was one of the colonies founded by Augustus to celebrate the restoration of peace. It rapidly rose into importance, and is often mentioned during the later ages of the Roman Empire, as one of the most important cities in this part of Italy. It is now a poor village, with the same name, and no remains of antiquity beyond a few inscriptions.; the rivers and harbours of RomatinumThe Romatinum is the modern Lemene. Pliny seems to imply, (though from the uncertainty of the punctuation it is not clear,) that on the Romatinum there was a port of that name. If so, it would probably occupy the site of the present Santa Margherita, at the mouth of the Lemene., the greater and less TiliaventumThe greater Tiliaventum is the modern Tagliamento; and Hardouin suggests that the smaller river of that name is the Lugugnana., the AnaxumThis river is supposed to be the same with the modern Stella, and the Varamus the Revonchi, which joins the Stella., into which the Varamus flows, the AlsaNow called the Ansa. The Natiso is the modern Natisone, and the Turrus the Torre; the former flowed past Aquileia on the west, the latter on the east, in former times, but their course is probably now changed, and they fall into the Isonzo, four miles from the city., and the Natiso with the Turrus, which flow past the colony of AquileiaThe capital of Venetia, and one of the most important cities of Northern Italy. In the year A.D. 452 it was besieged by Attila, king of the Huns, taken by storm, and plundered and burnt to the ground. On its site, which is very unhealthy, is the modern village of Aquileia, with about 1400 inhabitants. No ruins of any buildings are visible, but the site abounds with coins, shafts of columns, inscriptions, and other remains of antiquity. at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea. This is the country of the CarniPtolemy states that Concordia and Aquileia were situate in the district of the Carni., and adjoining to it is that of the lapydes, the river TimavusStill called the Timavo., the fortress of PucinumCastel Duino stands on its site. It will be found again mentioned in B. xiv. C. 8, for the excellence of its wines., famous for its wines, the Gulf of TergesteNow the Gulf of Trieste. Tergeste was previously an insignificant place, but made a Roman colony by Vespasian. The modern city of Trieste occupies its site., and the colony of that name, thirty-three miles from Aquileia. Six miles beyond this place lies the river FormioMost probably the modern Risano. Cluver and D'Anville are of that opinion, but Walckenaer thinks that it was a small stream near Muja Vecchia; which seems however to be too near Trieste., 189 miles distant from Ravenna, the ancient boundaryIn the time of Augustus, and before Istria was added as a province to Italy. of enlarged Italy, and now the frontier of Istria. That this region takes its name from the river Ister which flows from the Danube, also called the Ister, into the Adriatic opposite the mouth of the Padus, and that the sea which lies between them is rendered fresh by their waters running from opposite directions, has been erroneously asserted by many, and among them by Nepos even, who dwelt upon the banks of the Padus. For it is the fact that no river which runs from the Danube discharges itself into the Adriatic. They have been misled, I think, by the circumstance that the ship Argo came down some river into the Adriatic sea, not far from Tergeste; but what river that was is now unknown. The most careful writers say that the ship was carried across the Alps on men's shoulders, having passed along the Ister, then along the Savus, and so from NauportusHe alludes to an old tradition that the Argonauts sailed into the Ister or Danube, and then into the Save, till they came to the spot where the modern town of Upper Laybach stands, and that here they built Nauportus, after which they carried their ship across the mountains on men's shoulders into the Adriatic. He intends to suggest therefore that the place had its name from the Greek nau=s "a ship" and porymo\s "a passage.", which place, lying between ÆmonaThe modem town of Laybach stands on its site. It is situate on the Save, and on the road from Aquileia to Celeia. The Roman remains prove that the ancient city exceeded the modern one in magnitude. According to tradition it was founded by the Argonauts. It subsequently became a Roman colony, with the title of Julia Augusta. It is again mentioned in C. 28. and the Alps, from that circumstance derives its name.

Istria projects in the form of a peninsula. Some writers have stated its length to be forty miles, and its circumference 125; and the same as to Liburnia which adjoins it, and the Flanatic GulfNow the Golfo di Quarnaro. Liburnia was separated from Istria on the north-west by the river Arsia, and from Dalnatia on the south by the river Titus or Kerka, corresponding to the western part of modern Croatia, and the northern part of modern Dalmatia. Iapydia was situate to the north of Dalmatia and east of Liburnia, or the present military frontier of Croatia, between the rivers Kulpa and Korana to the north and east, and the Velebich mountains to the south. Istria consisted of the peninsula which still bears the same appellation., while others make it 225This passage, "while others make it 225," is omitted in many of the MSS. and most of the editions. If it is retained, it is not improbable that his meaning is, "and the circumference of Liburnia which joins it, with the Flanatic Gulf, some make 225, while others make the compass of Liburnia to be 180 miles." It depends on the punctuation and the force of "item," and the question whether the passage is not in a corrupt state; and it is not at all clear what his meaning really is.; others again make the circumference of Liburnia 180 miles. Some persons too extend Iapydia, at the back of Istria, as far as the Flanatic Gulf, a distance of 130 miles, thus making Liburnia but 150 miles. TuditanusHe alludes to C. Sempronius Tuditanus, Consul B.C. 129. He gained his victory over the lapydes chiefly through the skill of his legatus, D. Junius Brutus. He was a distinguished orator and historian. He was the maternal grandfather of the orator Hortensius., who subdued the Istri, had this inscription on his statue which was erected there: "From Aquileia to the river Titus is a distance of 1000 stadia."

The towns of Istria with the rights of Roman citizens are ÆgidaThis place is only mentioned by Pliny, but from an inscription found, it appears that the emperor Justin II. conferred on it the title of Justinopolis. It is thought that it occupied the site of the present town of Capo d'Istria.—Parentium stood on the site of the present Parenzo., Parentium, and the colony of PolaIt still retains its name., now Pietas Julia, formerly founded by the Colchians, and distant from Tergeste 100 miles: after which we come to the town of NesactiumSupposed to have occupied the site of the modern Castel Nuovo, past which the Arsia, now the Arsa, flows., and the river Arsia, nowSince Istria had been added to it by Augustus. the boundary of Italy. The distance across from Ancona to Pola is 120 miles. In the interior of the tenth region are the colonies of Cremona, Brixia in the territory of the CenomanniLivy seems to imply that Cremona was originally included in the territory of the Insubres. A Roman colony being established there it became a powerful city. It was destroyed by Antonius the general of Vespasian, and again by the Lombard king Agilulfus in A.D. 605. No remains of antiquity, except a few inscriptions, are to be seen in the modern city., AtesteThe modern city of Este stands on the site of Ateste. Beyond inscriptions there are no remains of this Roman colony. belonging to the Veneti, and the towns of AcelumAsolo stands on its site., PataviumIt was said to have been founded by the Trojan Antenor. Under the Romans it was the most important city in the north of Italy, and by its commerce and manufactures attained great opulence. It was plundered by Attila, and, by Agilulfus, king of the Lombards, was razed to the ground. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of Livy. Modern Padua stands on its site, but has no remains of antiquity., Opitergium, BelunumNow called Belluno. Vicetia has been succeeded by the modem Vicenza., and Vicetia; with MantuaMantua was not a place of importance, but was famous as being the birth-place of Virgil; at least, the poet, who was born at the village of Andes, in its vicinity, regarded it as such. It was said to have had its name from Manto, the daughter of Tiresias. Virgil, in the Æneid, B. x., alludes to its supposed Tuscan origin., the only city of the Tuscans now left beyond the Padus. Cato informs us that the Veneti are descendants of the TrojansLed by Antenor, as Livy says, B. i., and that the CenomanniThe Cenomanni, a tribe of the Cisalpine Gauls, seem to have occupied the country north of the Padus, between the Insubres on the west and the Veneti on the east. From Polybius and Livy we learn that they had crossed the Alps within historical memory, and had expelled the Etruscans and occupied their territory. They were signalized for their amicable feelings towards the Roman state. dwelt among the Volcæ in the vicinity of Massilia. There are also the towns of the FertiniTheir town was Fertria or Feltria, the modern Feltre., the TridentiniThe modern city of Trento or Trent occupies the site of Tridentum, their town. It is situate on the Athesis or Adige. It became famous in the middle ages, and the great ecclesiastical council met here in 1545., and the Beruenses, belonging to the Rhæti, VeronaIt was a Roman colony under the name of Colonia Augusta, having originally been the capital of the Euganei, and then of the Cenomanni. It was the birth-place of Catullus, and according to some accounts, of our author, Pliny. Modern Verona exhibits many remains of antiquity., belonging to the Rhæti and the Euganei, and Ju- liensesD'Anville says that the ruins of this town are to be seen at the modern Zuglio. to the Carni. We then have the following peoples, whom there is no necessity to particularize with any degree of exactness, the Alutrenses, the Asseriates, the FlamoniensesHardouin thinks that their town, Flamonia, stood on the site of the modern Flagogna. with those surnamed Vanienses, and the others called Culici, the ForojuliensesTheir town, Forum Julii, a Roman colony, stood on the site of the modern Friuli. Paulus Diaconus ascribes its foundation to Julius Cæsar. surnamed Transpadani, the Foretani, the NedinatesSupposed by Miller to have inhabited the town now called Nadin or Susied., the QuarqueniTheir town was probably on the site of the modern Quero, on the river Piave, below Feltre., the TaurisaniProbably the same as the Tarvisani, whose town was Tarvisium, now Treviso., the Togienses, and the Varvari. In this district there have disappeared—upon the coast—Iramene, Pellaon, and Palsatium, Atina and Cælina belonging to the Veneti, Segeste and Ocra to the Carni, and Noreia to the Taurisci. L. Piso also informs us that although the senate disapproved of his so doing, M. Claudius MarcellusThe conqueror of Syracuse. The fact here related probably took place in the Gallic war. razed to the ground a tower situate at the twelfth mile-stone from Aquileia.

In this region also and the eleventh there are some celebrated lakesThis must be the meaning; and we must not, as Holland does, employ the number as signifying that of the lakes and rivers; for the Ticinus is in the eleventh region., and several rivers that either take their rise in them or else are fed by their waters, in those cases in which they again emerge from them. These are the AdduaNow the Adda, running through Lago di Como, the Tesino through Lago Maggiore, the Mincio through Lago di Garda, the Seo through Lago di Seo, and the Lambro now communicating with the two small lakes called Lago di Pusiano and Lago d'Alserio, which in Pliny's time probably formed one large lake., fed by the Lake Larius, the Ticinus by Lake Verbannus, the Mincius by Lake Benacus, the Ollius by Lake Sebinnus, and the Lambrus by Lake Eupilis—all of them flowing into the Padus.

Cælius states that the length of the Alps from the Upper Sea to the Lower is 1000 miles, a distance which Timagenes shortens by twenty-two. Cornelius Nepos assigns to them a breadth of 100 miles, and T. Livius of 3000 stadia; but then in different places. For in some localities they exceed 100 miles; where they divide Germany, for instance, from Italy; while in other parts they do not reach seventy, being thus narrowed by the providential dispensation of nature as it were. The breadth of Italy, taken from the river Var at the foot of these mountains, and passing along by the VadaNow Vado in Liguria, the harbour of Sabbata or Savo. Using the modern names, the line thus drawn runs past Vado, Turin, Como, Brescia, Verona, Vicenza, Oderzo, Aquileia, Trieste, Pola, and the Arsa. Sabatia, the Taurini, Comum, Brixia, Verona, Vicetia, Opitergium, Aquileia, Tergeste, Pola, and Arsia, is 745 miles.

Many nations dwell among the Alps; but the more remarkable, between Pola and the district of Tergeste, are the Secusses, the Subocrini, the Catali, the Menocaleni, and near the Carni the people formerly called the Taurisci, but now the Norici. Adjoining to these are the Rhæti and the Vindelici, who are all divided into a multitude of states. It is supposed that the Rhæti are the descendants of the Tuscans, who were expelled by the Gauls and migrated hither under the command of their chief, whose name was Rhætus. Turning then to the side of the Alps which fronts Italy, we have the EuganeanIt is from this people that the group of volcanic hills between Padua and Verona derive their present name of Colli Euganei or the "Euganean Hills." From the Triumpilini and the Camuni, the present Val Camonica and Val Trompia derive their names. nations enjoying Latin rights, and of whom Cato enumerates thirty-four towns. Among these are the Triumpilini, a people who were soldProbably meaning, that for a sum of money they originally acknowledged their subjection to the Roman power. with their territory; and then the Camuni, and several similar tribes, each of them in the jurisdiction of its neighbouring municipal town. The same author also considers the LepontiiThe Lepontii probably dwelt in the modern Val Leventina and the Val d'Osula, near Lago Maggiore; the Salassi in the Val d'Aosta. and the Salassi to be of Tauriscan origin, but most other writers, giving a GreekMaking it to come from the Greek verb lei/pw, "to leave behind." interpretation to their name, consider the Lepontii to have been those of the followers of Hercules who were left behind in consequence of their limbs being frozen by the snow of the Alps. They are also of opinion that the inhabitants of the Grecian Alps are descended from a portion of the Greeks of his army, and that the Euganeans, being sprung from an origin so illustrious, thence took their nameAs though being evyevetot or eu)ge/neioi or eu)genei=s, "of honourable descent," or "parentage.". The head of these are the StœniStrabo mentions the Stoni or Stœni among the minor Alpine tribes. Mannert thinks that they dwelt near the sources of the river Chiese, about the site of the modern village of Storo.. The VennonensesIt has been suggested that from them the modern Valtelline takes its name. and the SarunetesHardouin suggests that the Suanetes, who are again mentioned, are the people here meant., peoples of the Rhæti, dwell about the sources of the river Rhenus, while the tribe of the Lepontii, known as the Uberi, dwell in the vicinity of the sources of the lhodanus, in the same district of the Alps. There are also other native tribes here, who have received Latin rights, such as the OctodurensesThey are supposed to have dwelt in the present canton of Martignac in the Valais, and the Vaudois., and their neighbours the CentronesThey dwelt in the Tarantaise, in the duchy of Savoy. The village called Centron still retains their name., the CottianThe states subject to Cottius, an Alpine chief, who having gained the favour of Augustus, was left by him in possession of this portion of the Alps, with the title of Præfect. These states, in the vicinity of the modern Mount Cenis, seem to have extended from Ebrodunum or Embrun in Gaul, to Segusio, the modern Susa, in Italy, including the Pass of Mont Grenèvre. The territory of Cottius was united by Nero to the Roman empire, as a separate province called the "Alpes Cottiæ." states, the Ligurian Vagienni, descended from the CaturigesThey dwelt in the vicinity of Ebrodunum or Embrun already mentioned., as also those called MontaniThe "mountaineers." Some editions read here "Appuani," so called from the town of Appua, now Pontremoli.; besides numerous nations of the CapillatiThe Vagienni, and the Capillati Ligures, or "Long-haired Ligurians," have been previously mentioned in Chap. 7., on the confines of the Ligurian Sea.

It may not be inappropriate in this place to subjoin the inscription now to be seen upon the trophyThe trophy or triumphal arch which bore this inscription is that which was still to be seen at Torbia near Nicæa in Illyria, in the time of Gruter, who has given that portion of the inscription which remained unobliterated, down to "gentes Alpinæ," "the Alpine nations." Hardouin speaks of another triumphal arch in honour of Augustus at Segusio or Susa in Piedmont, which appears to have commenced in a somewhat similar manner, but only the first twelve words were remaining in 1671. erected on the Alps, which is to the following effect:—"To the Emperor Cæsar—The sonAdopted son of his great uncle Julius Cæsar. of Cæsar now deified, Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, and emperor fourteen years, in the seventeenthMost of the MSS. omit the figures XVII here, but it is evidently an accident; if indeed they were omitted in the original. year of his holding the tribuni- tial authority, the Senate and the Roman people, in remembrance that under his command and auspices all the Alpine nations which extended from the upper sea to the lower were reduced to subjection by the Roman people—The Alpine nations so sub- dued were: the Triumpilini, the Camuni, the Ve- nostesThey are supposed to have occupied the Val Venosco, at the sources of the Adige. The Isarci dwelt in the Val de Sarra or Sarcha, near Val Camonica; and the Breuni in the Val Brounia or Bregna, at the source of the Tessino., the Vennonenses, the Isarci, the Breuni, the GenaunesD'Anville thinks that they inhabited the Val d'Agno, near Trento, between Lake Como and the Adige. He also detects the name of the Focunates in the village of Vogogna., the Focunates, four nations of the Vindelici, the Consuanetes, the Rucinates, the LicatesThey inhabited the banks of the river Lech, their town being, according to Strabo, Damasia, afterwards Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsburg., the Catenates, the Ambisontes, the Ru- gusci, the SuanetesProbably the Sarunetes, already mentioned. The Brixentes inhabited the modern Brixen in the Tyrol. The Lepontii have been previously mentioned. The Seduni occupied the present Sion, the capital of the Valais. The Salassi have been already mentioned. According to Bouche, the Medulli occupied the modern Maurienne in Savoy. The Varagri dwelt in Le Chablais., the Calucones, the Brixentes, the Lepontii, the Uberi, the Nantuates, the Seduni, the Varagri, the Salassi, the Acitavones, the Medulli, the UceniThe Uceni, according to Hardouin, occupied Le Bourg d'Oysans in the modern Graisivaudan; the Caturiges, the modern Chorges according to Ansart; the Brigiani, probably Briançon, and the Nemaloni, as Hardouin thinks, the place called Miolans., the Caturiges, the Bri- giani, the Sogiontii, the Brodiontii, the Nemaloni, the EdenatesThey probably dwelt in the Ville de Seyne, in Embrun; the Esubiani near the river Hubaye, in the Vallée de Barcelone in Savoy; the Veamini in Senez, the Triulatti at the village of Alloz, the Ecdini near the river Tinea, and the Vergunni in the vicinity of the district of Vergons., the Esubiani, the Veamini, the Gal- litæ, the Triulatti, the Ecdini, the Vergunni, the EguituriThe Eguituri probably dwelt near the modern town of Guillaumes, the Oratelli at the place now called Le Puget de Théniers, and the Velauni near the modern Bueil., the Nementuri, the Oratelli, the Nerusi, the Velauni, and the Suetri."

The twelve states of the CottianiOr subjects of Cottius, previously mentioned. were not included in the list, as they had shown no hostility, nor yet those which had been placed by the Pompeian law under the jurisdiction of the municipal towns.

Such then is Italy, sacred to the gods, such are the nations, such the cities of her peoples; to which we may add, that this is that same Italy, which, when L. Æmilius PaulusA mistake for L. Æmilus Papus. He and C. Regulus were Consuls in B.C. 225. They successfully opposed the Cisalpine Gauls, who invaded Italy; but Regulus was slain in the engagement. and C. Attilius Regulus were Consuls, on hearing of the rising in Gaul, unaided, and without any foreign assistance whatever, without the help even of that portion which lies beyond the Padus, armed 80,000 horse and 700,000 foot. In abundance of metals of every kind. Italy yields to no land whatever; but all search for them has been prohibited by an ancient decree of the Senate, who gave orders thereby that Italy shall be exemptedIt is difficult to say what is the exact force of "parci" here; whether in fact it means that Italy shall be wholly exempted from such treatment, as an indignity offered to her soil, or whether her minerals were to be strictly kept in reserve as a last resource. Ajasson, in his Translation, seems to take the former view, Littré the latter. from such treatment.

The nation of the Liburni adjoins the river ArsiaFrom the river now called the Arsa to that called the Kerka., and extends as far as the river Titus. The Mentores, the HymaniHardouin thinks that "Ismeni" is the proper reading here; but all the MSS. seem to be against him., the Encheleæ, the Buni, and the people whom Callimachus calls the Peucetiæ, formerly formed part of it; but now the whole in general are comprised under the one name of Illyricum. But few of the names of these nations are worthy of mention, or indeed very easy of pronunciation. To the jurisdiction of ScardonaMentioned in the next Chapter. resort the Iapydes and fourteen cities of the Liburni, of which it may not prove tedious if I mention the Lacinienses, the Stlupini, the Burnistæ, and the Olbonenses. Belonging to the same jurisdiction there are, in the enjoyment of Italian rights, the AlutæTheir town was Aluus or Aloiis., the FlanatesTheir town was Flanona, which gave name to the Sinus Flanaticus or Golfo di Quarnero. The chief town of the Lopsi was Lopsica, and of the Varvarini, Varvaria., from whom the Gulf takes its name, the Lopsi, and the Varvarini; the Assesiates, who are exempt from tribute; and upon the islands, the Fertinates and the CuricttæThe island of Fertina is supposed to have been the modern Berwitch or Parvich. Curicta is now called Karek or Veglia. The Illyrian snails mentioned by our author, B. ix. c. 56, are very numerous here. Caius Antonius, the brother of Marcus, acting under Julius Cæsar, was besieged here by Libo. See the interesting account in Lucan's Pharsalia, B. iv. 1. 402–464..

Besides these, there are on the coast, after leaving Nesactium, AlvonaThe places on their sites are now called Albona, Fianona, Tersact or Tersat near Fiume, Segna, Lopsico, Ortopia, and Veza., Flanona, Tarsatica, Senia, Lopsica, Ortopula, Vegium, Argyruntum, CoriniumNow Carin. Ænona is now called Nona, and the Tedanius is the modern Zermagna., Ænona, the city of Pasinum, and the river Tedanius, at which Iapydia terminates. The islands of this Gulf, with their towns, besides those above mentioned, are AbsyrtiumThe whole of this group of islands were sometimes called the Absyrtides, from Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, who according to tradition was slain there. See the last Chapter, p. 266.. Ovid, however, in his "Tristia," states that this took place at Tomi, on the Pontus Euxinus or Black Sea, the place of his banishment., ArbaSaid by D'Anville to be now called Arbe, and Crexa to be the modern Cherso. Gissa is thought to have been the modern Pago., Crexa, Gissa, and Portunata. Again, on the mainland there is the colony of IaderaIt was the capital of Liburnia. The city of Zara or Zara Vecchia stands on its site. There are but little remains of the ancient city., distant from Pola 160 miles; then, at a distance of thirty miles, the island of ColentumSupposed to be the present Mortero., and of eighteen, the mouth of the river Titus.

Scardona, situate upon the riverThe Titus or Kerka. Scardona still retains its name., at a distance of twelve miles from the sea, forms the boundary of Liburnia and the beginning of Dalmatia. Next to this place comes the ancient country of the Autariatares and the fortress of Tariona, the Promontory of DiomedesNow called the Cabo di San Nicolo., or, as others call it, the peninsula of Hyllis, 100 milesThis measurement would make it appear that the present Sabioncello is meant, but that it ought to come below, after Narona. He probably means the quasi peninsula upon which the town of Tragurium, now Trau Vecchio, was situate; but its circumference is hardly fifty miles. So, if Sicum is the same as the modern Sebenico, it ought to have been mentioned previously to Tragurium. in circuit. Then comes Tragurium, a place with the rights of Roman citizens, and celebrated for its marble, Sicum, a place to which Claudius, the emperor lately deified, sent a colony of his veterans, and SalonaSpalatro, the retreat of Diocletian, was in the vicinity of Salona. Its ancient name was Spolatum, and at the village of Dioclea near it, that emperor was born. On the ruins of the once important city of Salona, rose the modern Spalato or Spalatro., a colony, situate 112 miles from ladera. To this place resort for legal purposes, having the laws dispensed according to their divisions into decuries or tithings, the Dahmatæ, forming 342 decuries, the Deurici 22, the Ditiones 239, the Mazæi 269, and the Sardiates 52. In this region are BurnumIts site is unknown, though D'Anville thinks that it was probably that of the modern Tain., AndetriumClissa is supposed to occupy its site. Tribulium is probably the modern Ugliane., and Tribulium, fortresses ennobled by the battles of the Roman people. To the same jurisdiction also belong the IssæiThe people of the island of Issa, now Lissa, off the coast of Liburnia. It was originally peopled by a Parian or a Syracusan colony. It was famous for its wine, and the beaked ships "Lembi Issaici," rendered the Romans good service in the war with Philip of Macedon., the Colentini, the Separi, and the Epetini, nations inhabiting the islands. After these come the fortresses of PeguntiumThe modern Almissa stands on its site; and on that of Rataneum, Mucarisca. and of Rataneum, with the colony of NaronaNow called Narenta; the river having the same name., the seat of the third jurisdiction, distant from Salona eighty-two miles, and situate upon a river of the same name, at a distance of twenty miles from the sea. M. Varro states that eighty-nine states used to resort thither, but now nearly the only ones that are known are the CerauniThe localities of all these peoples are unknown. with 24 decuries, the Daorizi with 17, the Dæsitiates with 103, the Docleatæ with 33, the Deretini with 14, the Deremistæ with 30, the Dindari with 33, the Glinditiones with 44, the Melcomani with 24, the Naresii with 102, the Scirtarii with 72, the Siculotæ with 24, and the Vardæi, once the scourges of Italy, with no more than 20 decuries. In addition to these, this district was possessed by the Ozuæi, the Partheni, the Hemasini, the Arthitæ, and the Armistæ. The colony of EpidaurumOr Epidaurus. It is not noticed in history till the civil war between Pompey and Cæsar, when, having declared in favour of the latter, it was besieged by M. Octavius. The site of it is known as Ragusa Vecchia, or Old Ragusa, but in the Illyric language it is called Zaptal. Upon its destruction, its inhabitants moved to Rausium, the present Ragusa. There are no remains extant of the old town. is distant from the river Naron 100 miles. After Epidaurum come the following towns, with the rights of Roman citizens:—RhiziniumIt still retains the name of Risine, upon the Golfo di Cattaro, the ancient Sinus Rhizonicus., AcruviumIn the former editions called "Ascrivium." The modern Cattaro is supposed to occupy its site. Butua is the modern Budua, and Olcinium, Dulcigno. It is probable that the derivation of the name of this last place, as suggested by Pliny, is only fanciful., Butua, Olcinium, formerly called Colchinium, having been founded by the Colchians; the river DriloNow called Drin and Drino., and, upon it, ScodraNow called Scutari or Scodar, the capital of the province called by the Turks Sangiac de Scodar., a town with the rights of Roman citizens, situate at a distance of eighteen miles from the sea; besides in former times many Greek towns and once powerful states, of which all remem- brance is fast fading away. For in this region there were formerly the Labeatæ, the EnderiniAccording to Hardouin, the modern Endero stands on the site of their capital., the Sasæi, the GrabæiGrabia, mentioned by Pouqueville, in his "Voyage de la Grece," seems to retain the name of this tribe., properly called Illyrii, the TaulantiiPouqueville is of opinion that they occupied the district now known as Musaché., and the Pyrei. The Promontory of Nymphæum on the sea-coast still retains its nameDalechamp thinks that the two words "Retinet nomen" do not belong to the text, but have crept in from being the gloss of some more recent commentator. They certainly appear to be out of place. This promontory is now called Cabo Rodoni.; and there is Lissum, a town enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, at a distance from Epidaurum of 100 miles.

(23.) At Lissum begins the province of MacedoniaThe modern Albania., the nations of the ParthiniPouqueville is of opinion that they inhabited the district about the present village of Presa, seven leagues N.E. of Durazzo., and behind them the DassaretæFrom Ptolemy we learn that Lychnidus was their town; the site of which, according to Pouqueville, is still pointed out at a spot about four leagues south of Ochrida, on the eastern bank of the Lake of Ochrida.. The mountains of CandaviaNow called El Bassan; though Pouqueville says Tomoros or De Caulonias. Commencing in Epirus, they separated Illyricum from Macedonia. See Lucan's Pharsalia, B. vi. 1. 331. are seventy-eight miles from Dyrrhachium. On the coast lies Denda, a town with the rights of Roman citizens, the colony of EpidamnumThe Romans are said to have changed its Greek name Epidamnum, from an idea that it was inauspicious, as implying "damnum" or "ruin." It has been asserted that they gave it the name of Durrhachium or Dyrrhachium, from "durum," rugged, on account of the ruggedness of its locality. This however cannot be the case, as the word, like its predecessor, is of Greek origin. Its unfortunate name, "Epidamnus," is the subject of several puns and witticisms in that most amusing perhaps of all the plays of Plautus, the Menæchmi. It was of Corcyrean origin, and after playing a distinguished part in the civil wars between Pompey and Cæsar, was granted by Augustus to his veteran troops. The modern Durazzo stands on its site., which, on account of its inauspicious name, was by the Romans called Dyrrhachium, the river AöusNow called the Voioussa., by' some called Æas, and ApolloniaThe monastery of Pollina stands on its site. It was founded by the Corinthians and Corcyreans. There are scarcely any vestiges of it remaining., formerly a colony of the Corinthians, at a distance of four miles from the sea, in the vicinity of which the celebrated NymphæumSee further mention of this spot in B. ii. c. 110. is inhabited by the barbarous AmantesPouqueville states that the ruins of Amantia are to be seen near the village of Nivitza, on the right bank of the river Suchista. The remains of Bullis, the chief town of the Buliones, according to the same traveller, are to be seen at a place called Gradista, four miles from the sea. and Buliones. Upon the coast too is the town of OricumThe same writer states that Oricum was situate on the present Gulf De la Vallona or d'Avlona, and that its port was the place now called by the Greeks Porto Raguseo, and by the Turks Liman Padisha., founded by the Colchians. At this spot begins Epirus, with the AcroceraunianThe "Heights of Thunder." They were so called from the frequent thunderstorms with which they were visited. The range however was more properly called the "Ceraunii Montes," and the promontory terminating it "Acroceraunii" or "Acroceraunia," meaning "the end of the Ceraunii." The range is now called the Mountains of Khimara, and the promontory, Glossa, or in Italian, Linguetta, meaning "the Tongue." mountains, by which we have previously mentionedIn C. 15 of the present Book. this Gulf of Europe as bounded. Oricum is distant from the Promontory of Salentinum in Italy eightyAbout 70 English miles is the distance. miles.

In the rear of the Carni and the Iapydes, along the course of the great river IsterThe Donau or Danube., the Rhæti touch upon the NoriciNoricum corresponded to the greater part of the present Styria and Carinthia, and a part of Austria, Bavaria, and Salzburg.: their towns are VirunumAccording to D'Anville the modern Wolk-Markt, on the river Drau or Drave. Celeia is the modern Cilley in Carniola. Teurnia, according to Mannert, is the Lurnfelde, near the small town of Spital., Celeia, Teurnia, AguntumAccording to Mannert it was situate near the modern town of Innichen, near the sources of the Drave., VianiominaSupposed to be the same as the Vindobona or Vindomona of other authors, standing on the site of the modern city of Vienna., ClaudiaAccording to Cluver, it stood on the site of the modern Clausen in Bavaria., and Flavium SolvenseMannert says that this place was the same with the modern Solfeld, near Klagenfurt.. Adjoining to the Norici is Lake PeisoD'Anville and other writers think that this is the Neusiedler See, not far from Vienna. Mannert, however, is of opinion that the name ought to be written Pelso, and that the modern Balaton or Platten See is meant., and the deserts of the BoiiThe mountainous and woody tract in the vicinity of the Lake Balaton, on the confines of ancient Noricum and Pannonia.; they are however now inhabited by the people of SabariaNow Sarvar on the river Raab, on the confines of Austria and Hungary., a colony of the now deified emperor Claudius, and the town of Scarabantia JuliaAccording to Hardouin, the modern Sopron or Œdenburg..

Next to them comes acorn-bearing PannoniaThis province corresponded to the eastern part of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the whole of Hungary between the Danube and Saave, Slavonia, and part of Croatia and Bosnia. It was reduced by fiberius, acting under the orders of Augustus., along which the chain of the Alps, gradually lessening as it runs through the middle of Illyricum from north to south, forms a gentle slope on the right hand and the left. The portion which looks towards the Adriatic Sea is called Dalmatia and Illyricum, above mentioned, while Pannonia stretches away towards the north, and has the Danube for its extreme boundary. In it are the colonies of ÆmonaNow Laybach, previously mentioned in c. 22. Sissia has been succeeded by the modern Sissek on the Saave. and Siscia. The following rivers, both known to fame and adapted for commerce, flow into the Danube; the DrausThe modern Draave or Drau., which rushes from Noricum with great impetuosity, and the SavusNow the Sau or Saave., which flows with a more gentle current from the Carnic Alps, there being a space between them of 120 miles. The Draus runs through the Serretes, the SerrapilliAccording to Hardouin the Serretes and the Serrapilli inhabited the modern Carinthia on both sides of the Draave. The sites of the other nations here mentioned are unknown., the Iasi, and the Andizetes; the Savus through the ColapianiSo called from the river Colapis. The other tribes are unknown. and the Breuci; these are the principal peoples. Besides them there are the Arivates, the Azali, the Amantini, the Belgites, the Catari, the Cornacates, the Eravisci, the HercuniatesProbably the same as the mountain range near Warasdin on the Draave. The nations mentioned here dwelt on the western and eastern slopes of this range., the Latovici, the Oseriates, the Varciani, and, in front of Mount Claudius, the Scordisci, behind it the Taurisci. In the Savus there is the island of MetubarrisNow known as Zagrabia., the greatest of all the islands formed by rivers. Besides the above, there are these other rivers worthy of mention:—the ColapisNow the Culpa., which flows into the Savus near Siscia, where, dividing its channel, it forms the island which is called SegesticaDion Cassius, B. xix., says that the river Colapis or Colops flowed past the walls of the town of Siscia, but that Tiberius Cæsar caused a trench to be dug round the town, and so drew the river round it, leading it back on the other side into its channel. He calls the island Segetica. a; and the river BacuntiusNow the Bossut. Sirmium occupied the site of the present Sirmich., which flows into the Savus at the town of Sirmium, where we find the state of the Sirmienses and the Amantini. Forty-five miles thence is TaurunumThe modern Tzeruinka, according to D'Anville and Brotier., where the Savus flows into the Danube; above which spot the ValdanusNow the Walpo and the Sarroiez, according to Hardouin; or the Bosna and the Verbas, according to Brotier and Mannert. and the Urpanus, themselves far from ignoble rivers, join that stream.

Joining up to Pannonia is the province called MœsiaCorresponding to the present Servia and Bulgaria., which runs, with the course of the Danube, as far as the Euxine. It commences at the confluenceOf the Danube with the Saave or Savus just mentioned. previously mentioned. In it are the Dardani, the Celegeri, the Triballi, the Timachi, the Mœsi, the Thracians, and the Scythians who border on the Euxine. The more famous among its rivers are the MargisNow the Morava, which runs through Servia into the Danube. The Pingus is probably the Bek, which joins the Danube near Gradistic. The Timachus is the modern Timoch, and the Œscus is the Iscar in Bulgaria., which rises in the territory of the Dardani, the Pingus, the Timachus, the Œscus which rises in Mount Rhodope, and, rising in Mount Hæmus, the UtusNow called the Vid, the Osma, and the Jantra, rising in the Balkan chain., the Asamus, and the Ieterus.

The breadth of IllyricumAjasson remarks here that the name of Illyricum was very vaguely used by the ancients, and that at different periods, different countries were so designated. In Pliny's time that region comprised the country between the Arsia and the mouth of the Drilo, bounding it on the side of Macedonia. It would thus comprehend a part of modern Carniola, with part of Croatia, Bosnia, Dahnatia, and Upper Albania. In later times this name was extended to Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Macedonia, Thessalia, Achaia, Epirus, and even the Isle of Crete. at its widest part is 325 miles, and its length from the river Arsia to the river Drinius 530; from the Drinius to the Promontory of Acroceraunia Agrippa states to be 175 miles, and he says that the entire circuit of the Italian and Illyrian Gulf is 1700 miles. In this Gulf, according to the limits which we have drawn, are two seas, the IonianHere meaning that part of the Mediterranean which lies between Italy and Greece south of the Adriatic. In more ancient times the Adriatic was included in the Ionian Sea, which was probably so called from the Ionian colonies which settled in Cephallenia and the other islands on the western coast of Greece. in the first part, and the Adriatic, which runs more inland and is called the Upper Sea.

In the Ausonian Sea there are no islands worthy of notice beyond those which we have already mentioned, and only a few in the Ionian; those, for instance, upon the Calabrian coast, opposite Brundusium, by the projection of which a harbour is formed; and, over against the Apulian coast, DiomediaMore properly "Diomedeæ," being a group of small islands off the coast of Apulia now called Isole di Tremiti, about eighteen miles from the mouth of the Fortore. They were so called from the fable that here the companions of Diomedes were changed into birds. A species of seafowl (which Pliny mentions in B. x. c. 44) were said to be the descendants of these Greek sailors, and to show a great partiality for such persons as were of kindred extraction. See Ovid's Metamorphoses, B. xiv. 1. 500. The real number of these islands was a matter of dispute with the ancients, but it seems that there are but three, and some mere rocks. The largest of the group is the island of San Domenico, and the others are San Nicola and Caprara. The small island of Pianosa, eleven miles N.E., is not considered one of the group, but is not improbably the Teutria of Pliny. San Domenico was the place of banishment of Julia, the licentious daughter of Augustus., remarkable for the monument of Diomedes, and another island called by the same name, but by some Teutria.

The coast of Illyricum is clustered with more than 1000 islands, the sea being of a shoaly nature, and numerous creeks and æstuaries running with their narrow channels between portions of the land. The more famous are those before the mouths of the Timavus, with warm springsNow called the Bagni di Monte Falcone. See B. ii. c. 106. that rise with the tides of the sea, the island of Cissa near the territory of the Istri, and the PullariaNow called Cherso and Osero, off the Illyrian coast. Ptolemy mentions only one, Apsorrus, on which he places a town of that name and another called Crepsa. The Pullaria are now called Li Brioni, in the Sinus Flanaticus, opposite the city of Pola. and AbsyrtidesSee p. 258., so called by the Greeks from the circumstance of Absyrtus, the brother of Medea, having been slain there. Some islands near them have been called the ElectridesIn B. xxxvii. c. 11, lie again mentions this circumstance, and states that some writers have placed them in the Adriatic opposite the mouths of the Padus. Scymnus of Chios makes mention of them in conjunction with the Absyrtides. This confusion probably arose from the fact previously noted that the more ancient writers had a confused idea that the Ister communicated with the Adiatic, at the same time mistaking it probably for the Vistula, which flows into the Baltic. At the mouth of this last-mentioned river, there were Electrides or "amber-bearing "islands., upon which amber, which they call "electrum," was said to be found; a most assured instance however of that untruthfulness"Vanitatis." which is generally ascribed to the Greeks, seeing that it has never vet been ascertained which of the islands were meant by them under that name. Opposite to the Iader is Lissa, and other islands whose names have been already mentionedCrexa, Gissa, and Colentun, in c. 25.. Opposite to the Liburni are some islands called the Crateæ, and no smaller number styled Liburniecæ and CeladussæAccording to Brotier, these are situate between the islands of Zuri and Sebenico, and are now called Kasvan, Capri, Smolan, Tihat, Sestre, Parvich, Zlarin, &c. Some writers however suggest that there were no islands called Celadussse, and that the name in Pliny is a corruption of Dyscelados in Pomponius Mela; which in its turn is supposed to have been invented from what was really an epithet of Issa, in a line of Apollonius Rhodius, B. iv. 1. 565. )Issa\ te duske/lados, "and inauspicious Issa." See Brunck's remarks on the passage.. Opposite to Surium is Bavo, and BrattiaNow Brazza. According to Brotier the island is still celebrated for the delicate flavour of the flesh of its goats and lambs. Issa is now called Lissa, and Pharia is the modern Lesina. Baro, now Bua, lies off the coast of Dalmatia, and was used as a place of banishment under the emperors., famous for its goats, Issa with the rights of Roman citizens, and Pharia with a town. At a distance of twenty-five miles from Issa is CorcyraNow Curzola, or, in the Sclavonic, Karkar. It obtained its name of Nigra or Melæna, "black," from the dark colour of its pine woods. Sir G. Wilkinson describes it in his "Dalmatia and Montenegro," vol. i., surnamed Melæna, with a town founded by the Cnidians; between which and Illyricum is MeliteNow called Meleda or Zapuntello. It is more generally to the other island of Melita or Malta that the origin of the "Melitæi" or Maltese dogs is ascribed. Some writers are of opinion that it was upon this island that St. Paul was shipwrecked, and not the larger Melita., from which, as we learn from Callimachus, a certain kind of little dogs were called Melitæi; fifteen miles from it we find the seven ElaphitesSo called from their resemblance to a stag, e)/lafos, of which the modern Giupan formed the head, Ruda the neck, Mezzo the body, Calamotta the haunches, and the rock of Grebini or Pettini the tail. They produce excellent wine and oil, and are looked upon as the most valuable part of the Ragusan territory.. In the Ionian Sea, at a distance of twelve miles from Oricum, is SasonisStill known as Sasino. It is ten miles from Ragusa, the port of Oricum, according to Pouqueville., notorious from having been a harbour of pirates.

Summary.—The towns and nations mentioned are in number****The original numbers are lost.. The rivers of note are in number****. The mountains of note are in number****. The islands are in number****. The towns or nations which have disappeared are in number****. The facts, statements, and observations are in number 326.

Roman Authors quoted.—Turannius GracilisHe was a Spaniard by birth, a native of Mellaria in Hispania Bætica. He is mentioned by Cicero as a man of great learning, and is probably the same person that is mentioned by Ovid in his Pontic Epistles, B. iv. ep. xvi. 1. 29, as a distinguished tragic writer., Cornelius NeposSee end of B. ii., T. LiviusSee end of B. ii., Cato the CensorM. Porcius Cato, or Cato the Elder; famous as a statesman, a patriot, and a philosopher. He wrote "De Re Rustica," a work which still survives, and "Letters of Instruction to his Son," of which only some fragments remain. He also wrote a historical work called "Origines," of which Pliny makes considerable use. Of this also only a few fragments are left. His life has been written by Cornelius Nepos, Plutarch, and Aurelius Victor., M. Agrip- paM. Vipsanius Agrippa, the distinguished partisan of Augustus, to whose niece Marcella he was married, but he afterwards divorced her for Julia, the daughter of Augustus by Scribonia, and the widow of Marcellus. He distinguished himself in Gaul, at Actium, and in Illyria. He constructed many public works at Rome, and among then the Pantheon; he also built the splendid aqueduct at Nismes. He died suddenly in his 51st year. His body was buried in the Mausoleum of Augustus, who pronounced his funeral oration. He wrote memoirs of his own life. Pliny often refers to the "Commentarii" of Agrippa, by which are meant, it is supposed, certain official lists drawn up by him in the measurement of the Roman world under Augustus. His map of the world is also mentioned by Pliny in c. 3 of the present Book., M. VarroSee end of B. ii., the Emperor AugustusFrom Servius, Suetonius and Plutarch we learn that Augustus wrote Memoirs of his Life, in thirteen books; from Suetonius, that he composed a Summary of the Empire (which was probably that referred to in the above note on Agrippa); and from Quintilian, Aulus Gellius, and Pliny, B. xviii. c. 38, that he published Letters written to his grandson Caius. now deified, Varro AtacinusP. Terentius Varro, surnamed Atacinus, from the Atax, a river of Gallia Narbonensis, in which province he was born, B.C. 82. Of his "Argonautica," his "Cosmographia" (probably the same with his "Iter"), his "Navales Libri," and his Heroic and Amatory Poems, only a few fragments now exist. Of his life nothing whatever is known., AntiasValerias Antias. See end of B. ii., HyginusC. Julius Hyainus, a native of Spain, and freedman of Augustus, by whom he was placed at the Palatine Library. He lived upon terms of intimacy with Ovid. He wrote works on the sites of the cities of Italy, the Nature of the Gods, an account of the Penates, an account of Virgil (probably the same as the work called "Commentaries on Virgil"), on the Families of Trojan descent, on Agriculture, the "Propempticon Cinnæ," the Lives of Illustrious Men (quoted by John of Salisbury in his "Polycraticon "), a book of Examples, and a work on the Art of War, also mentioned by John of Salisbury. A book of Fables, and an Astronomical Poem, in four books, are ascribed to him, but they are probably productions of a later age., L. VetusL. Antistius Vetus, Consul with Nero, A.D. 55. While commanding in Germany he formed the project of connecting the Moselle and the Saone by a canal, thus establishing a communication between the Mediterranean and the Northern Ocean. Nero having resolved on his death, he anticipated his sentence by opening his veins in a warm bath. His mother-in-law Sextia, and his daughter Pollentia, in a similar manner perished with him., Pomponius MelaHe was born, it is supposed, at Tingentera, or Cingentera, on the bay of Algesiras, and probably flourished in the reign of Claudius. He was the first Roman author who wrote a treatise on Geography. It is still extant, and bears marks of great care, while it is written in pure and unaffected language., CurioC. Scribonius Curio, the third known of that name. He was the first Roman general who advanced as far as the Danube. Like his son of the same name, he was a violent opponent of Julius Cæsar. He was eloquent as an orator, but ignorant and uncultivated. His orations were published, as also an invective against Cæsar, in form of a dialogue, in which his son was introduced as one of the interlocutors. He died B.C. 53. the Elder, CæliusL. Cælius Antipater. See end of B. ii., ArruntiusL. Arruntius, Consul, A.D. 6. Augustus declared in his last illness that he was worthy of the empire. This, with his riches and talents, rendered him an object of suspicion to Tiberius. Being charged as an accomplice in the crimes of Albucilla, he put himself to death by opening his veins. It appears not to be certain whether it was this person or his father who wrote a history of the first Punic war, in which he imitated the style of Sallust., SebosusStatius Sebosus. See end of B. ii., Licinius MucianusLicinius Crassus Mucianus. See end of B. ii., Fabricius TuscusOf this writer no particulars whatever are known., L. AteiusIn most editions this name appears as L. Ateius Capito, but Sillig separates them, and with propriety it would appear, as the name of Capito the great legist was not Lucius. Ateius here mentioned was probably the person surnamed Prætextatus, and Philologus, a freedman of the jurist Ateius Capito. For Sallust the historian he composed an Abstract of Roman History, and for Asinius Pollio he compiled precepts on the Art of Writing. His Commentaries were numerous, but a few only were surviving in the time of Suetonius., CapitoC. Ateius Capito, one of the most famous of the Roman legists, and a zealous partisan of Augustus, who had him elevated to the Consulship A.D. 5. He was the rival of Labeo, the republican jurist. His legal works were very voluminous, and extracts from them are to be found in the Digest. He also wrote a work on the Pontifical Rights and the Law of Sacrifices., Verrius FlaccusA distinguished grammarian of the latter part of the first century B.C. He was entrusted by Augustus with the education of his grandsons Caius and Lucius Cæsar. He died at an advanced age in the reign of Tiberius. He wrote upon antiquities, history, and philosophy: among his numerous works a History of the Etruscans is mentioned, also a treatise on Orthography. Pliny quotes him very frequently., L. PisoSee end of B. ii., GellianusHe is mentioned in c. 17, but nothing more is known of him., and ValerianusNothing is known of him. The younger Pliny addressed three Epistles to a person of this name, B. ii. Ep. 15, B. v. Ep. 4. 14..

Foreign Authors quoted.—ArtemidorusSee end of B. ii., Alexander PolyhistorAlso called by Pliny Cornelius Alexander. Suidas states that he was a native of Ephesus and a disciple of Crates, and during the war of Sylla in Greece was made prisoner and sold as a slave to C. Lentulus, who made him the tutor of his children, and afterwards restored him to freedom. Servius however says that he received the franchise from L. Cornelius Sylla. He was burnt with his house at Laurentum. Other writers say that he was a native of Catiæum in Lesser Phrygia. The surname of "Polyhistor" was given to him for his prodigious learning. His greatest work seems to have been a historical and geographical account of the world, in forty-two books. Other works of his are frequently mentioned by Plutarch, Photius, and other writers., ThucydidesThe historian of the Peloponnesian war, and the most famous, perhaps, of all the ancient writers in prose., TheophrastusOf Eresus in Lesbos; the favourite disciple of Aristotle, and designated by him as his successor in the presidency of the Lyceum. He composed more than 200 works on various subjects, of which only a very few survive., IsidorusSee end of B. ii., TheopompusSee end of B. ii., Metrodorus of ScepsisHe is frequently mentioned by Cicero, and was famous for his eloquence. Pliny informs us in his 34th book, that from his hatred of the Romans he was called the "Roman-hater." It is probable that he was the writer of a Periegesis, or geographical work, from which Pliny seems to quote., CallicratesNo particulars of this author are known. He probably wrote on geography., Xenophon of LampsacusHe is again mentioned by Pliny in B. iv. c. 13, and B. vi. c. 31, and by Solinus, c. xxii. 60. It is supposed that he was the author of a Periplus or Circumnavigation of the Earth, mentioned by Pliny B. vii. c. 48; but nothing further is known of him., Diodorus of SyracuseDiodorus Siculus was a native of Agyra or Agyrium, and not of Syracuse, though lie may possibly have resided or studied there. It cannot be doubted that he is the person here meant, and Pliny refers in his preface by name to his Biblioqh/kh, "Library," or Universal History. A great portion of this miscellaneous but valuable work has perished. We have but few particulars of his life; but he is supposed to have written his work after B.C. 8., NymphodorusOf Syracuse; an historian probably of the time of Philip and Alexander. He was the author of a Periplus of Asia, and an account of Sicily and Sardinia. From his stories in the last he obtained the name of "Thaumatographus "or "writer of wonders.", CalliphanesOf Calliphanes the Geographer nothing is known., and TimagenesProbably Timagenes, the rhetorician of Alexandria. He was taken prisoner and brought to Rome, but redeemed from captivity by Faustus, the son of Sylla. He wrote many works, but it is somewhat doubtful whether the "Periplus," in five Books, was written by this Timagenes. He is also supposed to have written a work on the Antiquities of Gaul..

The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains of AcrocerauniaNow called Monti della Chimera, or Mountains of Khimara. See p. 262., and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an extent of 2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen smaller gulfs. Upon it are Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Achaia, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica, Bœotia; and again, upon the other seaThe Ægean Sea, the present Archipelago., the same Phocis and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia, Magnesia, Macedonia and Thracia. All the fabulous lore of Greece, as well as the effulgence of her literature, first shone forth upon the banks of this Gulf. We shall therefore dwell a little the longer upon it.

EpirusThis country contained, according to Pouqueville, the present Sangiacs of Janina, Delvino, and Chamouri, with the Vavodilika or Principality of Arta. This name was originally given to the whole of the west of Greece, from the Promontory of Acroceraunia to the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf, in contradistinction to Corcyra and the island of Cephallenia., generally so called, begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones, from whom ChaoniaThis district, according to Pouqueville, occupied the present Cantons of Chimera, Iapouria, Arboria, Paracaloma, and Philates. receives its name, then the ThesprotiThey occupied the site of the present Paramythia, according to Pouqueville., and then the AntigonensesAntigonia was about a mile distant, Pouqueville says, from the modern town of Tebelen.. We then come to the place where AornosFrom 'A "not," and o)/rnis "a bird." Its site is now unknown. There were many places of this name. Avernus or Aornos in Campania has been previously mentioned. stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the feathered race, the CestrinisThe remains of Cestria are still to be seen at Palea Vnetia, near the town of Filiates. Pouqueville calls the place Chamouri., the PerrhæbiAccording to Pouqueville, the modern Zagori stands on the site of Perrhæbia. Pindus is sometimes called Grammos, but is still known by its ancient name., in whose coun- try Mount Pindus is situate, the CassiopæiCassiope or Cassope stood near the sea, and near the present village of Kamarina. Its extensive ruins are still to be seen., the DryopesTheir district, according to Pouqueville, was in the present Canton of Drynopolis., the SellæThe Selli or Sellæ lived in the vicinity of the temple of Jupiter at Dodona, in the modern canton of Souli, according to Pouqueville., the HellopesThe country about Dodona is called Hellopia by Hesiod. By some the Helli or Hellopes are considered the same as the Selli. Pouqueville thinks that the Hellopes dwelt in the modern cantons of Janina, Pogoniani, Sarachovitzas, and Courendas, and that the temple of Jupiter stood at the spot now called Proskynisis, near Gardiki, the town of Dodona being near Castritza. Leake is of the same opinion as to the site of the town; but, as has been a subject of remark, it is the only place of celebrity in Greece of which the situation is not exactly known. Leake however thinks that the temple stood on the peninsula now occupied by the citadel of Joanina., the Molossi, in whose territory is the temple of the Dodonæan Jupiter, so famous for its oracle; and Mount TomarusPouqueville thinks that this is the hill to be seen at the modern village of Gardiki. He is also of opinion that the springs here mentioned are those at the modern village of Besdounopoulo. His opinions however on these points have not been implicitly received., so highly praised by Theopompus, with its hundred springs gushing from its foot.

(2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Magnesia and Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretæ, previouslyB. iii. c. 26. The Dardani, Triballi, and Mœsi are mentioned in c. 29. The localities of the other tribes here mentioned are not known with any exactness. mentioned, a free nation, and after them the Dardani, a savage race. On the left hand, before the Dardani are extended the Triballi and the nations of Mœsia, while in front of them the Medi and the Denselatæ join, and next to them the Thracians, who stretch away as far as the Euxine: in such a manner is a rampart raised around the lofty heights of Rhodope, and then of Hæmus.

On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of ChimærIt retains the same name or that of Khimara, and gives its name to the Acroceraunian range. It was situate at the foot of the chain, which begins at this spot., situate upon the Acroceraunian range, and below it the spring known as the Royal Waters"Aquæ regiæ." Pouqueville suggests, without good reason, as Ansart thinks, that this spring was situate near the modern Drimodez or Dermadez.; then the towns of Mæandria, and CestriaThe place called Palæo-Kistes now stands on its site, and some remains of antiquity are to be seen., the ThyamisNow the Calama., a river of Thesprotia, the colony of ButhrotumIts ruins are to be seen near the modern Butrinto. It was said to have been founded by Helenus, the son of Priam. Pamponius Atticus had an estate here., and the Ambracian GulfThis corresponds to the present Gulf of Arta, and was especially famous for being the scene of the battle of Actium. The city of Ambracia lay to the north of it. The present Arta is generally believed to occupy its site., so famed in history; which, with an inlet only half a mile in width, receives a vast body of water from the sea, being thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The river Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thesprotia, flows into itPouqueville has shown that Pliny is in error here, and he says that the Acheron is the modern Mavro Potamos; but according to Leake, the name of it is Gurla, or the river of Suli. It flows into the Port Fanari, formerly called Glykys Limen, or Sweet Harbour, from the freshness of the water there. The Acherusian Lake is probably the great marsh that lies below Kastri. after a course of thirty-six miles; it is considered wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a people who look upon everything as wonderful that belongs to themselves. Upon this Gulf is also situate the town of Ambracia. There are also the Aphas and the ArachthusIt is now called the Arta, and gives name to the Gulf., rivers of the Molossi; the city of AnactoriaThe site of Anactoria or Anactorium, like that of its neighbour Actium, has been a subject of much dispute; but it is now pretty generally agreed that the former stood on the modern Cape Madonna, and Actium on the headland of La Punta., and the place where PandosiaPouqueville takes the ruins in the vicinity of Turco Palaka, eight miles from Margariti, to be those of Pandosia. stood.

The towns of AcarnaniaThis district probably occupied the present cantons of Vonitza and Xeromeros. It was called Curetis from the Curetes, who are said to have come from Ætolia and settled in Acarnania after their expulsion by Ætolus and his followers., the ancient name of which was Curetis, are HeracliaThe modern Vonitza is supposed to stand on its site., EchinusLeake places its site at Ai Vasili, where some ruins are to be seen., and, on the coast, Actium, a colony founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of Apollo and the free city of Nicopolis"The city of Victory." Founded by Augustus on the spot where he had pitched his camp before the battle of Actium.. Passing out of the Ambracian Gulf into the Ionian Sea, we come to the coast of Leucadia, with the Promontory of LeucateNow called Capo Ducato or Capo tis Kiras. It is situate at the extremity of the island of Leucas, and opposite to Cephallenia. Sappho is said to have leapt from this rock on finding her love for Phaon unrequited: the story however is devoid of all historical truth., and then the Gulf and the peninsula of LeucadiaNow the island of Santa Maura. It was originally a peninsula, and Homer speaks of it as such; but the Corinthians cut a canal through the isthmus and converted it into an island. After the canal had been choked up for some time with sand, the Romans reopened it. It is at present dry in some parts., which last was formerly called NeritisProbably from its town Nericus, mentioned by Homer.. By the exertions of the inhabitants it was once cut off from the mainland, but was again joined to it by the vast bodies of sand accumulated through the action of the winds. This spot is called DioryctosFrom the Greek word diorukto\s, a "foss" or "trench.", and is three stadia in length: on the peninsula is the town of Leucas, formerly called NeritusIt probably had this name from the circumstance of the inhabitants of Nericus being removed thither by the Corinthians under Cypselus. The remains of Leucas, which was ravaged by the Romans B.C. 197, are still to be seen.. We next come to AlyziaIts remains are still to be seen in the valley of Kandili, south of Vonitza., StratosPouqueville says that very extensive and perfect ruins of this place are to be seen near the village of Lepenou., and ArgosThis famous city was deserted on the foundation of Nicopolis by Augustus. The place of its site has been a subject of much dispute, but it is considered most probable that Leake has rightly suggested that the ruins in the plain of Vlikha, at the village of Neokhori, are those of this city., surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the Acarnanians: the river AcheloüsNow the Aspropotamo. flows from the heights of Pindus, and, after separating Acarnania from Ætolia, is fast adding the island of ArtemitaOne of the group of the Echinades; small islands off the coast of Acarnania, which are mentioned by Pliny, in C. 19 of the present Book. It is now quite united to the mainland. to the mainland by the continual deposits of earth which it brings down its stream.

The peoples of Ætolia are the AthamanesPouqueville says that Athamania occupied the localities now known as Djoumerca and Radovitch. It properly belonged to Epirus, and Pliny makes a mistake in considering it as a part of Ætolia., the TymphæiAccording to Pouqueville the ruins of Tymphæa are to be seen near the village of Paliouri, four miles from Janina., the EphyriEphyre, a town of the Agreei, is also mentioned by Strabo, but nothing whatever is known of it., the Ænienses, the PerrhæbiThe main body of the Perrhæbi were a people of Thessaly., the DolopesDolopia, now called Anovlachia, was properly reckoned part of Epirus., the Maraces, and the AtracesThey are probably not the same people as the inhabitants of Atrax in Thessaly, which will be found mentioned in the 15th Chapter of this Book., in whose territory rises the river Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. CalydonThe most famous city of Ætolia in its day, and the residence of Œneus, father of Meleager and Tydeus, and grandfather of Diomedes. The greater part of its inhabitants were removed by Augustus to his new city of Nicopolis. Leake supposes its ruins to be those seen by him at Kurt-Aga, to the east of the river Evenus. is a city of Ætolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea, and near the banks of the river EvenusNow called the Fidaris.. We then come to MacyniaPouqueville supposes the site of Macynia to have been that of the modern Koukio-Castron, and that of Molycria the present Manaloudi., and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts ChalcisProbably the present Varassova; there was a town called Chalcis, or Hypochalcis, at its foot. The present Kaki-Skala was probably the mountain of Taphiassus. and Taphiassus. On the coast again, there is the promontory of AntirrhiumOpposite the Promontory of Rhium, at the entrance of the Corinthian Gulf. It is now called the Castle of Roumelia, or the Punta of the Dardanelles of Roum Ili., off which is the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, which flows in and separates Ætolia from the Peloponnesus, being lessLeake and Dodwell make it a mile and a half. than one mile in width. The promontory which faces it on the opposite side is called RhionOr Rhium. It is now called the Castle of the Morea.. The towns of Ætolia, however, on the Corinthian Gulf are NaupactusThe modern Enebatché or Lepanto; whence the Corinthian Gulf takes its modern name. and PyleneProschium was built at a later period on the site of Pylene. Its site appears to be unknown. The modern Kyra-tis-Irinis is thought to occupy the site of Pleuron.; and, more inland, Pleuron and Hali- cyrnaLeake supposes some ruins between Kurt-aga, the site of Chalcedon, and the east end of the Lagoon of Missolonghi, to be the remains of Halicyrna.. The most famous mountains are Tomarus, in the district of Dodona, CraniaLeake supposes it to be identical with the high mountain now called Kelberini. Others again identify it with Gribovo. in Ambracia, AracynthusPliny erroneously places this mountain in Acarnania. It was a range of Ætolia, now called Zygos. in Acarnania, and AcanthonPerhaps the modern Djourmerca., PanætoliumEither the present Plocopari, or perhaps, more probably, Viena., and MacyniumA part of Mount Taphiassus. It is mentioned only by Pliny., in Ætolia.

Next to Ætolia are the LocriThey are supposed to have inhabited the modern districts of Malandrino and Salone. They were called "Ozolæ" or 'strong-smelling,' either from the undressed skins worn by them, or from the quantities of asphodel that grew in their country; or else from the vapours thrown off by the mineral springs in those parts., surnamed Ozolæ; a people exempt from tribute. Here is the town of ŒanthePouqueville imagines its ruins to be those seen about two leagues from the modern Galaxidi., the portLapie marks this in his map as the modern port of Ianakhi. of Apollo Phæstius, and the Gulf of CrissaSo called from the ancient town of Crissa, which stood on it. It is the same as the modern Gulf of Salona.. In the interior are the towns of Argyna, EupaliaOr Eupalium. Leake supposes it to have stood in the plain of Marathia, opposite the islands of Trazonia, where some ruins still exist., Phæstum, and Calamisus. Beyond are the Cirrhaean plains of Phocis, the town of CirrhaPausanias makes this town to be the same with the Homeric Crissa, but Strabo distinguishes the two places, and his opinion is now generally followed; Cirrha being thought to have been built at the head of the Crissæan gulf, as the port of Crissa. Its ruins are thought to be those which bear the modern name of Magula., and the port of ChalæonOr Chalæum. Pliny erroneously calls it a town of Phocis, it being on the coast of the Locri Ozolæ. He is wrong also in placing it seven miles from Delphi, and not improbably confounded it with Cirrha. Leake suggests that its site was the present Larnaki., seven miles from which, in the interior, is situate the free town of DelphiThe modern village of Kastri stands on part of the site of ancient Delphi. Its ruins have been explored by Chandler, Leake, and Ulrichs., at the foot of Mount ParnassusThe two highest summits of the range of Parnassus in the vicinity of Delphi were Tithorea, now Velitza, to the N.W., and Lycorea, now Liakura, to the N.E. Its rocks above Delphi were called the Phædriades or "Resplendent.", and having the most celebrated oracle of Apollo throughout the whole world. There is the Fountain too of CastaliaThe famed Castalian spring is now called the Fountain of St. John, from the chapel of that saint which stands close to its source., and the river CephisusNow the Mavro-Potamo. which flows past Delphi, rising in the former city of LilæaIts ruins are still to be seen about three leagues from Kastri.. Besides these, there is the town of CrissaOr Crisso. It was situate inland to the S.W. of Delphi. Its ruins are to be seen at a short distance from the modern village of Chryso. and that of AnticyraIt is supposed that the few ruins seen near the modern Aspra Spitia are those of this place. It was famous for its hellebore, which was extensively used for the cure of madness. There were two other places or the same name., with the BulensesThe people of Bulis, near the Crissæan Gulf. Its ruins are situate at a short distance from the monastery of Dobé.; as also NaulochumAnsart suggests that this was the present port of Agio-Sideri or Djesphina., Pyrrha, AmphissaIt occupied the site of the modern Salona; the walls of its ancient Acropolis are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the Locri Ozolæ., exempt from all tribute, Tithrone, TriteaPouqueville thinks that the ruins seen near Moulki are those of Tithrone, and that Tritea stood on the site of the present Turcochorion., AmbrysusOr Amphrysus, famous for the strength of its fortifications and its scarlet berries for dyeing. Some remains of it are to be seen at the modern village of Dhistomo., and DrymæaOn the frontiers of Doris and Phocis. Leake thinks that its ruins are those seen midway between Kamares and Glamista. Daulis was also the name of an ancient town of Phocis, the ruins of which are to be seen at the modern village of Dhavlia., which district has also the name of Daulis. The extremity of the gulf washes one corner of Bœotia, with its towns of SiphæProbably the present Palæo Kastro, at the Port de Dobrena or Polaca. and ThebesLeake thinks that the Corsian Thebes, a port of Bœotia, is represented by the modern Khosia., surnamed the Corsian, in the vicinity of HeliconHelicon is a range of mountains with several summits, the loftiest of which is now called Paleovuni. Helicon was a grove of the Muses, and the fountain of Aganippe was supposed to impart poetic inspiration to those who drank of it.. The third town of Bœotia on this sea is that of PagæSee p. 288., from which point the Isthmus of the Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck.

The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called ApiaFrom Apis, the son of Phoroneus, or Telchines, according to Pausanias. After the arrival of Pelops, it took from him its name of Peloponnesus, or the "Island of Pelops." and Pelasgia, is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the face of the earth. Situate between the two seas, the Ægæan and the Ionian, it is in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in consequence of the angular indentations made in its shores. According to Isidorus, it is 563 miles in circumference; and nearly as much again, allowing for the sea-line on the margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it commences is know by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the two seas, which we have previously mentioned, running from the north and the east, invade the land from opposite sidesThe Ionian from the north, and the Ægean, or rather, Myrtoan, Sea from the east., and swallow up its entire breadth, the result being that through these inroads in opposite directions of such vast bodies of water, the sides of the land are eaten away to such an extent, that HellasThat part of Greece proper which lies to the north of the Isthmus. only holds on to the Peloponnesus by the narrow neck, five miles in width, which intervenes. The Gulfs thus formed, the one on this side, the other on that, are known as the CorinthianNow the Gulfs of Lepanto and Egina. and the Saronic Gulfs. The ports of LecheæLecheæ was the harbour of Corinth on the Corinthian, and Cenchreæ on the Saronic Gulf. The name of the latter is still preserved in the modern appellation Kechries, which is given to its ruins., on the one side, and of Cenchreæ on the other, form the frontiers of this narrow passage, which thus compels to a tedious and perilous circumnavigation such vessels as from their magnitude cannot be carried across by land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both King DemetriusDemetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia, son of Antigonus, king of Asia., Cæsar the Dictator, the prince CaiusCaius Caligula, the Emperor., and Domitius NeroThe Emperor Nero actually commenced the work, having opened the undertaking with great pomp, and cut away a portion of the earth with his own hands. He had advanced four stadia, when the work was interrupted by the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul., have at different times made the attempt to cut through this neck by forming a navigable canal; a profane design, as may be clearly seen by the resultWe cannot agree with Hardouin that "exitus" here means "death," in allusion to the unfortunate end of all those who had made the attempt. The opinion of Spanheim seems rather deserving of support (though censured by Hardouin), that it merely means "the result" in each case; it being the fact, that in all the instances the contemplated undertaking was interrupted by some unforeseen event. Periander and Herodes Atticus also contemplated the formation of this channel. in every one of these instances.

Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have called the Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly known by the name of EphyreIt is not known when it exchanged this name for that of Corinth; being called by both names in Homer. Scarcely any remains of it are now to be seen. The small town on its site is called Gortho, a corruption of its ancient name. The water of the famed spring of Pirene is now only used for washing clothes., situate upon the brow of a hill, at a distance of sixty stadia from the shore of either sea. From the heights of its citadel, which is called Acrocorinthos, or the "Heights of Corinth," and in which is the Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two seas which lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patræ upon the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The colony of PatræNow Patras. There are few remains of the ancient city, which was one of the twelve cities of Achaia. It was made a Roman colony by Augustus. is founded upon the most extensive promontory of the Peloponnesus, facing Ætolia and the river Evenus, the Corinthian Gulf being, as we have previouslySee C. 3 of the present Book, p. 275. stated, less than a mile in width at the entrance there, though extending in length as far as the isthmus, a distance of eighty-five miles.

The province called AchaiaOriginally a district in the south of Thessaly had this name; but to distinguish it from that in the Peloponnesus, its people were called the Phthiotian Achæi. begins at the Isthmus; from the circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular succession on its coast, it formerly had the name of ÆgialosFrom the Greek word ai)gialo\s, "the sea-shore.". The first place there is Lecheæ, already mentioned, a port of the Corinthians; next to which is OlyrosSituate on the coast, about five miles from the present Vostitza., a fortress of the people of PelleneIn the interior. The modern Trikala stands on its site.; then the former towns of Helice and BuraHelice was the place of meeting of the Achæan league; when, in B.C. 373, together with Bura, it was swallowed up by an earthquake, and their sites were covered by the sea. Such of the people as escaped fled to the places mentioned above by Pliny. Pouqueville says that some remains of these places may still be seen emerging from the sea., and the places in which their inhabitants took refuge after their towns had been swallowed up by the sea, SicyonThe modern Basilico or Vasilika stands on its site. namely, ÆgiraThe places called Paleo-Kastro and Vostitza are supposed to occupy the sites of Ægira and Ægium. To the east of Vostitza considerable ruins are still to be seen., Ægium, and ErineosSupposed to be the present Artotina.. In the interior are Cleonæ and HysiæTowns of Roman Argolis. The ruins of the former are supposed to be those at a spot still called Klenes, near the village of Curtesi. The remains of Hysieæ, on the road from Argos to Tegea, stand on a hill above the plain of Achladokampos.; then come the port of PanormusNow called Tekieh; fifteen stadia from Rhium., and Rhium already mentioned; from which promontory, Patræ, of which we have previously spoken, is distant five miles; and then the place where PheræOr Pharæ; 150 stadia from Patre. stood. Of the nine mountains of Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous; there is also the Fountain of Cymothoë. Beyond Patræ we find the town of OlenumThe modern Kato-Achaia., the colony of DymeIts remains are to be seen near the modern village of Karavostasi. Pliny is mistaken probably in calling it a colony, as we know that it was placed under the authority of the colony of Patræ, which alone was allowed to enjoy the privilege of self-government., the places where Bupra- siumPouqueville thinks that it was situate on the river now called the Verga. Leake supposes that the town of Hyrmine stood on the site of the present Kastro Tornese on the peninsula of Khlemutzi; but Boblaye and Curtius place it further north, at the modern harbour of Kunupeli, where there are some ancient ruins. and Hyrmine once stood, the Promontory of AraxusNow Capo Papa., the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory of Chelonates, at five miles' distance from CylleneThe locality of Cyllene is doubtful. Most writers place it at Glarentza, but Pouqueville suggests Andravida or Andravilla, and Mannert places it near Clarenza. Chelinates or Chelonatas was probably the name originally of the whole peninsula of Khlemutzi, but the point here mentioned was most probably the modern Cape Tornese.. There is also the fortress of PhliusIt lay in the interior, south of Sicyonia, and north of Argos. Pouqueville found its ruins on the banks of the Asopus.; the district around which was called by Homer AræthyreaStrabo says that this was the name of the most ancient town of Phliasia, and that the inhabitants afterwards deserted it for Phlius., and, after his time, Asopis.

The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly called Epei, with the city of ElisSome small ruins of it are to be seen at the foot of the hill of Kaloskopi, its ancient Acropolis. in the interior, and, at a distance of twelve miles from Phlius, being also in the interior, the temple of Olympian Jupiter, which by the universal celebrity of its games, gives to Greece its mode of reckoningBy Olympiads, which were reckoned according to the order of celebration of the Olympic games: they were established in the year B.C. 776, and were celebrated every fourth year.. Here too once stood the town of PisaIt was destroyed in the year B.C. 572 by the Eleans, not a vestige of it being left. The Alpheus retains the name of Alfio., the river Alpheus flowing past it. On the coast there is the Promontory of IchthysOr "the Fish," from its peculiar shape. It is now called Katakolo.. The river Alpheus is navigable six miles, nearly as far as the towns of AulonProbably situate in the valley between Elis and Messenia, which was so called. It is not elsewhere mentioned; and its ruins are thought to be those near the sea, on the right bank of the river Cyparissus. Leprion is again mentioned in c. x. and Leprion. We next come to the Promontory of PlatanodesOr Platamodes. Supposed to be the present Aja Kyriaki.. All these localities lie to the west.

Further south is the Gulf of Cyparissus, with the city of CyparissaThis city survived through the middle ages, when it was called Arkadia. In 1525 it was destroyed by the Turks, and when rebuilt resumed nearly its ancient name as Cyparissia, by which it is now called. The bay or gulf is called the Gulf of Arkadia. on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two miles in length. Then, the towns of PylosMessenian Pylos probably stood on the site of the modem Erana; Pouqueville says however that it is still called Pilo, and other writers place it at Zonchio. It stood on the modern Bay of Navarino. and MethoneIts site was at the spot called Palæo Kastro, near the modern town of Modon. The site of Messenian Helos, so called from its position in the marshes, to\ e(/los, is now unknown., the place where Helos stood, the Promontory of AcritasNow Capo Gallo., the Asinæan Gulf, which takes its name from the town of AsineIt stood on the western side of the Messenian Gulf, which from it was called the Asinæan Gulf. Grisso, or, according to some, Iaratcha, occupies its site. Koroni however is most probably the spot where it stood, the inhabitants of ancient Corone having removed to it. Petalidhi stands on the site of Corone. A small portion of the Messenian Gulf was probably called the Coronean., and the Coronean, so called from Corone; which gulfs terminate at the Promontory of TanarumNow Cape Matapan.. These are all in the country of Messenia, which has eighteen mountains, and the river PamisusNow the Pyrnatza. also. In the interior are MesseneIts ruins, which are extensive, are to be seen in the vicinity of the modern village of Mavromati. Ithome was the citadel of Messene, on a mountain of the same name, now called Vourcano., Ithome, Œchalia, AreneIt is supposed that in ancient times it occupied the site of the more modern Samos or Samia in Triphylia. The modern Sareni is thought to occupy its site., Pteleon, Thryon, DorionDorion or Dorium, the spot where, according to Homer, the Muses punished Thamyris with blindness, is supposed to have been situate on the modern plain of Sulima., and ZancleNothing seems to be known of this place; but it is not improbable that it gave its name to the place so called in Sicily, originally a Messenian colony., all of them known to fame at different periods. The margin of this gulf measures eighty miles, the distance across being thirty.

At Tænarum begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by a free nation, and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and 38 across. The towns are, TænarumOr Tænarus, afterwards called Cænopolis. The present town of Kisternes, or Kimaros, occupies its site., AmyclæIts site is generally placed at Sklavokhori, six miles from Sparta; but Leake supposes it to have been situate on the hill called Aghia Kyriaki, between that place and Sparta., PheræOr Pharis. The present Chitries occupies its site., and LeuctraOr Leuctrum, on the river Pamisus, now called Levtros. It must not be confounded with the town in Bœotia where the Thebans defeated the Spartans, B.C. 371.; and, in the interior, SpartaOr Lacedæmon. Its site is occupied by the modern villages of Magula and Psykhiko. The principal modern town in the vicinity is Mistra., TheramneOr Therapne, on the left bank of the Eurotas. Some ruins of it are still to be seen., and the spots where CardamyleConsiderable ruins of it are still to be seen to the N.E. of the modern town of Skarhamula., PitaneAuthors are not agreed as to the site of this town and that of Anthea or Anthene., and Anthea formerly stood; the former site of ThyreaMemorable for the pitched battle between 300 Argives and 300 Spartans,—Othryades being the sole survivor of the Spartans, and Alcenor and Chromius of the Argives., and GeraniaBy Homer called Enope.. Here is also Mount TaygetusPente Dactylon, or Pente Dactyli, the "Five Fingers," is the present name of the range of Taygetus. Its principal summits are now St. Elias and Paixamadhi. The river Eurotas is now called Iris and Niris in its upper and middle course, and Basili-potamo from the Spartan plain to the sea., the river Eurotas, the Gulf of EgilodesÆgila, according to Leake, occupied the site of the present Scutari; if so, this gulf was probably the Gulf of Scutari. Psamathus was near the point of Tænarum., the town of Psamathus, the Gulf of GytheumOr Gythium, near the mouth of the Eurotas. It was famous for its cheeses. The ruins are called Paleopoli, a little to the north of Marathonisi., so called from the town of that name, from which place the passage is the safest across to the island of Crete. All these places are bounded by the Promontory of MaleaNow Capo Santo Angelo..

The next gulf, which extends as far as ScyllæumNow Capo Skillo., is called the Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit. The towns upon it are, BœaOr Bœæ. Its ruins are to be seen at the head of the Gulf of Vatika., EpidaurusIt stood on the site of the place called Palee-Emvasia, above Monembasia., surnamed Limera, ZaraxIts site is the modern Porto Kari, according to Ansart., and the port of CyphantaLeake places Cyphanta either at Cyparissi, or farther north, at Lenidhi. Ansart makes it the modern Porto Botte, or Stilo.. The rivers are the InachusNow the Banitza. The Erasinus is the modern Kephalari. and the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, surnamed HippiumSo called from its breed of horses. It is now also called Argos; three leagues from Napoli di Romania., situate beyond the place called LernaIts site is now called Milos. In the marshes in its vicinity Hercules was said to have killed the Lernæan Hydra., and at a distance of two miles from the sea. Nine miles farther is MycenæKarvata is the name of the place on its site. Its ruins are numerous, and of great magnificence., and the place where, it is said, TirynsIts ruins are of the most interesting nature, presenting enormous masses of stone, of Cyclopian architecture. The spot is at the present day called Palæ-Nauplia. stood; the site, too, of MantineaIt must not be confounded with the place in Arcadia, where Epaminondas fell. Its site appears to be unknown.. The mountains are, Artemius, ApesantusOr Apesas, in the territory of Cleonæ, now called Fuka. Artemius is probably the present Malvouni, or Malcyo., AsterionA river of the same name rose in this mountain; its identity is unknown., Parparus, and some others, eleven in number. The fountains are those of NiobeSo called from Niobe, the sister of Pelops and wife of Amphion, king of Thebes. The spring of Amymone ran into the lake of Lerna., Amymone, and Psamathe.

From Scyllæum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance of 177 miles. We find here the towns of HermioneIts ruins are to be seen in the vicinity of the modem village of Castri: they are very extensive., TrœzenThe modern Dhamala occupies the site of Trœzen., CoryphasiumThe identity of this Coryphasium seems to be unascertained. There was a promontory of that name in Messenia; but it cannot be the place here spoken of., and Argos, sometimes called "Ina- chian," sometimes "Dipsian"It is supposed that Pliny here alludes to Argos Hippium, which he has previously mentioned; but only in connection with the rivers Inachus and Erasinus, and not as included in the list of the towns of Argolis. The origin of the term "Dipsian" is probably unknown. It could hardly allude to drought, as Argos was abundantly supplied with water. But see B. vii. c. 57. Argos. Then comes the port of SchœnitesAnsart says that this is the modern Porto Estremo, at the mouth of the Saronic Gulf., and the Saronic Gulf, which was formerly encircled with a grove of oaksHesychius says that oaks were called sarwnide\s in the language of ancient Greece. This gulf is now called the Gulf of Egina, or of Athens., from which it derives its present name, oaks in ancient Greece having been so called. Upon this gulf is the town of Epidaurus, famous for its temple of ÆsculapiusHe was worshipped here under the form of a serpent; and his temple, five miles from Epidaurus, was resorted to by patients from all parts of Greece for the cure of their diseases. The ruins of this temple are still to be seen, and those of the theatre at Epidaurus are very extensive. The village of Pidharvo stands in the midst of the ruins., the Promontory of SpiræumThe modern Capo Franco., the port of AnthedusLapie takes Anthedus, or Anthedon, to be the place now called Porto d'Athene., BucephalusThis appears to have been a port of Corinth, on a promontory of the same name, meaning, probably from its shape, the "Bull's Head Point.", and then Cenchreæ, previously mentioned, on this side of the Isthmus, with its temple of NeptuneCalled the 'Posideium'; in its vicinity the games were celebrated. The Isthmian Sanctuary was especially famous as a place of refuge., famous for the games celebrated there every five years. So many are the gulfs which penetrate the shores of the Peloponnesus, so many the seas which howl around it. Invaded by the Ionian on the north, it is beaten by the Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan on the south, by the Ægean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E.; which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all the coast of Attica.

Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia, which, remote from the sea on every side, was ori- ginally called DrymodesFrom drumwdh\s, "woody," it being filled with groves and forests., and at a later period Pelasgis. The cities of Arcadia are, PsophisNow called the Khan of Tripotamo., MantineaNow called Paleopoli. Here Epaminondas fell, fighting against the Spartans, B.C. 362., StymphalusIn the N.E. of Arcadia. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the modern Chionia. It was in the vicinity of the lake of the same name, the scene of one of the labours of Hercules., TegeaAn important city: the modern Piali marks its site., AntigoneaBuilt upon the ruins of the ancient Mantinea., OrchomenusAn ancient town mentioned by Homer, N.W. of Mantinea. The modern Kalpaki stands on its site., PheneumOr Pheneus, on the N.W. of Arcadia. Phonia stands on its site., PalantiumNear Tegea; said to have been the birth-place of Evander. On the foundation of Megalopolis, it was nearly deserted, but was restored by Antoninus Pius. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen near the modern village of Thana, according to Ansart. (from which the PalatiumIt being said to have been so called in compliment to Evander, a native, as above stated, of Palantium. at Rome derives its name), MegalopolisFounded by the advice of Epaminondas, after the battle of Leuctra, B.C. 371, near the frontiers of Messenia. The ruins of its theatre, once the largest in Greece, are the only remains of it now to be seen, near the modern village of Sinano., GortynaIt contained a famous temple of Æsculapius. Its ruins are to be seen near the village of Atzikolo. The exact site of Bucolion, which was near Megalopolis, is probably unknown, though Ansart says that the spot is called Troupiais. Of Carnion nothing is known., Bucolium, Carnion, ParrhasiaThe town of Parrhasia, which is mentioned by Homer, seems to have given name to the Parrhasian district. Leake thinks it to be the same as Lycosura., ThelpusaOn the river Ladon: its ruins are seen near the modern Vanena., MelænæIn the west of Arcadia, on the river Alpheus., HeræaOr "Juno's Town." It was a place of great importance, situate on the lower Alpheus. Its remains are to be seen on a hill west of the village of Aianni, or St. John. They are very inconsiderable. Its wine was highly esteemed, and still maintains its ancient celebrity., PylæOf Pylæ, Pallene, Agree, and Epium, nothing appears to be known., Pallene, Agræ, Epium, CynæthæOr Cynætha, in the north of Arcadia, upon the Aroanian mountains, beyond the natural boundaries of Arcadia. The modern village of Kalavryta occupies its site; but there are scarcely any traces of its remains., Lepreon of ArcadiaOr Lepreum, so called to distinguish it from Lepreum in Elis., Parthe- niumNothing seems to be known of this Parthenium. Alea lay between Orchomenus and Stymphalus. Its ruins have been discovered in the dark valley of Skotini, a mile to the N.E. of the village of Buyati., Alea, MethydriumIts site has the modern name of Palæopyrgos. The sites of Enispe, mentioned by Homer, and Macistum, are unknown., Enispe, Macistum, Lampia, ClitoriumOr Cleitor, a famous town of Arcadia. Its ruins are to be seen on the plain of Kalzana, or Katzanes. One of the rivulets that ran past it still retains the name of Clitora., and CleonæIts ruins, few in number, but testifying its importance, are found near the modern village of Kleves, not far from Kurtesi. The Nemean games were celebrated in honour of Hercules in the grove of Nemea, between Cieonæ and Phlius.; between which two last towns is the district of Nemea, commonly known as BembinadiaFrom the village of Bembina there, mentioned by Strabo, and on which Koutzomati probably now stands..

The mountains of Arcadia are, PholöeNow called Olono. It received its name from the Centaur Pholus, accidentally slain by one of the poisoned arrows of Hercules., with a town of the same name, CylleneThe modern Zyria., LycæusNomiai and Hellenitza are modern names given to this mountain., upon which is the temple of Lycæan Jupiter; MænalusIn the south of Arcadia. It is now called Roinon., ArtemisiusOr Artemisium, forming the boundary between Argolis and Arcadia. It is now called Turniki., PartheniusThe pass by this mountain from Argolis to Tegea is still called Partheni., LampeusNow called Zembi, according to Ansart., and NonacrisThe town of Nonacris stood at its foot. The river Styx took its rise in these mountains., besides eight others of no note. The rivers are the LadonNow called the Landona., which rises in the marshes of PheneusThe town now called Fonia, already mentioned by Pliny. The waters of its marshes were discharged by a subterranean passage, said to have been made by Hercules., and the ErymanthusNow called the Dogana. The two principal heights of Mount Erymanthus are Olonos and Kalefoni., which springs from a mountain of the same name, and flows into the Alpheus.

The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those of the AliphiræiThe people of Aliphira, a town of Arcadia, in the district of Cynura. Considerable remains of it are still to be seen on the hill of Nerovitza., the AbeatæThe people of Abea, in Messenia., the Pyrgensespeople of Pyrgos, in Arcadia., the Paro- reatæThe people of Parorea, in Arcadia. Of the two next, nothing appears to be known., the Paragenitæ, the Tortuni, the TypaneiThe inhabitants of Typaneæ, in Elis., the ThriasiiThe people of Thrius, in Elis, near Patræ., and the TritiensesThe people of Tritia, in Achaia, now Chalanthistra.. Domitius Nero [the emperor] granted liberty to the whole of AchaiaNero abolished the institutions of the Roman province of Achaia, which had been assigned to the Roman senate, and governed by a proconsul, granting it its liberty. Vespasian, however, again established the provincial government, and compelled the Greeks to pay a yearly tribute.. The Peloponnesus, from the Promontory of Malea to the town of ÆgiumNow Vostitza. on the Corinthian Gulf, is 190 miles in length, and 125 miles across from Elis to Epidaurus; the distance being, from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, sixty-eight miles. The distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already mentionedSee p. 281.. Throughout the whole of this region, as though nature had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of the sea, seventy-six mountains raise their lofty heads.

At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our people known as Græcia. The first state that presents itself is Attica, anciently called ActeFrom the Greek a)kth\, "the sea-shore.". It touches the Isthmus in that part of it which is called Megaris, from the colony of MegaraIt still retains its ancient name., lying on the opposite side to PagæOr Pegæ. It lay on the borders of the Corinthian Gulf, being, as Pliny says, the utmost point of the Peloponnesus on that side, as Megara was on the Saronic Gulf. According to Kruse, Psato occupies its site, but according to Lapie, Alepochori. The former is most probably correct..

These two towns are situate at the spot where the Peloponnesus projects to the greatest distance; being placed, one on each side, upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were. The Pagæans, as well as the people of ÆgosthenaOn the Corinthian Gulf. Porto Ghermano occupies its site., belong to the jurisdiction of Megara. On the coast there is the port of SchœnosOn the Saronic Gulf, to the north of Cenchreæ. The present Porto Cocosi occupies its site., the towns of SidusNow Leandra, according to Ansart. and CremmyonOr Crommyon. It was the chief place on the Saronic Gulf, between the Isthmus, properly so called, and Megara. Its rains are thought to be those seen near the chapel of Saint Theodorus. It was said to have been the haunt of the wild boar killed by Theseus., the Scironian RocksSo called from being the scene of the ravages of the robber Sciron. They are now called Kaki Scala., six miles in length, Geranea, Megara, and EleusisFamous as the principal seat of the worship of the goddesses Demeter and Persephone. Its remains are to be seen at the modern Lefsina.. ŒnoëPera Chora marks its site. It was a member of the Tetrapolis of Attica, and Probalinthos another. and Probalinthos also formerly existed here; the ports of Piræus and PhalerumUlrichs, the best authority, places the port of Phalerum at the east corner of the great Phaleric Bay, in the vicinity of Tripirghi, or the Three Towers. The three harbours of the Piræus are the present Phanari, Stratiotiki or Paschalimani, and Drako or Porto Leone. are distant from the Isthmus fifty-five miles, being united to Athens, which lies in the interior, by a wallThe Piræus was united to the city by two walls, called the "Long Walls," forty stadia in length. The length of the Phaleric wall was thirty-five stadia. five miles in length. Athens is a free city, and needsIt is to be regretted that such was his opinion. He could have well spared space for a description of it. not a word more from us in its commendation; of fame it enjoys even more than enough. In Attica there are the Fountains of CephisiaThe city of Cephisia, still called Kivisia, was one of the twelve cities of Cecrops. The fountain of transparent water is still to be seen here., Larine, Callirrhoë EnneacrunosOr the "Nine Springs." It was the only source of good water for drinking purposes in Athens. This spring is still called by its ancient name. Of Larine nothing seems to be known., and the mountains of BrilessusThis is thought to have been the ancient name of the mountain afterwards known as Pentelicus, so famous for its marble, now called Mendeli or Penteli., Ægialeus, Icarius, HymettusThe northern or Greater Hymettus is now called Telo-Vuni, the southern or Lesser Mavro-Vuni., LycabettusOn the N.E. of Athens, now called the Hill of Saint George., and the place where IlissusProbably on the river of the same name. stood. At the distance of forty-five miles from the Piræus is the Promontory of SuniumNow Capo Colonna.. There is also the Promontory of ThoricosNorth of Sunium and the modern bay of Panorimo. Thoricus was one of the Demi of Attica.; PotamosThis was the name of two Demi, though probably one place. It lay on the east coast to the north of Thoricus. Its harbour was probably the modern Dhaskalio; and the town is placed by Leake at the ruins called Paleokastro, to the south of the village of Dardheza., SteriaOn the east coast, between Prasiæ and Brauron., and BrauronOne of the twelve ancient cities of Cecrops, on the eastern coast. Its name is supposed to be preserved in those of the villages Vraona and Paleo Vraona., once towns, the borough of RhamusA Demus belonging to the tribe Æantis. It was famous for its temple of Nemesis, the goddess of retribution. The present Obrio Castro occupies its site., the place where MarathonMemorable for the defeat of the Persians by the Athenians, B.C. 490. The site of the ancient town of Marathon is thought not to have been at the modern village of Marathon, but a place called Vrana, to the south of it. stood, the ThriasianThe eastern part of the Eleusinian plain was thus called, from the Demus of Thria. Its exact site is uncertain. plain, the town of MeliteMelite was a Demus of the tribe Cecropis, of Athens, west of the inner Ceramicus., and OropusNow Oropo, on the eastern frontiers of Bœotia and Attica, near the Euripus. It originally belonged to the Bœotians. upon the confines of Bœotia.

In this country are AnthedonIts ruins are supposed to be those seen eight miles from Egripo. Lukisi has also been suggested., OnchestusIts ruins are still to be seen on the S.W. slope of Mount Faga., the free town of ThespiæOn the S.E. slope of Mount Helicon. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Eremo or Rimokastro., LebadeaNow Livadhia. The celebrated cave of Trophonius stood in its vicinity., and then ThebesExtensive remains of it are still to be seen; but the modern town of Theba or Stiva stands only on the site of its ancient Cadmea or citadel., surnamed BœotianTo distinguish it from places of the same name in Egypt, Phthiotis, and Lucania., which does not yield the palm to Athens even in celebrity; the native land, according to the common notion, of the two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place of the Muses too is pointed out in the grove of Helicon. To this same Thebes also belong the forest of CithæronOn the range of mountains of that name separating Bœotia from Megaris and Attica. The forest abounded in game, and the vicinity was a favourite scene of the poetic legends. Paleovuni is the highest summit of the Heliconian range. Leake fixes the Grove of the Muses at the present church of Saint Nicholas, at the foot of Mount Marandali, one of the summits of Helicon., and the river Ismenus. Besides these, there are in Bœotia the Fountains of Œdipodia, Psamathe, Dirce, Epicrane, Arethusa, HippocreneThese fountains or springs are very difficult to identify, but Hippocrene, or the "Iorse-Spring" (said to have been produced by Pegasus striking the ground with his feet), was probably at the present Makariotissa; while Aganippe is the fountain that flows midway between Paleo-panaghia and Pyrgaki., Aganippe, and Gargaphie; and, besides the mountains already mentioned, Mycalesos, Hadylius, and Acontius. The remaining towns between Megara and Thebes are EleutheræThis place was originally a member of the Bœotian confederacy, but joined the Athenians, though it did not become an Attic Demus. Leake thinks that its ruins are those seen at Myupoli. Ross thinks that it stood to the east of Ghyfto-kastro, while other writers are of opinion that it stood more to the west, near the modern village of Kundara., HaliartusRazed to the ground by the Roman prætor Lucretius, for having espoused the cause of king Perseus. Its remains are seen about a mile from the village of Mazi, on the road from Thebes to Lebadæa., PlatææMemorable for the defeat of the Persians under Mardonius, B.C. 479., Pheræ, AspledonDistant twenty stadia from Orchomenus. Leake places it at the modern Izamali, Forchhammer at Avro-Kastro., HyleIts site is uncertain. Leake supposes it to be at Paleokastro, between the north end of Lake Hylica and the foot of Mount Palea. Ulrichs places it at the south end of the lake., ThisbeThe modern Kakosia occupies its site., ErythræAt the foot of Mount Cithæron. Leake places it eastward of Katzula, at the foot of the rocks there., GlissasLeake identifies it with the ruins on the torrent of Plataniki, below the mountain of Siamata. Pausanias says it was situate seven stadia beyond Teumessus, and at the foot of Hypatus, now Siamata., and CopæOn Lake Copaïs. The modern village of Topolia occupies its site.; near the river Cephisus, Larymna and AnchoaThe waters of the Cephisus here burst forth from their subterraneous channel.; as also Medeon, Phlygone, AcræphiaOn Lake Copaïs. Its ruins are at a short distance to the south of the modern Kardhitza., CoroneaSouth of Mount Helicon. Its principal remains are those of its theatre, a temple of Hera, and the agora or market-place., and ChæroneaOn the borders of Phocis; famous for the battles fought in its vicinity between the Athenians and Bœotians, B.C. 447, and between Philip of Macedon and the Athenians and Bœotians, B.C. 338, and that in which Sylla defeated the generals of Mithridates B.C. 86. It stood on the site of the modern village of Kapurna.. Again, on the coast and below Thebes, are OcaleaOn the river Copais, at the foot of Mount Tilphusion., Heleon, Scolos, SchœnosOn the river of that name, and on the road from Thebes to Anthedon., PeteonIts site appears to be unknown., HyriæEnumerated by Homer with Aulis. Ancient critics have, without sufficient reason, identified it with Hysiæ., MycalesosIt was sacked by the Athenians, B.C. 413, and in ruins in the time of Pausanias., Iresion, Pteleon, Olyros, and TanagraThe modern Grimadha or Grimala occupies its site., the people of which are free; and, situate upon the very mouth of the EuripusThe modern channel of Egripo., a strait formed by the opposite island of Eubœa, AulisThe place where the Grecian fleet assembled when about to sail for Troy. Leake says that its harbour is now called Vathy, evidently from the Greek baqu\s, "wide.", so famous for its capacious harbour. The Bœotians formerly had the name of Hyantes.

After them come the Locrians, surnamed EpicnemidiiSo called from dwelling near Mount Cnemis., formerly called Leleges, through whose country the river Cephisus passes, in its course to the sea. Their towns are OpusIts ruins are to be seen three miles from the modern Talanti.; from which the Opuntian GulfNow the Golfo di Talanti. takes its name, and Cynos. DaphnusOn the Eubœan Sea, which here extended to the Corinthian Gulf. It was in ruins in the time of Strabo. Cynus was the chief sea-port of the Locri Opuntii. Its site is marked by a tower called Palæopyrgo, and some ruins to the south of the village of Livanates. is the only town of Phocis situate on the coast. In the interior of Locris is ElateaThe modern village of Lefti stands on its site, and there are some ruins to be seen., and on the banks of the Cephisus, as we have previously statedIn C. iv. of this Book., Lilæa, and, facing Delphi, CnemisOr Cnemides, a fortress built on the range of Mount Cnemis, near the modern Nikoraki. and HyampolisRavaged by Philip of Macedon. Its ruins are near the modern village of Vogdhani.. Again, upon the coast of the Locrians, are LarymnaThe Lower Larymna. Its ruins are seen between the modern Matzumadi and Martini., and ThroniumIts ruins are to be seen near the modern Andera., near which last the river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the towns of Narycion, AlopeBetween Daphnus and Cynus. Gell found its ruins on a hill near the sea-shore., and ScarphiaIts ruins are to be seen three miles from those of Thronium.; and then the gulf which receives the name of the MaliacNow called the Gulf of Zeitoun. The people from whom it received its name were the Malienses. from the people who dwell there, and upon which are the towns of Halcyone, Econia, and PhalaraIts ruins are two leagues from the modern town of Zeitoun..

Doris comes next, in which are SperchiosOr Sperchia., ErineonStrabo says that it lay below the town of Pindus. It is perhaps the present Palæo Choria., BoionIts ruins are placed by Leake near the modern Mariolates., Pindus, and CytinumLike Pindus, one of the four towns or Tetrapolis of Doris. Its site corresponds to the modern Gravia.. Behind Doris lies Mount Œta.

Hæmonia follows, a country which has often changed its name, having been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hellas, Thessaly, and Dryopis, always taking its surname from its kings. In this country was born the king whose name was Græcus; and from whom Græcia was so called; and here too was born HellenHe seems to think that the name Græcus is older than that of Hellen, in which he is supported by Apollodorus., from whom the Hellenes derive their name. The same people Homer has called by three different names, Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi.

That portion of these people which inhabit the country adjacent to Doris are called Phthiotæ. Their towns are EchinusSo called from Echion, fabled to have sprung from the dragon's teeth. Its site is marked by the modern village called Akhino. The Sperchius is now called the Ellada., at the mouth of the river Sperchius, and, at four miles from the narrow pass of ThermopylæThis famous spot still retains its name. It is also called Bocca di Lupo., Heraclea, which from it takes its surname of TrachinFrom tracu\s, "narrow," in allusion to the narrowness of the mountain passes. Brotier places it on the site of the modern Zeitoun, but he is probably in error.. Here too is Mount CallidromusA peak of the range of Œta., and the celebrated towns of HellasThe name of a town and small district of Phthiotis: it eventually gave its name to the whole of Greece, which by its inhabitants was called Hellas., HalosNear the river Amphrysus. Leake places it at Kefalosi, at the extremity of Mount Othrys., LamiaThe modern Zeitoun., PhthiaSaid to have been the city of Achilles., and ArneAccording to Stephanus of Byzantium, Cierium was identical with Arne. Leake places it at the modern Mataranga..

In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the MinyanSo called from the people called Minyæ, who derived their name from Minyas, the father of Orchomenus. In the time of Strabo, this city, the capital of the Minyan empire, was in ruins. Its site is now called Seripu., and the towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, AtraxLeake places its site on the left bank of the Peneius, opposite the village of Gunitza., and Pelinna; the Fountain of Hyperia; the towns also of PheræThe residence of Admetus, and in later times of the tyrants of Thessaly. The modern Valestina occupies its site., at the back of which is PieriaSpoken of in C. 17 of the present book., extending to Macedonia, LarisaThe ancient capital of the Pelasgi. It is now called Larissa, Larza, or Ienitchen., GomphiLeake places Gomphi on the heights now called Episkopi, on the left bank of the Bliuri., ThebesIts ruins are said to be seen about eight miles from the modern city of Volo. of Thessaly, the grove of Pteleon, the Gulf of Pagasa, the town of PagasaThe city of Volo stands on its site. The Gulf is called the Bay of Volo., which was afterwards called DemetriasThis is not strictly correct. Demetrias was founded by Demetrius Poliorcetes, about two or three miles to the west of Pagasa, the inhabit- ants of which were removed to that place. Its remains are to be seen, according to Leake, on the face of a maritime height called Goritza., the Plains of Pharsalia, with a free city of similar namePharsalus, now Farsa or Fersala, in Thessaliotis. On its plain Pompey was defeated by Cæsar, B.C. 48., CrannonOr Cranon; said to have been anciently called Ephyre. Leake places its site at some ruins called Palea Larissa, distant two hours and twenty-seven minutes' journey from Larissa. It was the residence of the powerful family of the Scopadæ., and Iletia. The mountains of Phthiotis are Nymphæus, once so beautiful for its garden scenery, the work of nature; Busygæus, Donacesa, BermiusThis range in Macedonia is now called Verria. Herodotus states that it was impassable for cold, and that beyond were the gardens of Midas, where roses grew spontaneously., Daphusa, Chimerion, Athamas, and Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which the most famous are Cercetii, OlympusThe name of the eastern part of the great mountain chain extending west and east from the Promontory of Acroceraunia on the Adriatic to the Thermaic Gulf. It is now called by the Greeks Elymbo, and by the Turks Semavat-Evi, the "Abode of the Celestials." A portion of this range was called Pierus; and Ossa, now Kissavo, the "ivy-clad," was divided from Olympus on the N.W. by the Vale of Tempe. Othrys extended from the south of Mount Pindus, to the eastern coast and the Promontory between the Gulf of Pagasa and the northern point of Eubœa., Pierus, and Ossa, opposite to which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the Lapithæ. These mountains look towards the west, PelionNow called Plessedhi or Zagora; situate in the district of Magnesia in Thessaly, between lake Bœbeis and the Pagasæan Gulf. towards the east, all of them forming a curve like an amphitheatre, in the interior of which, lying before them, are no less than seventy-five cities. The rivers of Thessaly are the ApidanusNow the Gouropotamo., the PhœnixFlowing into the Asopus near Thermopylæ., the EnipeusIn Pieria. Supposed to be the modern Litokhoro., the OnochonusThe modern Rajani., and the Pamisus. There is also the Fountain of Messeis, and the lake BœbeisThis lake received the rivers Onchestus, Amyrus, and others. It is now called Karla, from an adjoining village which has ceased to exist. The town of Bœbe was in its vicinity.. The river PeneusNow the Salambria or Salamria. too, superior to all others in celebrity, takes its rise near Gomphi, and flows down a well-wooded valley between Ossa and Olympus, a distance of five hundred stadia, being navigable half that distance. The vale, for a distance of five miles through which this river runs, is called by the name of Tempe; being a jugerumThe jugerum was properly 240 feet long and 120 broad, but Pliny uses it here solely as a measure of length; corresponding probably to the Greek ple/qron, 100 Grecian or 104 Roman feet long. Tempe is the only channel through which the waters of the Thessalian plain flow into the sea. and a half nearly in breadth, while on the right and left, the mountain chain slopes away with a gentle elevation, beyond the range of human vision, the foliage imparting its colour to the light within. Along this vale glides the Peneus, reflecting the green tints as it rolls along its pebbly bed, its banks covered with tufts of verdant herbage, and enlivened by the melodious warblings of the birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus, or rather, I should say, does not receive it, but merely carries its waters, which swim on its surface like oil, as Homer saysIl. B. ii. c. 262. He alludes to the poetical legend that the Orcus or Titaresius was a river of the infernal regions. Its waters were impregnated with an oily substance, whence probably originated the story of the unwillingness of the Peneus to mingle with it. It is now called the Elasonitiko or Xeraghi.; and then, after a short time, rejects them, refusing to allow the waters of a river devoted to penal sufferings and engendered for the Furies to mingle with his silvery streams.

To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of LibethraNear Libethrum; said to be a favourite haunt of the Muses, whence their name "Libethrides." It is near the modern Goritza.. Its towns are IolcosLeake places its site on the height between the southernmost houses of Volo and Vlakho-Makhala. No remains of it are to be seen., Hormenium, PyrrhaAnsart says that on its site stands the modern Korakai Pyrgos., MethoneNear Neokhori, and called Eleutherokhori., and OlizonNow Kortos, near Argalisti, according to Ansart.. The Promontory of SepiasNow Haghios Georgios, or the Promontory of St. George. is here situate. We then come to the towns of CasthaneaAt the foot of Mount Pelion. Leake places it at some ruins near a small port called Tamukhari. The chestnut tree derived its Greek and modern name from this place, in the vicinity of which it still abounds. and Spa- lathraProbably near the village of Hagia Eutimia, according to Ansart., the Promontory of ÆantiumNow Trikeri., the towns of MelibœaMelibœa was near the modern Mintzeles, and Rhizus near Pesi Dendra, according to Ansart., Rhizus, and ErymnæAnsart says, in the vicinity of the modern Conomio.; the mouth of the Peneus, the towns of HomoliumSituate at the foot of Mount Homole, between Tempe and the village of Karitza. Leake thinks that the Convent of St. Demetrius, on the lower part of Mount Kissavo, stands on its site., Orthe, Thespiæ, PhalannaNow Tournovo, according to Ansart., ThaumacieNow called Democo, according to Ansart., GyrtonBetween the Titaresius and the Peneus. The modern village of Tatari stands on its site., CrannonProbably the place of the same name mentioned in the last Chapter., AcharneProbably the same as Acharræ on the river Pamisus, mentioned by Livy, B. xxxii. c. 13., DotionOn the Dotian Plain, mentioned by Hesiod, and probably the same place that Pindar calls Lacereia., Melitæa, PhylaceThe birth-place of Protesilaüs, the first victim of the Trojan war., and PotniæNothing is known of this place. The word "porro" appears instead of it in some editions.. The length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and Thessaly is said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the breadth to 287.

Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and renowned for its two kingsPhilip, the Conqueror of Greece, and Alexander, the Conqueror of Asia. and its former empire over the world; it was formerly known by the name of EmathiaThe original Emathia, as mentioned by Homer, is coupled with Pieria as lying between the Hellenic cities of Thessaly and Pæonia, and Thrace.. Stretching away towards the nations of Epirus on the west it lies at the back of Magnesia and Thessaly, being itself exposed to the attacks of the DardaniA tribe of the south-west of Mœsia, and extending over a part of Illyricum. According to Strabo, they were a wild race, of filthy habits, living in caves under dunghills, but fond of music.. Pæonia and Pelagonia protect its northern parts from the TriballiA people of Mœsia, mentioned in C. 29 of the last Book.. Its towns are ÆgiæSupposed by some writers to be the same place as Edessa. Ansart says it is the spot now known as Moglena., at which place its kings were usually buried, BeræaNow Verria in Roumeia. St. Paul and Silas withdrew to this place from Thessalonica. The remains are very considerable., and, in the country called Pieria from the grove of that name, ÆginiumDescribed by Livy as of great strength. It occupied the site of the modern Stagus.. Upon the coast are HeracleaSurnamed Lyncestis; the chief town of Upper Macedonia. It must have stood not far from the modern town of Felurina., the river ApilasNow the Platamona., the towns of PydnaNow Kitron. The Romans usually called it Citron or Citrus. and AlorosIn the inmost recess of the Thermaic Gulf. Leake supposes it to have occupied the site of the present Palea Khora, near Kapsokhori., and the river HaliacmonNow the Vistritza, by the Turks called Inje-Karra. Cæsar calls it the boundary between Macedonia and Thessaly.. In the interior are the AloritæThe people apparently of Aloros just mentioned., the VallæiVallæ and Phylacæ appear to have been two towns of Pieria., the Ph1lylacæi, the CyrrhestæThe people of Cyrrhus; probably on the site of the present Vistritza. Leake however makes a place called Paleokastro to occupy its site. Tyrissæ was probably in its vicinity., the Tyrissæi, the colony of PellaNow Alaklisi, upon a lake formed by the Lydias. Philip made it the capital of Macedonia, and it was the birth-place of Alexander the Great. It was made a Roman colony under the name of Julia Augusta Pella., and StobiIts ruins are still called Stoli., a town with the rights of Roman citizens. Next comes AntigoneaThere were two places of this name in Macedonia; one called Antigonia Psaphara in Chalcidice, and the other in Pæonia., EuropusBetween Idomene and the plains of Pella. As Pliny here says, it was a different place from Europus of Almopia, by which the Rhœdias flows. Of the following places nothing seems to be known. upon the river Axius, and another place of the same name by which the Rhœmdias flows, Scydra, Eordæa, Mieza, and Gordyniæ. Then, upon the coast, IchneCoupled by Herodotus with Pella. Eordæa seems to have been the name of the district on the river Eordaicus, identified with the modern Devol., and the river Axius: along this frontier the Dardani, the TreresThey dwelt in the vicinity of Mount Scomium. The river Axius is the modern Vardhari., and the Pieres, border on Macedonia. Leaving this river, there are the nations of PæoniaOr Thrace., the ParoræiPeople of Paroræa in Thrace., the EordensesThe people probably of Eordæa, already mentioned., the AlmopiiLeake thinks that Almopia was the name of the district now called Moglena., the Pelagones, and the MygdonesThe Mygdones were a Thracian people in the east of Macedonia, on the Thermaic Gulf..

Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus; and, lying along the extent of country in front of these mountains, the ArethusiiThe people of Arethusa, a town of Bisaltia in Macedonia, in the pass of Aulon. Euripides, the tragic poet, was buried here., the AntiochiensesA town of Mygdonia., the IdomenensesThe people of Idomene, a town about twelve miles from the pass of Stena, now Demirkapi, or the 'Iron Gate,' on the river Vardhari., the DoberiTheir district of Doberus is supposed to have been near the modern Doghiran., the Æstræenses, the Allantenses, the Audaristenses, the Morylli, the GaresciIt has been suggested that Garescus stood on the same site as the modern Nurocopo. Many of these peoples are now entirely unknown., the LyncestæThe people of Lyncestis, in Macedonia, of Illyrian origin and on the frontiers of Illyria. Lyncus was the ancient capital, Heraclæa the more modern one., the OthryoneiProbably the inhabitants of the slopes of Mount Othrys., and the AmantiniAmantia was properly in Illyria, to the south of the river Aoüs. Leake places it at Nivitza. and OrestæA people of the north of Epirus, on the borders of Macedonia. They were said to have derived their name from Orestes, who, after the murder of his mother, founded in their territory the town of Argos Oresticum., both of them free peoples; the colonies of BullisA Greek city of Illyria. Dr. Holland discovered its remains at Graditza on the Aoüs or Viosa. and DiumThe bulwark of the Macedonian maritime frontier to the south. Leake discovered its site near the modern Malathria., the Xylopolitæ, the Scotussæi, a free people, Heraclea SinticaOn the right bank of the river Strymon in Thracian Macedonia. It stood on the site of the modern Zervokhori., the TymphæiA people of Epirus on the borders of Thessaly., and the Toronæi.

Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the town of ChalastraIn Mygdonia, at the mouth of the Axius—King Perseus put all its male inhabitants to death. Its site was at or near the modern Kulakia., and, more inland, Piloros; also Lete, and at the extreme bend of the Gulf, ThessalonicaNow Saloniki. Its original name was Thermæ, but it was first made an important city by Cassander, B.C. 315, who gave it its new name in honour of his wife, the sister of Alexander the Great: S, Paul visited it about A.D. 53, and two years after addressed from Corinth two Epistles to his converts in the city., a free city; (from this place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 milesPolybius says, in Strabo, B. vii., 267 miles.,) and then ThermæAs already mentioned, Thermæ became merged in Thessalonica, when refounded by Cassander under that name.. Upon the GulfNow the Gulf of Saloniki. of Thermæ are the towns of Dicæa, PydnaThis is probably an error. Pydna, already mentioned, lay far inland in the district of Pieria., Derra, ScioneOn the peninsula of Pallene. Its male inhabitants were put to death by the Athenians in the Peloponnesian war., the Promontory of CanastræumNow Capo Paliuri, the extreme point of the Isthmus of Pallene., and the towns of PalleneThe most westerly of the three peninsulas of Chalcidice. Phlegra is generally understood to have been its former name. and Phlegra. In this region also are the mountains Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone, and Leoomne; the towns of NyssosPerhaps the same as Nyssa, between the rivers Nestus or Mestus, and Strymon., Phryxelon, Mendæ, and what was formerly PotidæaIts ruins are now called Pinaka. It was a colony of the Corinthians, but refounded by Cassander, King Philip having previously destroyed the city. on the isthmus of Pallene, but now the Colony of Cassandria; AnthemusSouth-east of Thessalonica, and north of Chalcidice. It was given by King Philip to the Olynthians., OlophyxusNear Mount Athos., and the Gulf of MecybernaNow Molivo, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, part of which thence took its name.; the towns of Miscella, AmpelosThe name of a promontory at the extremity of the peninsula of Si- thonia, in Chalcidice. It seems to correspond with the modern Cape Kartali., ToroneIn the district of Chalcidice, on the S.W. of the peninsula of Sithonia., SingosOn the east of the peninsula of Sithonia. It gave its name to the Sinus Singiticus or Singitic Gulf., and the canal, a mile and a half in length, by means of which Xerxes, king of the Persians, cut off Mount AthosNow Monte Santo, at the end of the long peninsula running out from Chalcidice. from the main land. This mountain projects from the level plain of the adjacent country into the sea, a distance of seventy-fiveThis is a mistake. It is only forty miles in length. From Lieut. Smith (Journal of Royal Geogr. Soc. vol. vii. p. 65) we learn that its average breadth is about four miles; consequently Pliny's statement as to its circumference must be greatly exaggerated. Juvenal, Sat. x. l. 174, mentions the story of the canal as a specimen of Greek falsehood; but distinct traces have survived, to be seen by modern travellers, all the way from the Gulf of Monte Santo to the Bay of Erso in the Gulf of Contessa, except about 200 yards in the middle, which has been probably filled up. miles; its circumference at its base being 150 miles in extent. There was formerly upon its summit the town of AcroathonOr Acrothöum. Pliny, with Strabo and Mela, errs in thinking that it stood on the mountain. It stood on the peninsula only, probably on the site of the modern Lavra.: the present towns are UranopolisOr the 'Heaven City,' from its elevated position. It was founded by Alexarchus, brother of Cassander, king of Macedon., Palæorium, Thyssus, CleonæProbably on the west side of the peninsula, south of Thyssus., and Apollonia, the inhabitants of which have the surname of MacrobiiOr "long-lived.". The town also of Cassera, and then the other side of the Isthmus, after which come AcanthusNow Erisso; on the east side of the Isthmus, about a mile and a half from the canal of Xerxes. There are ruins here of a large mole., StagiraA little to the north of the Isthmus now called Stavro. It was the birth-place of Aristotle the philosopher, commonly called the Stagirite, and was, in consequence, restored by Philip, by whom it had been destroyed; or, as Pliny says in B. vii. c. 30, by Alexander the Great., SithoneThe name of the central one of the three peninsulas projecting from Chalcidice. The poets use the word Sithonius frequently as signifying 'Thracian.', HeracleaPossibly not the same as the Heraclea Sintica previously mentioned., and the country of Mygdonia that lies below, in which are situate, at some distance from the sea, ApolloniaNow called Pollina, south of Lake Bolbe, on the road from Thessalonica to Amphipolis. and Arethusa. Again, upon the coast we have PosidiumSacred to Poseidon or Neptune. Now Capo Stavros in Thessaly, the west front of the Gulf of Pagasa, if indeed this is the place here meant., and the bay with the town of Cermorus, AmphipolisOn the left or eastern bank of the river Strymon, which flowed round it, whence its name Amphi-polis, "round the city." Its site is now occupied by a village called Neokhorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni or "New- town." A few remains are still to be seen. The bay at the mouth of the Strymon, now Struma or Kara-Sou, is called the Gulf of Orphano., a free town, and the nation of the Bisaltæ. We then come to the river StrymonA Thracian people, extending from the river Strymon on the east to Crestonica on the west. which takes its rise in Mount HæmusIn Mount Scomius namely, one of the Hæmus or Balkan range. and forms the boundary of Macedonia: it is worthy of remark that it first discharges itself into seven lakes before it proceeds onward in its course.

Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the world, which once extendedUnder Alexander the Great. On his death his empire was torn in pieces by the contentions of his generals. her career over Asia, Armenia, Iberia, Albania, Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus, which reduced the whole of the East under her power, and triumphed over the Bactri, the Medes, and the Persians. She too it was who proved the conqueror of India, thus treading in the footsteps of Father LiberIn allusion to the legendary accounts of the Indian expeditions of Bacchus and Hercules. and of Hercules; and this is that same Macedonia, of which our own general Paulus Æmilius sold to pillage seventy-twoOn the conquest of Perseus. Plutarch says that these seventy cities were pillaged in one and the same hour. They were thus punished for their support of Perseus. cities in one day. So great the difference in her lot resulting from the actions of twoAlexander the Great and Paulus Æmilius. individuals!

Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategiesOr præfectures, as the Romans called them., and to be reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining up to the Bisaltæ aboveIn the last Chapter. mentioned; on the left there are the Digerri and a number of tribes of the BessiAn extensive tribe occupying the country about the rivers Axius, Strymon, and Nestus or Mestus., with various names, as far as the river MestusThis river is now called the Mesto or Kara-Sou., which winds around the foot of Mount Pan- gæumA range between the Strymon and the Nestus, now the Pangea or Despoto-Dagh., passing among the Elethi, the DiobessiProbably a canton or division of the Bessi., the Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti. The territory of the OdrysæThe most powerful people of Thrace; dwelling on both sides of the Artiscus, and on the plain of the Hebrus. gives birth to the HebrusNow the Maritza. It rises near the point where Mount Scomius joins Mount Rhodope. The localities of most of the tribes here named are unknown., its banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri, the Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the EdoniThe name of this people is often used by the poets to express the whole of Thrace. The district of Edonis, on the left bank of the Strymon, properly extended from Lake Cercinitis as far east as the river Nestus.. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ, the Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount Hæmus, the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes runs the river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope, first called PoneropolisOr "Trouble City," also called Eumolpias., afterwards PhilippopolisOr "Philip's City;" founded by Philip of Macedon; still called Philippopoli. from the name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its situation, TrimontiumBecause it stood on a hill with three summits. Under the Roman empire it was the capital of the province of Thracia.. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have to travel sixOn account probably of the winding nature of the roads; as the height of the Balkan range in no part exceeds 3000 feet. With Theopompus probably originated the erroneous notion among the ancients as to its exceeding height. miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite direction and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the MœsiThe people of Mœsia. The Aorsi and Getæ are again mentioned in C. 25 of this Book., the Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are the Arræi SarmatæThe inhabitants of the present Bulgaria, it is supposed., also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and, about the shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of the poet OrpheusFollowing the account which represent him as a king of the Cicones, and dwelling in the vicinity of Mount Rhodope. The Sithonii here mentioned dwelt about the mouth of the Ister, or Danube, and were a different people from those of Sithonia, in Chalcidice, referred to in a previous note., dwell.

Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine, and the PropontisThe Sea of Marmora. on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the south; on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in turn to ApolloniaIt is difficult to conceive which place of this name is here alluded to, as there seem to have been four places on this coast so called, and all mentioned by Pliny in the present Book., ŒsymaCall Æsyma by Homer; between the rivers Strymon and Nestus., NeapolisNow called Kavallo, on the Strymonic Gulf. The site of Datos appears to be unknown. and Datos. In the interior is the colony of PhilippiNow called Filiba, or Felibejik, on a height of Mount Pangæus, on the river Gangites, between the Nestus and the Strymon. It was founded by Philip, on the site of the ancient town of Crenides, in the vicinity of the gold mines. Here Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius, B.C. 42; and here the Apostle Paul first preached the Gospel in Europe, A.D. 53. See Acts xvi. 12., distant from Dyrrhachium 325 miles; also ScotussaIts site seems unknown, but it is evidently a different place from that mentioned in the last Chapter., the city of Topiris, the mouth of the river MestusAlso called Mestus., Mount Pangæus, HeracleaSintica, previously mentioned., OlynthosNow Aco Mamas, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf. It was the most important Greek city on the coast of Macedon. It was taken and destroyed by Philip, B.C. 347, and its inhabitants sold as slaves. Mecyberna, already mentioned, was used as its sea-port., AbderaOn the coast, and east of the river Nestus. Its people were proverbial for their stupidity, though it produced the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras, and Anaxarchus. No traces of its site are to be found., a free city, the people of the BistonesNow called the Lagos Buru. The name of the Bistones is sometimes used by the poets for that of the Thracians in general. and their Lake. Here was formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables of the horsesOr mares rather. Diomedes was the son of Ares, or Mars, and king of the Bistones. He was slain by Hercules. of Diomedes. At the present day we find here DicæaBy some identified with the modern Curnu, by others with Bauron., IsmaronOr Ismarus, at the foot of Mount Ismarus., the place where Parthenion stood, Phalesina, and MaroneaNow Marogna., formerly called Orthagorea. We then come to Mount SerriumA promontory opposite the island of Samothrace. and ZoneA town on a promontory of the same name, said to have been frequented by Orpheus., and then the place called DoriscusThe Plain of Doriscus is now called the Plain of Romigik. Parisot suggests the true reading here to be 100,000, or, as some MSS. have it, 120,000, there being nothing remarkable in a plain containing 10,000 men. Pliny however does not mention it as being remarkable, but merely suggests that the method used by Xerxes here for numbering his host is worthy of attention., capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We then come to the mouth of the HebrusNow the Maritza. At its mouth it divides into two branches, the eastern forming the port of Stentor., the Port of Stentor, and the free town of ÆnosStill called Enos., with the tomb there of PolydorusA son of Priam and Hecuba, murdered by Polymnestor, king of the Thracian Chersonesus, to obtain his treasures. See the Æneid, B. iii., the region formerly of the Cicones.

From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron TichosFrom the Greek, ma/kron tei=xos., or the "Long Wall," a distance of 122 miles; round Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf of MelasNow the Gulf of Enos. receives its name. The towns are, CypselaNow Ipsala, or Chapsylar, near Keshan., BisantheNow Rodosto, or Rodostshig, on the coast of the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora., and Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called because a wall extends from that spot between the two seas,—that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus excluding the ChersonesusNow called the Peninsula of the Dardanelles, or of Gallipoli. The wall was built to protect it from incursions from the mainland., which projects beyond it.

The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coastHe here skips nearly five degrees of latitude, and at once proceeds to the northern parts of Thrace, at the mouth of the Danube, and moves to the south. of the Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities, HistropolisOr, the "city of the Ister," at the south of Lake Halmyris, on the Euxine. Its site is not exactly known; but by some it is supposed to have been the same with that of the modern Kostendsje., namely, founded by the Milesians, TomiNow Temesvar, or Jegni Pangola, the capital of Scythia Minor. It was said to have been so called from the Greek te/mnw, "to cut," because Medea here cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyrtus. It is famous as the place of Ovid's banishment; and here he wrote his 'Tristia' and his 'Pontic Epistles.', and CallatisUsually identified with the modern Collat, or Collati., formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an earthquake; it now has DionysopolisIts site does not appear to be known, nor yet those of many of the towns here mentioned., formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the river Zyras. All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians, surnamed Aroteres; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and GeraniaThis story no doubt arose from the similarity of its name to ge/ranos, "a crane;" the cranes and the Pigmies, according to the poets, being in a state of continual warfare., where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt; the barbarians used to call them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that they were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast, proceeding from Dionysopolis, is OdessusSupposed to be the present Varna., a city of the Milesians, the river PanysusNow called Daphne-Soui, according to D'Anville., and the town of Tetranaulo- chus. Mount Hæmus, which, with its vast chain, overhangs the Euxine, had in former times upon its summit the town of AristæumSaid to have been built by Aristæus, son of Apollo.. At the present day there are upon the coast MesembriaNow Missivri., and AnchialumOr Anchiale, now Akiali., where Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town called Anthium; at the present day ApolloniaNow Sizeboli, famous for its temple of Apollo, with his statue, thirty cubits in height, which Lucullus carried to Rome. In later times it was called Sozopolis. occupies its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the Tearus, and the Orosines; there are also the towns of ThyniasNow Tiniada., HalmydessosThe present Midjeh, according to D'Anville., DeveltonAfterwards called Zagora, which name it still bears., with its lake, now known as Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the BosporusOr Straits of Constantinople.. From the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the Euxine, some writers have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa, however, increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles; and, from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 125.

On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of CasthenesBetween Galata and Fanar, according to Brotier., and two harbours, the one called the Old Men's Haven, and the other the Women's Haven. Next comes the promontory of ChrysocerasOr Golden Horn; still known by that name., upon which is the town of ByzantiumThe site of the present Constantinople., a free state, formerly called Lygos, distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,—so great being the space of land that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next come to the rivers Bathynias and PydarasThese rivers do not appear to have been identified., or Athyras, and the towns of SelymbriaThe present Silivri occupies its site. and PerinthusAn important town of Thrace. Eski Erekli stands on its site., which join the mainland by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the interior are BizyaNow Vizia, or Viza., a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in consequence of the sacrilegious crime of TereusHe alludes to the poetical story of Tereus, king of Thrace, Progne, and Philomela. Aldrovandus suggests that the real cause of the absence of the swallow is the great prevalence here of northern winds, to which they have an aversion.; the district called CænicaSo called probably from the Thracian tribe of the Cænici, or Cæni., and the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly stood a town called Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast is the river ErginusNow called Erkene, a tributary of the Hebrus.; here formerly stood the town of GanosAll that is known of it is, that it is mentioned as a fortress on the Propontis.; and LysimachiaHexamila now occupies its site. in the Chersonesus is being now gradually deserted.

At this spot there is another isthmusThe isthmus or neck of the Peninsula of Gallipoli, or the Dardanelles., similar in name to the otherThat of Corinth. They are both about five miles wide at the narrowest part., and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and CardiaNow Cardia, or Caridia. It was the birth-place of king Eumenes. on that of the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shapeFrom kardi/a, in consequence of its supposed resemblance to a heart. which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united with LysimachiaLysimachus destroyed Cardia, and, building Lysimachia, peopled it with the inhabitants., which stands at a distance of five miles from Macron Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis, the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and CissaMannert identifies it with the ancient Ægos and the modern Galata., on the banks of the river ÆgosMore generally called Ægospotamos, the "Goat River," upon which the town of Ægos stood. It was here that Lysander defeated the Athenian fleet, B.C. 405, which put an end to the Peloponnesian war.; it now has, at a distance of twenty-twoAntoninus, in his Itinerary, makes this distance twenty-six miles. miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands opposite to the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates, as we have alreadyB. ii. c. 92. The present Straits of Gallipoli. stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other, CallipolisNow Gallipoli, a place of considerable commercial importance. and SestosNow Ialova; famous in Grecian poetry, with Abydos, for the loves of Hero and Leander. in Europe, and LampsacusNow Lamsaki. and AbydosThe village of Aidos, or Avido, probably marks its site. To the north, Xerxes passed over to Sestos on his bridge of boats, B.C. 480. in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of MastusiaNow Capo Helles., lying opposite to SigeumNow Jeni-Hisari, the N.W. promontory of Troas. Here Homer places the Grecian camp during the Trojan war.; upon one side of it stands the CynossemaMeaning the "Bitch's tomb," the fable being that Hecuba, in her old age, was changed into that animal. It was near the town of Madytus. (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the naval stationMeaning that their fleet was anchored off here during the Trojan war. of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the shrineA magnificent temple was erected near his tomb at Eleus, where he also had a sacred grove. It was greatly enriched by the votive offerings of Greek travellers. According to D'Anville, its site lay to the south of Mastusia. of Protesilaüs. On the ex- treme front of the Chersonesus, which is called Æolium, there is the city of Elæs. Advancing thence towards the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of CœlosNow called Kilidbahr. Near this place the Spartans were defeated by the Athenians, who erected a trophy near the tomb of Hecuba., Panormus, and then Cardia, previously mentioned.

In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus, Gigemoros, Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus, which fall into the Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont has been alreadyIn the present Chapter; where he says that the distance from Byzantium to Dyrrhachium is 711 miles. See p. 305. mentioned; some writers, however, make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384.

What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the name of ÆxAi)\c, "a goat." Other authors give other derivations for the name of Ægean,—from the town of Ægæ in Eubœa, or from Ægeus, the father of Theseus, who threw himself into it; or from Ægæa, a queen of the Amazons, who perished there; or from Ægæon, a god of the sea; or from the Greek ai)gi\s, "a squall," on account of its storms. from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so called in Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of the sea. Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers. Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of MyrtoanSee c. 5 of this Book., being so called from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen as you sail towards Macedonia from Geræstus, not far from CarystusBoth places in Eubœa, mentioned in c. 21 of this Book. in Eubœa. The Romans include all these seas under two names,—the Macedonian, in those parts where it touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian where it washes the shores of Greece The Greeks, however, divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the name of those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part which lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have already mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such, then, are the seas and the various nations which are comprehended in the third great Gulf of Europe.

Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of CorcyraNow Corfu. Of its city of Corcyra only a few ruins now exist., with a city of the same name, the citizens of which are free; also a town called CassiopeThere are still some remains of it near the village called Cassopo., and a temple dedicated to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and in Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as ThoronosNow Fano, or Merlere., lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of PaxosNow Paxo and Antipaxo. in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from Corcyra. Not farOn the contrary, they lie at the other end of the isle of Corcyra. Some of them are mere rocks, and cannot be distinguished by their ancient names. The present names of four are Sametraki, Diaplo, Boaia, and the Isle of Ulysses. from these, and in front of Corcyra, are Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia, Tarachie, and, off PhalacrumNow Capo Drasti., a promontory of Corcyra, the rock into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed.

Before LeucimnaNow Capo Levkimo. The islands are those of Santo Niccolo. we find the islands of Sybota, and between Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are those called TeleboïdesOr Islands of the Teleboans., as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those which lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias, Oxiæ, and PrinoessaThese three seem to be those now called Magnisi, Kalamota, and Kastus. These lie facing the promontory of Leucadia, the others opposite Ætolia.; while those that are in front of Ætolia are the EchinadesOpposite Acarnania: by the Venetians they were called the Islands of Kurtzolari. Some of them are cultivated, others again are mere rocks., consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.

In front of these, and lying out at sea, are CephalleniaNow called Cephallenia. and ZacynthusNow Zante., both of them free, IthacaNow Thiaki, or Cefalogna Piccola—Little Cephallenia., DulichiumThe general opinion is, that Strabo is right in identifying this island with one of the Echinades; but it seems impossible now to say which of them was so called., SameSometimes confounded with Cephallenia; but, according to Virgil and Mela, as well as Pliny, they were different islands., and CrocyleCrocylæa was a town of Acarnania, referred to by Homer; and there was a district of Ithaca called Crocyleium. Pliny is probably in error in mentioning Crocyle as an island.. Cephallenia, formerly known as MelænaOr the "Black Island;" probably from its thick foliage., lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three othersPale, Cranii, and Proni.. Between this island and Achaia lies the island of Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the same name, and for its singular fertility. It formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the south of Cephallenia, at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there is the famous mountain of ElatusSo called from its fir-trees. It now has the name of Scopo.. This island is thirty-six miles in circumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is Ithaca, in which is Mount NeritusNow Monte Stefano.; its circumference in all is twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from this island is AraxusSee c. 6 of this Book., a promontory of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are AsterisSupposed by some writers to be the same with the rocky isle now called Dyscallio. Though mentioned by Homer, its existence was disputed by many of the ancient commentators. and Prote; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the two StrophadesThe modern Strivali and Stamphane., by some known as the Plotæ. Before Cephallenia lies LetoiaThe present Guardiania, according to Lapie., before Pylos the three SphagiæAccording to Ansart, these were Prote, now Prodano, and Sphagia, formerly Sphacteria, before Pylos, now called Zonchio, or Old Navarino; the third being perhaps the isle of Bechli, in the Bay of Navarino., and before Messene the ŒnussæNow called Sapienza, Santa Maria, and Cabrera., as many in number.

In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three ThyridesVenetico and Formignes are the names of two of them., and in that of Laconia TheganusaNow Servi., Cothon, and CytheraThe modern Cerigo., with the town of that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is situate five miles from the promontory of MaleaIt is much further from the Cape of Malea or Santo Angelo than the distance here mentioned. It derived its name of Porphyris from the purple fishery established here by the Phœnicians., thus forming a strait very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are PityusaThe modern Isle of Port Tolon. Irine is the present Hipsyli according to Leake, who also identifies Ephyre with Spetzia., Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of HermioneAt the south of Argolis., Tiparenus, AperopiaThe modern Dhoko, according to Leake. Some authorities think that Tiparenus, and not Ephyre, is the modern Spetzia., ColonisLeake thinks that Colonis and Hydreia, now called Hydra, were the same island; but Kiepert thinks it the same as the small island to the south of Spetzia., and Aristera; and, opposite that of Trœzen, CalauriaNow Poros., at a distance of half a mile, PlateisThese are the islands now called Moni Jorench, Kophinidia, and San Giorgio d'Arbora. It is perhaps impossible to identify them, except that Belbina is generally supposed to be the island of San Giorgio., Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus is CecryphalosNow Kyra., and PityonesosThe modern Angistri., six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a distance of fifteen miles from this last, ÆginaWhich name, or Eghina, it still retains., a free island, the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles. This island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the port of Athens: it used formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the promontory of SpiræumSee c. 9 of this Book., lie EleusaProbably the modern Laoussa, one of this group., AdendrosBy Brotier said to be the modern Pentenesia. The other islands here mentioned seem not to have been identified., the two islands called Craugiæ, the two Cæciæ, Selachusa Cenehreis, and Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the four Methurides. ÆgilaNow Cerigotto. lies at a distance of fifteen miles from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of Crete.

Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south, the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph Crete, the daughter of HesperidesDalechamps suggests Hesperus.; Anaximander, from a king of the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been of opinion that it had the name of MacaronThe island "of the Blessed." from the serenity of its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589 in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which takes its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of SammoniumNow Capo Salomon., facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws out that of CriumetoponFrom the Greek kriou= me/twpon, "the ram's forehead"; now called Capo Crio., in the direction of Cyrene.

The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, EtæaAlso called Elæa. Pococke speaks of it as a promontory called Chaule-burnau., CisamonHardouin calls it Chisamo., Pergamum, CydoniaThe modern Khania. The quince derived its Latin name, "Malum Cydonium," from this district, to which it was indigenous. From its Latin name it was called melicotone by the writers of the Elizabethan period., MinoiumNow Minolo, according to Hardouin., ApteronThe port of Apteron, or Aptera, which Mr. Pashley supposes to be denoted by the ruins of Palæokastro; he also thinks that its port was at or near the modern Kalyres., Pantomatrium, AmphimallaNow La Suda, according to Hardouin, who says that Rhithymna is called Retimo; Panormus, Panormo; and Cytæum, Setia., Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum, Apollonia, MatiumSupposed by Ansart to have stood in the vicinity of the modern city of Candia., Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, HierapytnaStrabo says that it stood on the narrowest part of the island, opposite Minoa. Vestiges of it have been found at the Kastéle of Hierapetra. Its foundation was ascribed to the Corybantes., LebenaNow Lionda., and Hierapolis; and, in the interior, GortynaNext to Cnossus in splendour and importance. Mr. Pashley places its site near the modern Haghius Dheka, the place of the martyrdom of the ten Saints, according to tradition, in the Decian persecution., Phæstum, CnossusIt has been remarked, that Pliny is mistaken here if he intends to enumerate Cnossus among the towns of the interior of Crete. The only remains of this capital of Crete, situate on the north of the island, are those seen at Makro-Teikho, or the "Long Walls," so called from the masses of Roman brick-work there seen., Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Rhamnus, Lyctus, DiumThough an inland town, it probably stood in the vicinity of the headland or promontory of the same name, which is now called Kavo Stavro. Many of these names are utterly unknown., Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ, Holopyxos, Lasos, EleuthernæOne of the most important towns of Crete, on the N.W. slope of Mount Ida, about fifty stadia from the port of Astale. Mr. Pashley says that some remains probably of tills place are still to be seen on a hill near a place called Eletherna, five miles south of the great convent of Arkadhi., Therapnæ, Marathusa, and Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the memory only exists. The mountains are those of CadistusThe loftiest point of the mountain-range that traverses the island of Crete from west to east. Its head is covered with snow. The modern name is Psiloriti, looking down on the plain of Mesara. The word Ida is supposed to mean a mountain in which mines are worked, and the Idæi Dactyli of Crete were probably among the first workers in iron and bronze. The position of Mount Cadistus, belonging to the range of White Mountains, has been fixed by Hoeck at Cape Spadha, the most northerly point of the island. It is thought that Pliny and Solinus are in error in speaking of Cadistus and Dictynnæus as separate peaks, these being, both of them, names of the mountain of which the cape was formed; the latter name having been given in later times, from the worship and temple there of Dictynna., Ida, Dictynnæus, and CorycusNow Grabusa, the N.W. promontory of Crete.. This island is distant, at its promontory of Criumetopon, according to Agrippa, from PhycusNow Ras-al-Sem, or Cape Rasat, in Africa. The distance, according to Brotier, is in reality about 225 miles., the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at Cadistus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of CarpathosNow Skarpanto., at its promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly direction, at a distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is situate between it and Rhodes.

The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two called MylæAccording to Hardouin, all of these are mere rocks rather than islands.. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and opposite to Cydonia, is LeuceThe modern Haghios Theodhoros., and the two islands known as BudroæAccording to Hoeck, they are now called Turlure.. Opposite to Matium lies DiaNow called Standiu.; opposite to the promontory of ItanumNow Capo Xacro, on the east, though Cape Salomon, further north, has been suggested. In the latter case, the Grandes islands would correspond with Onisia and Leuce, mentioned by Pliny., Onisia and Leuce; and over against Hierapytna, Chrysa and GaudosNow Gaidurognissa. None of the other islands here mentioned seem to have been identified.. In the same neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus; and, after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands of Phocœ, the Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.

Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the LichadesBetween Eubœa and Locris. They are now called Ponticonesi., consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the far-famed SalamisNow Koluri. It is memorable for the naval battle fought off its coast, when Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks, B.C. 480.; before it, PsyttaliaNow called Lypsokutali.; and, at a distance of five miles from Sunium, the island of HeleneNow Makronisi, or "the Long Island." Its ancient name was also Macris. Strabo identifies it with the Homeric Cranaë, to which Paris fled with Helen.. At the same distance from this last is CeosUsually called Cea, one of the Cyclades, about thirteen miles S.E. of Sunium. Its modern name is Zea. Iulis was the most important town, and the birth-place of the poets Simonides and Bacchylides, of the sophist Prodicus, the physician Erasistratus, and the Peripatetic philosopher Ariston. Extensive remains of it still exist., which some of our countrymen have called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis and CarthæaThere are considerable remains of this town, called by the inhabit- ants Stais Palais.; CoresusOr Coresia. It was the harbour of Iulis, to which place we learn from Strabo that its inhabitants were transferred. and PœëessaOn the S.W. side of the island. Its ruins are inconsiderable, but retain their ancient name. have perished. Varro informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very fine texture, used for women's dresses.

EubœaNow called Eubœa, as also Egripo, or Negropont,—a corruption of the former word and "pont," "a bridge." itself has also been rent away from Bœotia; the channel of the Euripus, which flows between them, being so narrow as to admit of the opposite shores being united by a bridgeHardouin speaks of this as existing in his time, 1670, and being 250 feet in length. It is supposed to have been first constructed about B.C. 411, for the purpose of uninterrupted communication with Bœotia.. At the south, this island is remarkable for its two promontories, that of GeræstusNow Capo Mandili., which looks towards Attica, and that of CaphareusNow Kavo Doro, or Xylofago., which faces the Hellespont; on the north it has that of CenæumNow Lithadha, with a mountain 2837 feet above the sea.. In no part does this island extend to a greater breadth than forty miles, while it never contracts to less than two. In length it runs along the whole coast of Bœotia, extending from Attica as far as Thessaly, a distance of 150 milesThese measurements are not exactly correct. The length from north to south is about ninety miles; the extreme breadth across, thirty, and in one part, not more than four miles.. In circumference it measures 365, and is distant from the Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The cities for which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos, CerinthosStill extant in the time of Strabo, who speaks of it as an inconsiderable place., Oreum, Dium, ÆdepsosIts site is now called Lipso. It contained warm baths sacred to Hercules, and used by the Dictator Sylla. They are still to be seen., Ocha, and Œchalia; at present it is ennobled by those of ChalcisNow Egripo, or Negropont, having given name to the rest of the island. The Euripus is here only forty yards across, being crossed by a bridge, partly of stone, partly of wood. The poet Lycophron and the orator Isæus were natives of this place, and Aristotle died here. (opposite which, on the mainland, is Aulis), GeræstusNear the promontory of that name, now Capo Mandili. In the town there was a famous temple of Poseidon, or Neptune. According to Hardouin, the modern name is Iastura., EretriaOne of the most powerful cities of Eubœa. It was destroyed by the Persians under Darius, and a new town was built to the south of the old one. New Eretria stood, according to Leake, at the modern Kastri, and old Eretria in the neighbourhood of Vathy. The tragic poet Achæus, a contemporary of Æschylus, was born here; and a school of philosophy was founded at this place by Menedemus, a disciple of Plato., CarystusNow Karysto, on the south of the island, at the foot of Mount Ocha, upon which are supposed to have been its quarries of marble. There are but few remains of the ancient city. The historian Antigonus, the comic poet Apollodorus, and the physician Diocles, were natives of this place., Oritanum, and ArtemisiumProbably on the promontory of the same name. It was off this coast that the Greek fleet engaged that of Xerxes, B.C. 480.. Here are also the Fountain of ArethusaThere were tame fish kept in this fountain; and its waters were sometimes disturbed by volcanic agency. Leake says that it has now totally disappeared., the river Lelantus, and the warm springs known as Ellopiæ; it is still better known, however, for the marble of Carystus. This island used formerly to be called Chalcodontis and MacrisFrom the fact of its producing copper, and of its being in shape long and narrow., as we learn from Dionysius and Ephorus; according to Aristides, Macra; also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper was first discovered here. Menæchmus says that it was called AbantiasStrabo remarks, that Homer calls its inhabitants Abantes, while he gives to the island the name of Eubœa. The poets say that it took its name from the cow (Bou=s) Io, who gave birth to Epaphus on this island., and the poets generally give it the name of Asopis.

Beyond Eubœa, and out in the MyrtoanHardouin remarks here, that Pliny, Strabo, Mela, and Pausanias use the term "Myrtoan Sea," as meaning that portion of it which lies between Crete and Attica, while Ptolemy so calls the sea which lies off the coast of Caria. Sea, are numerous other islands; but those more especially famous are, Glau- connesos and the ÆgilaNow called Spitilus, and the group of Micronisia, or "Little Islands," according to Hardouin.. Off the promontory, too, of Geræstus are the Cyclades, lying in a circle around Delos, from which circumstanceFrom ku/klos, "a circle." they derive their name. The first of them is the one called AndrosNow Andro. It gives name to one of the comedies of Terence. The ruins of the ancient city were found by the German traveller Ross, who has published a hymn to Isis, in hexameter verse, which he discovered here. It was famous for its wines. with a city of the same name, distant from Geræstus ten miles, and from Ceos thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us that this island was at first called Cauros, and after that Antandros; Callimachus calls it Lasia, and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris. It is ninety-three miles in circumference. At a distance of one mile from Andros and of fifteen from Delos, is TenosNow Tino., with a city of the same name; this island is fifteen miles in length. Aristotle says that it was formerly called Hydrussa, from the abundance of water found here, while some writers call it OphiussaFrom its abounding in snakes (o)/feis) and scorpions.. The other islands are, MyconosNow Mycono, south-east of Tenos and east of Delos. It was famous in ancient mythology as one of the places where Hercules was said to have defeated the Giants. It was also remarkable for the great proportion of bald persons among its inhabitants., with the mountain of DimastusSo called from its resemblance to two breasts, mazoi., distant from Delos fifteenWheeler says that the distance is but three miles; Tournefort, six. miles; SiphnusOnce famous for its gold and silver mines, but equally notorious for the bad character of its people. It is now called Siphno., formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-eight miles in circumference; SeriphusNow Serpho, lying between Cythnos and Siphnus., twelve miles in circuit; PrepesinthusNow Fermina, according to Hardouin.; CythnosBetween Ceos and Seriphus. It is now called Thermia. Cydias the painter was born here, and it was famous for its cheeses. Its modern name is derived from its hot springs, which are much frequented.; and then, by far the most famous among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle of them, DelosStill called Delos; and, though so celebrated, nothing more than a mere rock, five miles in circumference. itself; so famous for its temple of Apollo, and its extensive commerce. This island long floated on the waves, and, as tradition says, was the only one that had never experienced an earthquake, down to the time of M. VarroThat is, according to Varro, whose statement is ridiculed by Seneca. Some of the editors, however, punctuate this passage differently, making it to mean, "the only island that has never experienced an earthquake. Mucianus however has informed us, that down to the time of M. Varro, it has been twice so visited."; Mucianus however has informed us, that it has been twice so visited. Aristotle states that this island received its name from the fact of its having so suddenly made its appearanceFrom its then becoming dh=los, "plain," or "manifest." It was after the fall of Corinth that Delos became so famous for its commerce. Its bronze was in great request. on emerging from the sea; Aglaosthenes, however, gives it the name of Cynthia, and others of OrtygiaFrom o)/rtuc, "a quail"; the legend being, that Latona was changed into that bird by Jupiter, in order to effect her escape thither from the anger of Juno. Its name of Asteria was derived from a)/stron, "a star," either in consequence of its being devoted to the worship of the great luminary Apollo, or of its being considered by the gods the star of the earth. It was also called Lagia, from lagw\s, "a hare," that animal abounding there; and Cynæthus, from ku/wn, "a dog," it being famous for its hounds., Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia, Cynthus, and, from the circumstance of fire having been first discovered here, Pyrpile. Its circumference is five miles only; Mount CynthusA bare granite rock, not more than 500 feet in height. The island is now a mass of ruins; a great part of its remains having been carried away in the middle ages to Venice and Constantinople. here raises his head.

Next to this island is RheneDivided by a strait of four stadia in width from Delos. Nicias connected the two islands by a bridge. Its name of Celadussa was said to be derived from the noise of the waves, ke/lados, and of Artemite, from Artemis, or Diana., which Anticlides calls by the name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite; ScyrosNow Syra; famous for its wine and corn., which the old writers have stated to be twenty miles in circumference, but Mucianus 160; OliarosNow Antiparos; famous for its stalactite grotto, which is not mentioned by the ancient writers.; and ParosNow Paro; south of Delos and west of Naxos. The ruins of its town are still to be seen at the modern Paroikia. The Parian Chronicle, inscribed on marble, and containing a chronicle of Grecian history from Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to B.C. 264, was found here. It is preserved at Oxford., with a city of the same name, distant from Delos thirty-eight miles, and famous for its marbleChiefly obtained from a mountain called Marpessa.; it was first called Platea, and after that, Minois. At a distance of seven miles from this last island is NaxosNow Naxia, famous both in ancient and modern times for its re- markable fertility., with a town of the same name; it is eighteen miles distant from Delos. This island was formerly called StrongyleFrom stroggu/los, "round," its shape being somewhat inclined to circular, though by Eustathius it is compared to the shape of a vine-leaf. It is commonly called Dia by the poets. Tournefort says that it is distant forty miles from Delos., then Dia, and then DionysiasFrom Dio/nusos, or Bacchus, the god of wine., in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards; others again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or CallipolisOr "Fine City." It took its other name from the fact of its rivalling the fertility of Sicily.. It is seventy-fiveAccording to Brotier, the Jesuit Babin, on visiting it, found its circumference estimated at thirty-six miles only. miles in circumference—half as large again as Paros.

The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the Cyclades; the rest that follow are the SporadesSo called from lying scattered at random as it were, spora\s "scattered.". These are, HeleneHelene is supposed to be the modern Pira; Phacussa, Fecussa; Nicasia, Rachia; Schinussa, Schinusa; and Pholegandros, Policandro., Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros, and, at a distance of thirty-eight miles from Naxos, IcarosNow Nikaria, to the west of Samos. According to tradition, it derived its name from Icarus, the son of Dædalus, who was believed to have fallen into the sea in its vicinity., which has given its name to the surrounding sea, and is the same number of miles in lengthIts length is not so great as is here mentioned by Pliny. Its towns were Drepanum, or Dracanum, Œnoë, and Isti., with two cities, and a third now no longer in existence: this island used formerly to be called Doliche, Macris, and IchthyoëssaThe first two names are from the Greek, in allusion to its long, narrow shape, and the last bears reference to the fact of its shores abounding in fish.. It is situate fifty miles to the north-east of Delos, and thirty-five from the island of Samos. Between Eubœa and Andros, there is an arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from Icaros to Geræstus is a distance of 112 1/2 miles.

After we pass these, no regular order can be well observed; the rest must therefore be mentioned indiscriminately. There is the island of ScyrosNow Scyro, east of Eubœa, and one of the Sporades. Here Achilles was said to have been concealed by his mother Thetis, in woman's attire., and that of losNow Nio, one of the Sporades, inaccurately called by Stephanus one of the Cyclades. The modern town is built on the site of the ancient one, of which there are some remains. It was said that Homer died here, on his voyage from Smyrna to Athens, and that his mother, Clymene, was a native of this island. In 1773, Van Krienen, a Dutch nobleman, asserted that he had discovered the tomb of Homer here, with certain inscriptions relative to him; but they have been generally regarded by the learned as forgeries. Odia and Oletandros seem not to have been identified., eighteen miles distant from Naxos, and deserving of all veneration for the tomb there of Homer; it is twenty-five miles in length, and was formerly known by the name of Phœnice; also Odia, Oletandros, and GyaraNow called Gioura, or Jura. It was little better than a barren rock, though inhabited; but so notorious for its poverty, that its mice were said to be able to gnaw through iron. It was used as a place of banishment under the Roman emperors, whence the line of Juvenal, i. 73— "Aude aliquid brevibus Gyaris et carcere dignum." "Dare some deed deserving of the little Gyara and the gaol." It is now uninhabited, except by a few shepherds in the summer., with a city of the same name, the island being twelve miles in circumference, and distant from Andros sixty-two. At a distance of eighty miles from Gyara is Syrnos, then Cynæthus, TelosNow Telos, or Piskopi, a small island in the Carpathian Sea, and one of the Sporades. It lies off the coast of Caria. Syrnos appears not to have been identified., noted for its unguents, and by Callimachus called Agathussa, DonusaNear Naxos. Virgil calls it 'viridis,' or 'green,' which Servius explains by the colour of its marble. Like Gyara, it was used as a place of banishment under the Roman Empire. In C. 22, Pliny has mentioned Cynæthus as one of the names of Delos., PatmosNow Patmo, one of the Sporades, and west of the Promontory of Posidium, in Caria. To this place St. John was banished, and here he wrote the Apocalypse., thirty miles in circumference, the CorassiæA group between Icaria and Samos. They are now called Phurni and Krusi., Le- binthusOne of the Sporades, now Lebitha., LerosNow Lero. Its inhabitants were of Milesian origin, and of indifferent character. In its temple of Artemis, the sisters of Meleager were said to have been changed into guinea-fowls. It was opposite the coast of Caria., CinaraNow Zinari, N.E. of Amorgos. The artichoke (called ki/nara in Greek) is said to have given name to it.; SicinusNow Sikino; between Pholegandros and Ios., formerly called ŒnoeSo called, according to Stephanus, from its cultivation of the vine and produce of wine, oi=/nos. It was situate between Pholegandros and Ios. It was said to have had the name of Sicinus from a son of Thoas and Œnoë. Hieracia seems to be unknown.; Hieracia, also called Onus; CasosStill known by that name, and lying between Carpathus and Crete. The ruins of the ancient town of Casos are still to be seen at the village of Polin. It is mentioned by Homer., likewise called Astrabe; CimolusNow Kimoli, one of the Cyclades, between Siphnos and Melos. It took its name of Echinussa from the 'Echinus,' or Sea-urchin, of which various fossil specimens are still found on the coast; but nowhere else in these islands, except the opposite coast of Melos. There are considerable ruins of its ancient town., or Echinussa; and MelosNow Milo, the most westerly of the Cyclades. It is remarkable for its extreme fertility. Its town, which, according to most authorities, was called Byblis, was situate on the north of the island., with a city of that name, which island Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle Zephyria, Callimachus Mimallis, Heraclides Siphis and Acytos. This last is the most circularAnsart remarks, that our author is mistaken in this assertion, for not only are many others of these islands more circular in form, but even that of Kimolo, which stands next to it. in form of all these islands. After this comes Machia, then Hypere, formerly Patage, or, as others have it, Platage, but now called AmorgosNow Amorgo, S.E. of Naxos. It was the birth-place of the Iambic poet Simonides. It is noted for its fertility. Under the Roman emperors, it was used as a place of banishment., PolyægosNow Polybos, or Antimelos, an uninhabited island near Melos. Phyle seems not to have been identified., Phyle, and TheraNow Santorin, south of the island of Ios. The tradition was, that it was formed from a clod of earth, thrown from the ship Argo. It is evidently of volcanic origin, and is covered with pumice-stone. It was colonized by Lacedæmonians and Minyans of Lemnos, under the Spartan Theras, who gave his name to the island., known as Calliste when it first sprang from the waves. From this, at a later period, the island of TherasiaA small island to the west of Thera, still known by the same name. was torn away, and between the two afterwards arose Automate, also called Hiera, and Thia, which in our own times came into existence in the vicinity of these islands. Ios is distant from Thera twenty-five miles.

Next to these follow Lea, AscaniaIn Lapie's map, Ascania is set down as the present Christiana., AnapheNow Anaphe, Namfi, or Namphio, one of the Sporades. It was celebrated for the temple of Apollo Ægletes, the foundation of which was ascribed to the Argonauts, and of which considerable remains still exist. It abounds in partridges, as it did also in ancient times., Hippuris, and AstypalæaNow Astropalea, or Stamphalia. By Strabo it is called one of the Sporades, by Stephanus one of the Cyclades. It probably was favoured by the Romans for the excellence and importance of its harbours. From Hegesander we learn that it was famous for its hares, and Pliny tells us, in B. viii. c. 59, that its mussels were (as they still are) very celebrated., a free state. This island is eighty-eight miles in circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus, in Crete. From Astypalæa, Platea is distant sixty miles, and Caminia thirty-eight from this last. We then come to the islands of Azibintha, Lanise, Tragæa, Pharmacussa, Techedia, ChalciaNone of these islands can be now identified, except perhaps Chalcia, also mentioned by Strabo, and now known as Karki., CalymnaNow Kalymno, the principal island of the group, by Homer called Calydne. According to most of the editions, Pliny mentions here Calydna and Calymna, making this island, which had those two names, into two islands. Although Pliny here mentions only the town of Coös, still, in B. v. c. 36, he speaks of three others, Notium, Nisyrus, and Mendeterus. There are still some remains of antiquity to be seen here., in which is the town of Coös, Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles from which is CarpathumOr Carpathus, now Skarpanto. It gave name to the sea between Crete and Rhodes., which has given its name to the Carpathian Sea. The distance thence to RhodesIt still preserves its ancient name, and presents some interesting remains of antiquity., in the direction of the south-west wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus is seven miles, and from Casus to Sammonium, the promontory of Crete, thirtyBrotier says that the distance is really fifty-two miles.. In the Euripus of Eubœa, almost at the very mouth of it, are the four islands called PetaliæSo called from the town of Petalia, on the mainland. Ansart says that their present name is Spili.; and, at its outlet, AtalanteNow Talanti, giving name to the Channel of Talanti.. The Cyclades and the Sporades are bounded on the east by the Asiatic shores of the Icarian Sea, on the west by the Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea, on the north by the Ægean, and on the south by the Cretan and Carpathian seas, extending 700 miles in length, and 200 in breadth.

The Gulf of PagasaThe present Gulf of Volo, mentioned in C. 15 of the present Book. has in front of it EuthiaAnsart suggests that this may possibly be the small island now called Agios Nicolaos., CicynethusNow Trikeri., Scyros, previously mentionedIn the present Chapter., and the very furthermost of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and ScandilaNow Seangero, or Skantzoura, according to Ansart.; the Gulf of ThermæNow the Gulf of Saloniki, mentioned in C. 17. The islands here mentioned have apparently not been identified., Iræsia, Solimnia, Eudemia, and Nea, which last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four islands; PeparethusOff the coast of Thessaly, now Piperi., formerly called Evœnus, with a city of that name, at a distance from Athos of nine miles; SciathusNow Skiathos. It was famous for its wine., at a distance of fifteen, and ImbrosNow called Embro, or Imru. Both the island and city of Imbros are mentioned by Homer., with a city of the same name, at a distance of eighty-eight, miles. This last island is distant from Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five miles; it is sixty-twoThis is double the actual circumference of the island. miles in circumference, and is washed by the river Ilisus. At a distance of twenty-two miles from it is LemnosNow called Stalimene., being distant from Mount Athos eighty- seven; it is 112 miles in circumference, and has the cities of Hephæstia and MyrinaIts site is now called Palæo Kastro. Hephæstia, or Vulcan's Town, stood near the modern Rapanidi. That god was said to have fallen into this island when thrown from heaven by Jupiter.; into the market-place of which last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer solstice. The island of ThasosNow Thaso, or Tasso. Its gold mines were in early periods very valuable., constituting a free state, is six miles distant from Lemnos; it formerly had the name of Aëria, or Æthria. AbderaMentioned in C. 17 of this Book., on the mainland, is distant from Thasos twenty-two miles, Athos sixty-twoAnsart says that "forty-two" would be the correct reading here, that being also the distance between Samothrace and Thasos.. The island of SamothraceIts modern name is Samothraki. It was the chief seat of the mysterious worship of the Cabiri., a free state, facing the river Hebrus, is the same distance from Thasos, being also thirty-twoOnly twelve, according to Ansart. miles from Imbros, twenty-two from Lemnos, and thirty-eightBarely eighteen, according to Brotier. from the coast of Thrace; it is thirty-two miles in circumference, and in it rises Mount SaoceNow Monte Nettuno. Of course the height here mentioned by Pliny is erroneous; but Homer says that from this mountain Troy could be seen., ten miles in height. This island is the most inaccessible of them all. Callimachus mentions it by its ancient name of Dardania.

Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance of about fifteen miles from them both, is the island of HalonnesosNow called Skopelo, if it is the same island which is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Scopelus. It exports wine in large quantities., and beyond it Gethone, Lamponia, and AlopeconnesusOr the Fox Island, so called from its first settlers having been directed by an oracle to establish a colony where they should first meet a fox with its cub. Like many others of the islands here mentioned, it appears not to have been identified., not far from Cœlos, a portSee C. 18 of this Book. of the Chersonesus, besides some others of no importance. The following names may be also mentioned, as those of uninhabited islands in this gulf, of which we have been enabled to discover the names:—Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa, Calathusa, Scylla, Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris, Mesate, Æantion, Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate, Neriphus, and PolendosNone of these islands appear to have been identified by modern geographers..

The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespont and ends at the entrance of the MæotisNow generally known as the Palus Mæotis or Sea of Azof.. But in order that the several portions of the Euxine and its coasts may be the better known, we must briefly embrace the form of it in one general view. This vast sea, lying in front of Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection of the shores of the Chersonesus, and effects an entrance into those countries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already mentioned, of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from Asia. The entrance of these Straits is called the Hellespont; over it Xerxes, the king of the Persians, constructed a bridge of boats, across which he led his army. A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-six miles, as far as PriapusThe modern Caraboa, according to Brotier, stands on its site. Priapus was the tutelary divinity of Lampsacus in this vicinity., a city of Asia, at which Alexander the Great passed over. At this point the sea becomes wider, and after some distance again takes the form of a narrow strait. The wider part is known as the PropontisOr "entrance of Pontus"; now the Sea of Marmora., the Straits as the Thracian Bosporus"Ox Ford," or "passage of the cow," Io being said to have crossed it in that form: now called the "Straits of Constantinople.", being only half-a- mile in width, at the place where Darius, the father of Xerxes, led his troops across by a bridge. The extremity of this is distant from the Hellespont 239 miles.

We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which invades the land as it retreats afar, and the name of which was formerly AxenusSaid to have been called a)/cenos or "inhospitable," from its frequent storms and the savage state of the people living on its shores. In later times, on the principle of Euphemism, or abstaining from words of ill omen, its name was changed to eu)/ceinos "hospitable.". As the shores bend inwards, this sea with a vast sweep stretches far away, curving on both sides after the manner of a pair of horns, so much so that in shape it bears a distinct resemblance to a Scythian bowThis was a favourite comparison of the ancients; the north coast, between the Thracian Bosporus and the Phasis, formed the bow, and the southern shores the string. The Scythian bow somewhat resembled in form the figure S, the capital Sigma of the Greeks.. In the middle of the curve it is joined by the mouth of Lake Mæotis, which is called the CimmerianNow the Straits of Kaffa or Enikale. Bosporus, and is two miles and a half in width. Between the two Bospori, the Thracian and the Cimmerian, there is a distance in a straight line, of 500 miles, as Polybius informs us. We learn from Varro and most of the ancient writers, that the circumference of the Euxine is altogether 2150 miles; but to this number Cornelius Nepos adds 350 more; while Artemidorus makes it 2919 miles, Agrippa 2360, and Mucianus 2425. In a similar manner some writers have fixed the length of the European shores of this sea at 1478 miles, others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the measurement as follows:—from the mouth of the Euxine to Apollonia 187 miles, and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the mouth of the Ister 125 miles; to the Borysthenes 250; to ChersonesusThis town lay about the middle of the Tauric Chersonesus or Crimea, and was situate on a small peninsula, called the Smaller Chersonesus, to distinguish it from the larger one, of which it formed a part. It was founded by the inhabitants of the Pontic Heraclea, or Heracleium, the site of which is unknown. See note9 to p. 333., a town of the Heracleotæ, 325; to PanticapæumNow Kertsch, in the Crimea. It derived its name from the river Panticapes; and was founded by the Milesians about B.C. 541. It was the residence of the Greek kings of Bosporus, and hence it was sometimes so called., by some called Bosporus, at the very extremity of the shores of Europe, 212 miles: the whole of which added together, makes 1337"Thirty-six" properly. miles. Agrippa makes the distance from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from thence to Panticapæum, 635.

Lake Mæotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows from the Riphæan MountainsThe Tanais or Don does not rise in the Riphæan Mountains, or western branch of the Uralian chain, but on slightly elevated ground in the centre of European Russia., and forms the extreme boundary between Europe and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in circumference; which however some writers state at only 1125. From the entrance of this lake to the mouth of the Tanais in a straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance of 375 miles.

The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great Gulf of Europe, as far as Istropolis, have been alreadyChap. 18 of the present Book. Istropolis is supposed to be the present Istere, though some would make it to have stood on the site of the present Kostendsje, and Brotier identifies it with Kara-Kerman. mentioned in our account of Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come to the mouths of the Ister. This river rises in Germany in the heights of Mount AbnobaNow called the Schwarzwald or Black Forest. The Danube or Ister rises on the eastern side at the spot called Donaueschingen., opposite to RauricumSo called from the Raurici, a powerful people of Gallia Belgica, who possessed several towns, of which the most important were Augusta, now Augst, and Basilia, now Bâle., a town of Gaul, and flows for a course of many miles beyond the Alps and through nations innumerable, under the name of the Danube. Adding immensely to the volume of its waters, at the spot where it first enters Illyricum, it assumes the name of Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly one half of which are navigable, rolls into the Euxine by sixOnly three of these are now considered of importance, as being the main branches of the river. It is looked upon as impossible by modern geographers to identify the accounts given by the ancients with the present channels, by name, as the Danube has undergone in lapse of time, very considerable changes at its mouth. Strabo mentions seven mouths, three being lesser ones. vast channels. The first of these is the mouth of PeuceSo called, as stated by Pliny, from the island of Peuce, now Piczina. Peuce appears to have been the most southerly of the mouths., close to which is the island of Peuce itself, from which the neighbouring channel takes its name; this mouth is swallowed up in a great swamp nineteen miles in length. From the same channel too, above Istropolis, a lakeNow called Kara-Sou, according to Brotier. Also called Rassefu in the maps. takes its rise, sixty-three miles in circuit; its name is Halmyris. The second mouth is called Naracu-StomaNow called Hazrali Bogasi, according to Brotier. It is called by Ptolemy the Narakian Mouth.; the third, which is near the island of Sarmatica, is called Calon-StomaOr the "Beautiful Mouth." Now Susie Bogasi, according to Brotier.; the fourth is known as Pseudo-StomonOr the "False Mouth": now the Sulina Bogasi, the principal mouth of the Danube, so maltreated by its Russian guardians., with its island called Conopon-DiabasisOr the "Passage of the Gnats," so called from being the resort of swarms of mosquitoes, which were said at a certain time of the year to migrate to the Palus Mæotis. According to Brotier the present name of this island is Ilan Adasi, or Serpent Island.; after which come the Boreon- StomaThe "Northern Mouth ": near the town of Kilia. and the Psilon-StomaOr the "Narrow Mouth.". These mouths are each of them so considerable, that for a distance of forty miles, it is said, the saltness of the sea is quite overpowered, and the water found to be fresh.

On setting out from this spot, all the nations met with are Scythian in general, though various races have occupied the adjacent shores; at one spot the GetæThough Strabo distinguishes the Getæ from the Daci, most of the ancient writers, with Pliny, speak of them as identical. It is not known, however, why the Getæ in later times assumed the name of Daci., by the Romans called Daci; at another the Sarmatæ, by the Greeks called Sauromatæ, and the Hamaxobii"Dwellers in waggons." These were a Sarmatian tribe who wandered with their waggons along the banks of the Volga. The chief seats of the Aorsi, who seem in reality to have been a distinct people from the Hamaxobii, was in the country between the Tanais, the Euxine, the Caspian, and the Caucasus. or Aorsi, a branch of them; then again the base-born Scythians and descendants of slaves, or else the Troglodytæ"Dwellers in Caves." This name appears to have been given to various savage races in different parts of the world.; and then, after them, the AlaniThere were races of the Alani in Asia on the Caucasus, and in Europe on the Mæotis and the Euxine; but their precise geographical position is not clearly ascertained. and the Rhoxalani. The higherThe present Transylvania and Hungary. parts again, between the Danube and the Hercynian ForestThe name given in the age of Pliny to the range of mountains extending around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Hungary., as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at CarnuntumIts ruins are still to be seen on the south bank of the Danube near Haimburg, between Deutsch-Altenburg and Petronell. The Roman fleet of the Danube, with the 14th legion, was originally established there., and the borders of the Germans, are occupied by the Sarmatian lazygesIn Pliny's time this migratory tribe seems to have removed to the plains between the Lower Theiss and the mountains of Transylvania, from which places they had expelled the Dacians., who inhabit the level country and the plains, while the Daci, whom they have driven as far as the river PathissusThe Lower Theiss., inhabit the mountain and forest ranges. On leaving the river MarusNow the river Mark, Maros, or Morava., whether it is that or the DuriaThe name of the two streams now known as the Dora Baltea and Dora Riparia, both of which fall into the Po. This passage appears to be in a mutilated state., that separates them from the Suevi and the kingdom of VanniusA chief of the Quadi; who, as we learn from Tacitus, was made king of the Suevi by Germanicus, A.D. 19. Being afterwards expelled by his nephews Vangio and Sido, he received from the emperor Claudius a settlement in Pannonia. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole of the east of Germany from the Danube to the Baltic., the Basternæ, and, after them, other tribes of the Germans occupy the opposite sidesAccording to Hardouin, Pliny here speaks of the other side of the mountainous district called Higher Hungary, facing the Danube and extending from the river Theiss to the Morava.. Agrippa considers the whole of this region, from the Ister to the ocean, to be 2100 miles in length, and 4400 miles in breadth to the river Vistula in the desertsThis, according to Sillig, is the real meaning of a desertis here, the distance being measured from the Danube, and not between the Vistula and the wilds of Sarmatia. The reading "four thousand" is probably corrupt, but it seems more likely than that of 404 miles, adopted by Littre, in his French translation. of Sarmatia. The name "Scythian" has extended, in every direction, even to the Sarmatæ and the Germans; but this ancient appellation is now only given to those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to nearly all the rest of the world.

Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of CremniscosPlaced by Forbiger near Lake Burmasaka, or near Islama., Æpolium, the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous river TyraThe Dniester. The mountains of Macrocremnus, or the "Great Heights," seem not to have been identified., which gives name to a town on the spot where Ophiusa is said formerly to have stood. The Tyragetæ inhabit a large islandAccording to Hardouin, the modern name of this island is Tandra. situate in this river, which is distant from Pseudostomos, a mouth of the Ister, so called, 130 miles. We then come to the Axiacæ, who take their name from the river AxiacesNow called the Teligul, east of the Tyra or Dniester., and beyond them, the Crobyzi, the river RhodesNow called Sasik Beregen, according to Brotier., the Sagarian GulfThe modern Gulf of Berezen, according to Brotier., and the port of OrdesosProbably the modern Okzakow.. At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river BorysthenesThe modern Dnieper. It also retains its ancient name of Borysthenes., with a lake and a people of similar name, as also a townWe learn from Strabo that the name of this town was Olbia, and that from being founded by the Milesians, it received the name of Miletopolis. According to Brotier, the modern Zapurouski occupies its site, between the mouths of the river Buzuluk. in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea, the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Miletopolis. Again, on the shore is the port of the Achæi, and the island of AchillesThis was adjacent to the strip of land called "Dromos Achilleos," or the 'race-course of Achilles.' It is identified by geographers with the little island of Zmievoi or Oulan Adassi, the 'Serpents Island.' It was said that it was to this spot that Thetis transported the body of Achilles. By some it was made the abode of the shades of the blest, where Achilles and other heroes of fable were the judges of the dead., famous for the tomb there of that hero, and, at a distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula which stretches forth in the shape of a sword, in an oblique direction, and is called, from having been his place of exercise, Dromos AchilleosA narrow strip of land N.W. of the Crimea and south of the mouth of the Dnieper, running nearly due west and cast. It is now divided into two parts called Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch. Achilles was said to have instituted games here.: the length of this, according to Agrippa, is eighty miles. The Taurian Scythians and the SiraciAccording to Hardouin, the Siraci occupied a portion of the present Podolia and Ukraine, and the Tauri the modern Bessarabia. occupy all this tract of country.

At this spot begins a well-wooded districtAccording to Herodotus, this region, called Hylæa, lay to the east of the Borysthenes. It seems uncertain whether there are now any traces of this ancient woodland; some of the old maps however give the name of the "Black Forest" to this district. From the statements of modern travellers, the woody country does not commence till the river Don has been reached. The district of Hylæa has been identified by geographers with the great plain of Janboylouk in the steppe of the Nogai., which has given to the sea that washes its banks the name of the Hylæan Sea; its inhabitants are called EnœchadlæFor Enœchadlæ, Hardouin suggests that we should read Inde Hylœ, "hence the inhabitants are called by the name of Hylæi.". Beyond them is the river PantieapesThe Panticapes is usually identified with the modern Somara, but perhaps without sufficient grounds. It is more probably the Kouskawoda., which separates the NomadesThe Nomades or wandering, from the Georgi or agricultural Scythians. and the Georgi, and after it the AcesinusThe Acesinus does not appear to have been identified by modern geographers.. Some authors say that the Panticapes flows into the Borysthenes below OlbiaAbove called Olbiopolis or Miletopolis.. Others, who are more correct, say that it is the HypanisThe Bog or Bong. Flowing parallel with the Borysthenes or Dnieper, it discharged itself into the Euxine at the town of Olbia, at no great distance from the mouth of the Borysthenes.: so great is the mistake made by those who have placed itProbably meaning the mouth or point at which the river discharges itself into the sea. in Asia.

The sea runs in here and forms a large gulfThe modern Gulf of Negropoli or Perekop, on the west side of the Chersonesus Taurica or Crimea., until there is only an intervening spaceForming the present isthmus of Perekop, which divides the Sea of Perekop from the Sea of Azof. of five miles between it and the Lake Mæotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive tracts of land, and numerous nations; it is known as the Gulf of Carcinites. Here we find the river PacyrisCalled by Herodotus Hypacyris, and by later writers Carcinites. It is generally supposed to be the same as the small stream now known as the Kalantchak., the towns of Navarum and CarcineHardouin says that the city of Carcine has still retained its name, but changed its site. More modern geographers however are of opinion that nothing can be determined with certainty as to its site. Of the site also of Navarum nothing seems to be known., and behind it Lake BugesOr Buces or Byce. This is really a gulf, almost enclosed, at the end of the Sea of Azof. Strabo gives a more full description of it under the name of the Sapra Limnè "the Putrid Lake," by which name it is still called, in Russian, Sibaché or Sivaché Moré. It is a vast lagoon, covered with water when an east wind blows the water of the Sea of Azof into it, but at other times a tract of slime and mud, sending forth pestilential vapours., which discharges itself by a channel into the sea. This Buges is separated by a ridge of rocksIt is rather a ridge of sand, that almost separates it from the waters of the gulf. from Coretus, a gulf in the Lake Mæotis; it receives the rivers BugesThis river has not been identified by modern geographers., GerrusAccording to Herodotus the Gerrhus or Gerrus fell into the Hypacaris; which must be understood to be, not the Kalantchak, but the Outlook. It is probably now represented by the Moloschnijawoda, which forms a shallow lake or marsh at its mouth., and HypacarisIt is most probable that the Pacyris, mentioned above, the Hypacaris, and the Carcinites, were various names for the same river, generally supposed, as stated above, to be the small stream of Kalantchak., which approach it from regions that lie in various directions. For the Gerrus separates the Basilidæ from the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the Nomades and the Hylæi, by an artificial channel into Lake Buges, and by its natural one into the Gulf of Coretus: this region bears the name of Scythia Sindice.

At the river Carcinites, Scythia TauricaNow the Crimea. begins, which was once covered by the sea, where we now see level plains extended on every side: beyond this the land rises into mountains of great elevation. The peoples here are thirty in number, of which twenty-three dwell in the interior, six of the cities being inhabited by the Orgocyni, the Chara- ceniIt does not appear that the site of any of these cities has been identified. Charax was a general name for a fortified town., the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the Arsilachitæ, and the Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of mountains: on the west they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and on the east by the Scythian SatarchæMentioned again by Pliny in B. vi. c. 7. Solinus says that in order to repel avarice, the Satarchæ prohibited the use of gold and silver.. On the shore, after we leave Carcinites, we find the following towns; TaphræOn the site of the modern Perekop, more commonly called Orkapi., situate on the very isthmus of the peninsula, and then Heraclea ChersonesusOr Chersonesus of the Heracleans. The town of Kosleve or Eupatoria is supposed to stand on its site., to which its freedom has been grantedAfter the conquest of Mithridates, when the whole of these regions fell into the hands of the Romans. by the Romans. This place was formerly called Megarice, being the most polished city throughout all these regions, in consequence of its strict preservation of Grecian manners and customs. A wall, five miles in length, surrounds it. Next to this comes the Promontory of PartheniumThe modern Felenk-burun. So called from the Parthenos or Virgin Diana or Artemis, whose temple stood on its heights, in which human sacrifices were offered to the goddess., the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port of the SymboliSupposed to be the same as the now-famed port of Balaklava., and the Promontory of CriumetoponThe modern Aia-burun, the great southern headland of the Crimea. According to Plutarch, it was called by the natives Brixaba, which, like the name Criumetopon, meant the "Rain's Head.", opposite to CarambisNow Kerempi, a promontory of Paphlagonia in Asia Minor. Strabo considers this promontory and that of Criumetopon as dividing the Euxine into two seas., a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the middle of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between them of 170 miles, which circumstance it is in especial that gives to this sea the form of a Scythian bow. After leaving this headland we come to a great number of harbours and lakes of the TauriAccording to Strabo, the sea-line of the Tauric Chersonesus, after leaving the port of the Symboli, extended 125 miles, as far as Theodosia. Pliny would here seem to make it rather greater.. The town of TheodosiaThe modern Kaffa occupies its site. The sites of many of the places here mentioned appear not to be known at the present day. is distant from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from Chersonesus 165. Beyond it there were, in former times, the towns of Cytæ, Zephyrium, Acræ, Nymphæum, and Dia. PanticapæumThe modern Kertsch, situate on a hill at the very mouth of the Cimmerian Bosporus, or Straits of Enikale or Kaffa, opposite the town of Phanagoria in Asia., a city of the Milesians, by far the strongest of them all, is still in existence; it lies at the entrance of the Bosporus, and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven miles and a half, and from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the other side of the Strait, as we have previouslyIn C. 24 of the present Book. Clark identifies the town of Cimmerium with the modern Temruk, Forbiger with Eskikrimm. It is again mentioned in B. vi. c. 2. stated, two miles and a half. Such is the width here of the channel which separates Asia from Europe, and which too, from being generally quite frozen over, allows of a passage on foot. The width of the Cimmerian BosporusHe alludes here, not to the Strait so called, but to the Peninsula bordering upon it, upon which the modern town of Kertsch is situate, and which projects from the larger Peninsula of the Crimea, as a sort of excrescence on its eastern side. is twelve miles and a half: it contains the towns of HermisiumProbably Hermes or Mercury was its tutelar divinity: its site appears to be unknown., Myrmecium, and, in the interiorProbably meaning the Straits or passage connecting the Lake Mæotis with the Euxine. The fertile district of the Cimmerian Bosporus was at one time the granary of Greece, especially Athens, which imported thence annually 400,000 medimni of corn. of it, the island of Alopece. From the spot called TaphræA town so called on the Isthmus of Perekop, from a ta/fros or trench, which was cut across the isthmus at this point., at the extremity of the isthmus, to the mouth of the Bosporus, along the line of the Lake Mæotis, is a distance of 260 miles.

Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the interior the AuchetæLomonossov, in his History of Russia, says that these people were the same as the Sclavoni: but that one meaning of the name 'Slavane' being "a boaster," the Greeks gave them the corresponding appellation of Auchetæ, from the word au)xh\, which signifies "boasting.", in whose country the Hypanis has its rise, as also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source, the GeloniOf the Geloni, called by Virgil "picti," or "painted," nothing certain seems to be known: they are associated by Herodotus with the Budini, supposed to belong to the Slavic family by Schafarik. In B. iv. c. 108,109, of his History, Herodotus gives a very particular account of the Budini, who had a city built entirely of wood, the name of which was Gelonus. The same author also assigns to the Geloni a Greek origin., the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and the AgathyrsiThe Agathyrsi are placed by Herodotus near the upper course of the river Maris, in the S.E. of Dacia or the modern Transylvania. Pliny however seems here to assign them a different locality. with their azure-coloured hair. Above them are the Nomades, and then a nation of Anthropophagi or cannibals. On leaving Lake Buges, above the Lake Mæotis we come to the Sauromatæ and the EssedonesAlso called "Assedones" and "Issedones." It has been suggested by modern geographers that their locality must be assigned to the east of Ichim, on the steppe of the central horde of the Kirghiz, and that of the Arimaspi on the northern declivity of the chain of the Altaï.. Along the coast, as far as the river TanaisNow the Don., are the Mæotæ, from whom the lake derives its name, and the last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then come to the RiphæanMost probably these mountains were a western branch of the Ura- lian chain. mountains, and the region known by the name of PterophorosFrom the Greek pteroforo\s, "wing-bearing" or "feather-bearing.", because of the perpetual fall of snow there, the flakes of which resemble feathers; a part of the world which has been condemned by the decree of nature to lie immersed in thick darkness; suited for nothing but the generation of cold, and to be the asylum of the chilling blasts of the northern winds.

Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the northern winds, there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a happy race, known as the HyperboreiThis legendary race was said to dwell in the regions beyond Boreas, or the northern wind, which issued from the Riphæan mountains, the name of which was derived from ripai\ or "hurricanes "issuing from a cavern, and which these heights warded off from the Hyperboreans and sent to more southern nations. Hence they never felt the northern blasts, and enjoyed a life of supreme happiness and undisturbed repose. "Here," says Humboldt, "are the first views of a natural science which explains the distribution of heat and the difference of climates by local causes—by the direction of the winds—the proximity of the sun, and the action of a moist or saline principle."—Asie Ceatrale, vol. i., a race that lives to an extreme old age, and which has been the subject of many marvellous storiesPindar says, in the "Pytha," x. 56, "The Muse is no stranger to their manners. The dances of girls and the sweet melody of the lyre and pipe resound on every side, and wreathing their locks with the glistening bay, they feast joyously. For this sacred race there is no doom of sickness or of disease; but they live apart from toil and battles, undisturbed by the exacting Nemesis.". At this spot are supposed to be the hinges upon which the world revolves, and the extreme limits of the revolutions of the stars. Here we find light for six months together, given by the sun in one continuous day, who does not, however, as some ignorant persons have asserted, conceal himself from the vernal equinoxHardouin remarks that Pomponius Mela, who asserts that the sun rises here at the vernal and sets at the autumnal equinox, is right in his position, and that Pliny is incorrect in his assertion. The same commentator thinks that Pliny can have hardly intended to censure Mela, to whose learning he had been so much indebted for his geographical information, by applying to him the epithet "imperitus," 'ignorant' or 'unskilled'; he therefore suggests that the proper reading here is, "ut non imperiti dixere," "as some by no means ignorant persons have asserted." to autumn. On the contrary, to these people there is but one rising of the sun for the year, and that at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at the winter solstice. This region, warmed by the rays of the sun, is of a most delightful temperature, and exempt from every noxious blast. The abodes of the natives are the woods and groves; the gods receive their worship singly and in groups, while all discord and every kind of sickness are things utterly unknown. Death comes upon them only when satiated with life; after a career of feasting, in an old age sated with every luxury, they leap from a certain rock there into the sea; and this they deem the most desirable mode of ending existence. Some writers have placed these people, not in Europe, but at the very verge of the shores of Asia, because we find there a people called the AttacoriThe Attacori are also mentioned in B. vi. c. 20., who greatly resemble them and occupy a very similar locality. Other writers again have placed them midway between the two suns, at the spot where it sets to the Antipodes and rises to us; a thing however that cannot possibly be, in consequence of the vast tract of sea which there intervenes. Those writers who place them nowhereSillig omits the word "non" here, in which case the reading would be, "Those writers who place them anywhere but, &c.;" it is difficult to see with what meaning. but under a day which lasts for six months, state that in the morning they sow, at mid-day they reap, at sunset they gather in the fruits of the trees, and during the night conceal themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to entertain any doubts as to the existence of this race; so many authorsHerodotus, B. iv., states to this effect, and after him, Pomponius Mela, B. iii. c. 5. are there who assert that they were in the habit of sending their first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom in especial they worship. Virgins used to carry them, who for many years were held in high veneration, and received the rites of hospitality from the nations that lay on the route; until at last, in consequence of repeated violations of good faith, the Hyperboreans came to the determination to deposit these offerings upon the frontiers of the people who adjoined them, and they in their turn were to convey them on to their neighbours, and so from one to the other, till they should have arrived at Delos. However, this custom, even, in time fell into disuse.

The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the whole of the region which extends from the river Borysthenes, is, according to Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth 717. I am of opinion, however, that in this part of the earth all estimates of measurement are exceedingly doubtful.

But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally proposed, the remaining portions of this gulf must be described. As for its seas, we have already made mention of them.

(13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe that are worthy of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a distance of a mile and a half from the European shore, and of fourteen from the mouth of the Strait, the two CyanæanThese islands, or rather rocks, are now known as Fanari, and lie at the entrance of the Straits of Constantinople. islands, by some called the SymplegadesFrom su\n and plhgh\, "a striking together." Tournefort has explained the ancient story of these islands running together, by remarking that each of them consists of one craggy island, but that when the sea is disturbed the water covers the lower parts, so as to make the different points of each resemble isolated rocks. They are united to the mainland by a kind of isthmus, and appear as islands only when it is inundated in stormy weather., and stated in fabulous story to have run the one against the other; the reason being the circumstance that they are separated by so short an interval, that while to those who enter the Euxine opposite to them they appear to be two distinct islands, but if viewed in a somewhat oblique direction they have the appearance of becoming gradually united into one. On this side of the Ister there is the single islandUpon which the city of Apollonia (now Sizeboli), mentioned in C. 18 of the present Book, was situate. of the Apolloniates, eighty miles from the Thracian Bosporus; it was from this place that M. Lucullus brought the CapitolineSo called because it was dedicated by Lucullus in the Capitol. It was thirty cubits in height. Apollo. Those islands which are to be found between the mouths of the Ister we have already mentionedIn C. 24 of the present Book.. Before the Borysthenes is AchilleaMentioned in the last Chapter as the "Island of Achilles." previously referred to, known also by the names of Leuce and MacaronFrom the Greek makarw=n," (The island) of the Blest." It was also called the "Island of the Heroes.". Researches which have been made at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from Tyra, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles in circumference. The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are Cephalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the Euxine, we must not omit to notice the opinion expressed by many writers that all the interiorMeaning all the inland or Mediterranean seas. seas take their rise in this one as the principal source, and not at the Straits of Gades. The reason they give for this supposition is not an improbable one—the fact that the tide is always running out of the Euxine and that there is never any ebb.

We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer portionsAs the whole of Pliny's description of the northern shores of Europe is replete with difficulties and obscurities, we cannot do better than transcribe the learned remarks of M. Parisot, the Geographical Editor of Ajasson's Edition, in reference to this subject. He says, "Before entering on the discussion of this portion of Pliny's geography, let us here observe, once for all, that we shall not remark as worthy of our notice all those ridiculous hypotheses which could only take their rise in ignorance, precipitation, or a love of the marvellous. We shall decline then to recognize the Doffrefelds in the mountains of Sevo, the North Cape in the Promontory of Rubeas, and the Sea of Greenland in the Cronian Sea. The absurdity of these suppositions is proved by—I. The impossibility of the ancients ever making their way to these distant coasts without the aid of large vessels, the compass, and others of those appliances, aided by which European skill finds the greatest difficulty in navigating those distant seas. II. The immense lacune which would be found to exist in the descriptions of these distant seas and shores: for not a word do we find about those numerous archipelagos which are found scattered throughout the North Sea, not a word about Iceland, nor about the numberless seas and fiords on the coast of Norway. III. The absence of all remarks upon the local phænomena of these spots. The North Cape belongs to the second polar climate, the longest day there being two months and a half. Is it likely that navigators would have omitted to mention this remarkable phænomenon, well known to the Romans by virtue of their astronomical theories, but one with which practically they had never made themselves acquainted?—The only geographers who here merit our notice are those who are of opinion that in some of the coasts or islands here mentioned Pliny describes the Scandinavian Peninsula, and in others the Coast of Finland. The first question then is, to what point Pliny first carries us? It is evident that from the Black Sea he transports himself on a sudden to the shores of the Baltic, thus passing over at a single leap a considerable space filled with nations and unknown deserts. The question then is, what line has he followed? Supposing our author had had before his eyes a modern map, the imaginary line which he would have drawn in making this transition would have been from Odessa to the Kurisch- Haff. In this direction the breadth across Europe is contracted to a space, between the two seas, not more than 268 leagues in length. A very simple mode of reasoning will conclusively prove that Pliny has deviated little if anything from this route. If he fails to state in precise terms upon what point of the shores of the Baltic he alights after leaving the Riphæan mountains, his enumeration of the rivers which discharge themselves into that sea, and with which he concludes his account of Germany, will supply us with the requisite information, at all events in great part. In following his description of the coast, we find mention made of the following rivers, the Guttalus, the Vistula, the Elbe, the Weser, the Ems, the Rhine, and the Meuse. The five last mentioned follow in their natural order, from east to west, as was to be expected in a description starting from the east of Europe for its western extremity and the shores of Cadiz. We have a right to conclude then that the Guttalus was to the east of the Vistula. As we shall now endeavour to show, this river was no other than the Alle, a tributary of the Pregel, which the Romans probably, in advancing from west to east, considered as the principal stream, from the circumstance that they met with it, before coming to the larger river. The Pregel after being increased by the waters of the Alle or Guttalus falls into the Frisch-Haff, about one degree further west than the Kurisch-Haff. It may however be here remarked, Why not find a river more to the east, the Niemen, for instance, or the Duna, to be represented by the Guttalus? The Niemen in especial would suit in every respect equally well, because it discharges itself into the Kurisch-Haff. This conjecture however is incapable of support, when we reflect that the ancients were undoubtedly acquainted with some points of the coast to the east of the mouth of the Guttalus, but which, according to the system followed by our author, would form part of the Continent of Asia. These points are, 1st. The Cape Lytarinis (mentioned by Pliny, B. vi. c. 4). 2ndly. The mouth of the river Carambucis (similarly mentioned by him), and 3rdly, a little to the east of Cape Lytarmis, the mouth of the Tanais. The name of Cape Lytarmis suggests to us Lithuania, and probably represents Domess-Ness in Courland; the Carambucis can be no other than the Niemen; while the Tanais, upon which so many authors, ancient and modern, have exhausted their conjectures, from confounding it with the Southern Tanais which falls into the Sea of Azof, is evidently the same as the Dwina or Western Duna. This is established incontrovertibly both by its geographical position (the mouth of the Dwina being only fifty leagues to the east of Domess-Ness) and the identity evidently of the names Dwina and Tanais. Long since, Leibnitz was the first to remark the presence of the radical T. n, or D. n, either with or without a vowel, in the names of the great rivers of Eastern Europe; Danapris or Dnieper, Danaster or Dniester, Danube (in German Donau, in Hungarian Duna), Tanais or Don, for example; all which rivers however discharge themselves into the Black Sea. There can be little doubt then of the identity of the Duna with the Tanais, it being the only body of water in these vast countries which bears a name resembling the initial Tan, or Tn, and at the same time belongs to the basin of the Baltic. We are aware, it is true, that the White Sea receives a river Dwina, which is commonly called the Northern Dwina, but there can be no real necessity to be at the trouble of combating the opinion that this river is identical with the Northern Tanais. As the result then of our investigations, it is at the eastern extremity of the Frisch-Haff and near the mouth of the Pregel, that we would place the point at which Pliny sets out. As for the Riphæan mountains, they have never existed anywhere but in the head of the geographers from whom our author drew his materials. From the mountains of Ural and Poias, which Pliny could not possibly have in view, seeing that they lie in a meridian as eastern as the Caspian Sea, the traveller has to proceed 600 leagues to the south-west without meeting with any chains of mountains or indeed considerable elevations." of Europe. After passing the Riphæan mountains we have now to follow the shores of the Northern Ocean on the left, until we arrive at Gades. In this direction a great number of islandsIt is pretty clear that he refers to the numerous islands scattered over the face of the Baltic Sea, such as Dago, Oesel, Gothland, and Aland. are said to exist that have no name; among which there is one which lies opposite to Scythia, mentioned under the name of RaunoniaThe old reading here was Bannomanna, which Dupinet would translate by the modern Bornholm. Parisot considers that the modern Runa, a calcareous rock covered with vegetable earth, in the vicinity of Domess- Ness, is the place indicated., and said to be at a distance of the day's sail from the mainland; and upon which, according to Timæus, amber is thrown up by the waves in the spring season. As to the remaining parts of these shores, they are only known from reports of doubtful authority. With reference to the SeptentrionalIt has been suggested by Brotier that Pliny here refers to the Icy Sea, but it is more probable that he refers to the north-eastern part of the Baltic, which was looked upon by the ancients as forming part of the open sea. or Northern Ocean; Hecatæus calls it, after we have passed the mouth of the river Parapanisus, where it washes the Scythian shores, the Amalchian sea, the word 'Amalchian' signifying in the language of these races, frozen. Philemon again says that it is called Morimarusa or the "Dead Sea" by the Cimbri, as far as the Promontory of Rubeas, beyond which it has the name of the CronianWith reference to these divisions of land and sea, a subject which is involved in the greatest obscurity, Parisot states it as his opinion that the Amalchian or Icy Sea is that portion of the Baltic which extends from Cape Rutt to Cape Grinea, while on the other hand the Cronian Sea comprehends all the gulfs which lie to the east of Cape Rutt, such as the Haff, the gulfs of Stettin and Danzic, the Frisch-Haff, and the Kurisch-Haff. He also thinks that the name of 'Cronian' originally belonged only to that portion of the Baltic which washes the coast of Courland, but that travellers gradually applied the term to the whole of the sea. He is also of opinion that the word "Cronium" owes its origin to the Teutonic and Danish adjective groen or "green." The extreme verdure which characterizes the islands of the Danish archipelago has given to the piece of water which separates the islands of Falster and Moen the name of Groensund, and it is far from improbable that the same epithet was given to the Pomeranian and Prussian Seas, which the Romans would be not unlikely to call 'Gronium' or 'Cronium fretum,' or 'Cronium mare.' In the name 'Parapanisus' he also discovers a resemblance to that of modern Pomerania. Sea. Xenophon of Lampsacus tells us that at a distance of three days' sail from the shores of Scythia, there is an island of immense size called BaltiaUpon this Parisot remarks that on leaving Cape Rutt, at a distance of about twenty-five leagues in a straight line, we come to the island of Funen or Fyen, commonly called Fionia, the most considerable of the Danish archipelago next to Zealand, and which lying between the two Belts, the Greater and the Smaller, may very probably from that circumstance have obtained the name of Baltia. Brotier takes Baltia to be no other than Nova Zembla—so conflicting are the opinions of commentators!, which by Pytheas is called BasiliaParisot suggests that under this name may possibly lie concealed that of the modern island of Zealand or Seeland, and that it may have borne on the side of it next to the Belt the name of Baltseeland, easily corrupted by the Greeks into Basilia.. Some islandsBrotier takes these to be the islands of Aloo, and Bieloi or Ostrow, at the mouth of the river Paropanisus, which he considers to be the same as the Obi. Parisot on the other hand is of opinion that islands of the Baltic are here referred to; that from the resemblance of the name Oönæ to the Greek w)o\n, "an egg," the story that the natives subsisted on the eggs of birds was formed; that not improbably the group of the Hippopodes resembled the shape of a horse-shoe, from which the story men- tioned by Pliny took its rise; and that the Fanesii (or, as the reading here has it, the Panotii, "all-ears") wore their hair very short, from which circumstance their ears appeared to be of a larger size than usual. called Oönæ are said to be here, the inhabitants of which live on the eggs of birds and oats; and others again upon which human beings are produced with the feet of horses, thence called Hippopodes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of the Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extraordinary size as to cover the rest of the body, which is otherwise left naked.

Leaving these however, we come to the nation of the IngævonesTacitus speaks of three great groups of the German tribes, the Ingævones forming the first thereof, and consisting of those which dwelt on the margin of the ocean, the Hermiones in the interior, and the Istævones in the east and south of Germany. We shall presently find that Pliny adds two groups, the Vandili as the fourth, and the Peucini and Basternæ as the fifth. This classification however is thought to originate in a mistake, for Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the Vandili belonged to the Hermiones, and that Peucini and Basternæ are only names of individual tribes and not of groups of tribes., the first in Germany; at which we begin to have some information upon which more implicit reliance can be placed. In their country is an immense mountain called SevoBrotier and other geographers are of opinion that by this name the chain of the Doffrefeld mountains is meant; but this cannot be the case if we suppose with Parisot that Pliny here returns south from the Scandinavian islands and takes his departure from Cape Rutt in the territory of the Ingævones. Still, it is quite impossible to say what mountains he would designate under the name of Sevo. Parisot suggests that it is a form of the compound word "seevohner," "inhabitants of the sea," and that it is a general name for the elevated lands along the margin of the sea-shore., not less than those of the Riphæan range, and which forms an immense gulf along the shore as far as the Promontory of the Cimbri. This gulf, which has the name of the 'Codanian,' is filled with islands; the most famous among which is ScandinaviaParisot supposes that under this name the isle of Funen is meant, but it is more generally thought that Norway and Sweden are thus designated, as that peninsula was generally looked upon as an island by the ancients. The Codanian Gulf was the sea to the east of the Cimbrian Chersonesus or Jutland, filled with the islands which belong to the modern kingdom of Denmark. It was therefore the southern part of the Baltic., of a magnitude as yet unascertained: the only portion of it at all known is inhabited by the nation of the Hilleviones, who dwell in 500 villages, and call it a second world: it is generally supposed that the island of EningiaBy Eningia Hardouin thinks that the country of modern Finland is meant. Poinsinet thinks that under the name are included Ingria, Livonia, and Courland; while Parisot seems inclined to be of opinion that under this name the island of Zealand is meant, a village of which, about three-fourths of a league from the western coast, according to him, still bears the name of Heinïnge. is of not less magnitude. Some writers state that these regions, as far as the river Vistula, are inhabited by the Sarmati, the VenediParisot is of opinion that the Venedi, also called Vinidæ and Vindili, were of Sclavish origin, and situate on the shores of the Baltic. He remarks that this people, in the fifth century, founded in Pomerania, when quitted by the Goths, a kingdom, the chiefs of which styled themselves the Konjucs of Vinland. Their name is also to be found in Venden, a Russian town in the government of Riga, in Windenburg in Courland, and in Wenden in the circle of the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin., the Sciri, and the HirriParisot remarks that these two peoples were probably only tribes of the Venedi., and that there is a gulf there known by the name of CylipenusParisot feels convinced that Pliny is speaking here of the Gulf of Travemunde, the island of Femeren, and then of the gulf which extends from that island to Kiel, where the Eider separates Holstein from Jutland. On the other hand, Hardouin thinks that by the Gulf of Cylipenus the Gulf of Riga is meant, and that Latris is the modern island of Oësel. But, as Parisot justly remarks, to put this construction on Pliny's language is to invert the order in which he has hitherto proceeded, evidently from east to west., at the mouth of which is the island of Latris, after which comes another gulf, that of Lagnus, which borders on the Cimbri. The Cimbrian Promontory, running out into the sea for a great distance, forms a peninsula which bears the name of CartrisThe modern Cape of Skagen on the north of Jutland.. Passing this coast, there are three and twenty islands which have been made known by the Roman armsWhen Drusus held the command in Germany, as we learn from Strabo, B. vii.: the most famous of which is BurcanaIt is generally agreed that this is the modern island of Borkhum, at the mouth of the river Amaiius or Ems., called by our people Fabaria, from the resemblance borneTo a bean, from which (faba) the island had its name of Fabaria. In confirmation of this Hardouin states, that in his time there was a tower still standing there which was called by the natives Het boon huys, "the bean house." by a fruit which grows there spontaneously. There are those also called GlæsariaFrom the word gles or glas, which primarily means 'glass,' and then figuratively "amber." Probably Œland and Gothland. They will be found again mentioned in the Thirtieth Chapter of the present Book. See p. 351. by our soldiers, from their amber; but by the barbarians they are known as Austeravia and Actania.

The whole of the shores of this sea as far as the ScaldisNow the Scheldt., a river of Germany, is inhabited by nations, the dimensions of whose respective territories it is quite impossible to state, so immensely do the authors differ who have touched upon this subject. The Greek writers and some of our own countrymen have stated the coast of Germany to be 2500 miles in extent, while Agrippa, comprising Rhætia and Noricum in his estimate, makes the length to be 686In a straight line, of course. Parisot is of opinion that in forming this estimate Agrippa began at the angle formed by the river Piave in lat. 46°4′, measuring thence to Cape Rubeas (now Rutt) in lat. 54°25′. This would give 8°21′, to which, if we add some twenty leagues for obliquity or difference of longitude, the total would make exactly the distance here mentioned. miles, and the breadth 148As Parisot remarks, it is totally impossible to conceive the source of such an erroneous conclusion as this. Some readings make the amount 248, others 268.. (14.) The breadth of Rhætia alone however very nearly exceeds that number of miles, and indeed we ought to state that it was only subjugated at about the period of the death of that general; while as for Germany, the whole of it was not thoroughly known to us for many years after his time. If I may be allowed to form a conjecture, the margin of the coast will be found to be not far short of the estimate of the Greek writers, while the distance in a straight line will nearly correspond with that mentioned by Agrippa.

There are five German races; the VandiliAs already mentioned, Zeuss has satisfactorily shown that the Vandili or Vindili properly belonged to the Hermiones. Tacitus mentions but three groups of the German nations; the Ingævones on the ocean, the Hermiones in the interior, and the Istævones in the east and south of Germany. The Vandili, a Gothic race, dwelt originally on the northern coast of Germany, but afterwards settled north of the Marcomanni on the Riesengebirge. They subsequently appeared in Dacia and Pannonia, and in the beginning of the fifth century invaded Spain. Under Genseric they passed over into Africa, and finally took and plundered Rome in A.D. 455. Their kingdom was finally destroyed by Belisarius., parts of whom are the BurgundionesIt is supposed that the Burgundiones were a Gothic people dwelling in the country between the rivers Viadus and Vistula, though Ammianus Marcellinus declares them to have been of pure Roman origin. How they came into the country of the Upper Maine in the south-west of Germany in A.D. 289, historians have found themselves at a loss to inform us. It is not improbable that the two peoples were not identical, and that the similarity of their name arose only from the circumstance that they both resided in "burgi" or burghs. See Gibbon, iii. 99. Bohn's Ed., the VariniThe Varini dwelt on the right bank of the Albis or Elbe, north of the Langobardi. Ptolemy however, who seems to mention them as the Avarini, speaks of them as dwelling near the sources of the Vistula, on the site of the present Cracow. See Gibbon, iv. 225. Bohn's Ed., the CariniNothing whatever is known of the locality of this people., and the GutonesThey are also called in history Gothi, Gothones, Gotones and Gutæ. According to Pytheas of Marseilles (as mentioned by Pliny, B. xxxvii. c. 2), they dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, in the vicinity of what is now called the Fritsch-Haff. Tacitus also refers to the same district, though he does not speak of them as inhabiting the coast. Ptolemy again speaks of them as dwelling on the east of the Vistula, and to the south of the Venedi. The later form of their name, Gothi, does not occur till the time of Caracalla. Their native name was Gutthinda. They are first spoken of as a powerful nation at the beginning of the third century, when we find them mentioned as 'Getæ,' from the circumstance of their having occupied the countries formerly inhabited by the Sarmatian Getæ. The formidable attacks made by this people, divided into the nations of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, upon the Roman power during its decline, are too well known to every reader of Gibbon to require further notice.: the Ingævones, forming a second race, a portion of whom are the CimbriThe inhabitants of Chersonesus Cimbrica, the modern peninsula of Jutland. It seems doubtful whether these Cimbri were a Germanic nation or a Celtic tribe, as also whether they were the same race whose numerous hordes successively defeated six Roman armies, and were finally conquered by C. Marius, B.C. 101, in the Campi Raudii. The more general impression, however, entertained by historians, is that they were a Celtic or Gallic and not a Germanic nation. The name is said to have signified "robbers." See Gibbon, i. 273, iii. 365. Bohn's Ed., the TeutoniThe Teutoni or Teutones dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, adjacent to the territory of the Cimbri. Their name, though belonging originally to a single nation or tribe, came to be afterwards applied collectively to the whole people of Germany. See Gibbon, iii. 139. Bohn's Ed., and the tribes of the ChauciAlso called Cauchi, Cauci, and Cayci, a German tribe to the east of the Frisians, between the rivers Ems and Elbe. The modern Oldenburg and Hanover are supposed to pretty nearly represent the country of the Chauci. In B. xvi. c. 1. 2, will be found a further account of them by Pliny, who had visited their country, at least that part of it which lay on the sea-coast. They are mentioned for the last time in the third century, when they had extended so far south and west that they are spoken of as living on the banks of the Rhine.. The IstævonesMentioned by Tacitus as dwelling in the east and south of Germany., who join up to the Rhine, and to whom the CimbriIt has been suggested by Titzius that the words "quorum Cimbri," "to whom the Cimbri belong," are an interpolation; which is not improbable, or at least that the word "Cimbri" has been substituted for some other name. belong, are the third race; while the Hermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the SueviThis appears to be properly the collective name of a great number of the German tribes, who were of a migratory mode of life, and spoken of in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went under the general name of Ingævones. Cæsar speaks of them as dwelling east of the Ubii and Sygambri, and west of the Cherusci. Strabo makes them extend in an easterly direction beyond the Albis or Elbe, and southerly as far as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole of the east of Germany, from the Danube to the Baltic. The name of the modern Suabia is derived from a body of adventurers from various German tribes, who assumed the name of Suevi in consequence of their not possessing any other appellation., the HermunduriA large and powerful tribe of Germany, which occupied the extensive tract of country between the mountains in the north-west of Bohemia and the Roman Wall in the south-west, which formed the boundary of the Agri Decumates. On the east they bordered on the Narisci, on the north-east on the Cherusci, and on the north-west on the Chatti. There is little doubt that they originally formed part of the Suevi. At a later period they spread in a north-easterly direction, taking possession of the north-western part of Bohemia and the country about the sources of the Maine and Saale, that is, the part of Franconia as far as Kissingen and the south-western part of the kingdom of Saxony. The name Hermunduri is thought by some to signify highlanders, and to be a compound of Her or Ar, "high," and Mund, "man.", the ChattiOne of the great tribes of Germany, which rose to importance after the decay of the power of the Cherusci. It is thought by ethnographers that their name is still preserved in the word "Hessen." They formed the chief tribe of the Hermiones here mentioned, and are described by Cæsar as belonging to the Suevi, though Tacitus distinguishes them, and no German tribe in fact occupied more permanently its original locality than the Chatti. Their original abode seems to have extended from the Wester- wald in the west to the Saale in Franconia, and from the river Maine in the south as far as the sources of the Elison and the Weser, so that they occupied exactly the modern country of Hessen, including perhaps a portion of the north-west of Bavaria. See Gibbon, vol. iii. 99. Bohn's Ed., and the CherusciThe Cherusci were the most celebrated of all the German tribes, and are mentioned by Cæsar as of the same importance as the Suevi, from whom they were separated by the Silva Bacensis. There is some difficulty in stating their exact locality, but it is generally supposed that their country extended from the Visurgis or Weser in the west to the Albis or Elbe in the east, and from Melibocus in the north to the neighbourhood of the Sudeti in the south, so that the Chamavi and Langobardi were their northern neighbours, the Chatti the western, the Hermunduri the southern, and the Silingi and Semnones their eastern neighbours. This tribe, under their chief Arminius or Hermann, forming a confederation with many smaller tribes in A.D. 9, completely defeated the Romans in the famous battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In later times they were conquered by the Chatti, so that Ptolemy speaks of them only as a small tribe on the south of the Hartz mountain. Their name afterwards appears, in the beginning of the fourth century, in the con federation of the Franks.: the fifth race is that of the PeuciniThe Peucini are mentioned here, as also by Tacitus, as identical with the Basternæ. As already mentioned, supposing them to be names for distinct nations, they must be taken an only names of individual tribes, and not of groups of tribes. It is generally supposed that their first settlements in Sarmatia were in the highlands between the Theiss and the March, whence they passed onward to the lower Danube, as far as its mouth, where a portion of them, settling in the island of Peuce, obtained the name of Peucini. In the later geographers we find them settled between the Tyrus or Dniester, and the Borysthenes or Dnieper, the Peucini remaining at the mouth of the Danube., who are also the Basternæ, adjoining the Daci previously mentioned. The more famous rivers that flow into the ocean are the GuttalusAccording to Parisot, the Guttalus is the same as the Alle, a tributary of the Pregel. Cluver thinks that it is the same as the Oder. Other writers again consider it the same as the Pregel., the Vistillus or Vistula, the AlbisOr Elbe., the VisurgisNow the Weser., the AmisiusThe modern Ems., the Rhine, and the MosaThe Meuse.. In the interior is the long extent of the HercynianThe 'Hercynia Silva,' Hercynian Forest or Range, is very differently described by the writers of various ages. The earliest mention of it is by Aristotle. Judging from the accounts given by Cæsar, Pomponius Mela, and Strabo, the 'Hercynia Silva' appears to have been a general name for almost all the mountains of Southern and Central Germany, that is, from the sources of the Danube to Transylvania, comprising the Schwarzwald, Odenwald, Spessart, Rhön, Thuringer Wald, the Hartz mountain (which seems in a great measure to have retained the ancient name), Raube Alp, Steigerwald, Fichtelgebirge, Erzgebirge, and Riesengebirge. At a later period when the mountains of Germany had become better known, the name was applied to the more limited range extending around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Hungary. range, which in grandeur is inferior to none.

In the Rhine itself, nearly 100 miles in length, is the most famous islandThis island appears to have been formed by the bifurcation of the Rhine, the northern branch of which enters the sea at Katwyck, a few miles north of Leyden, by the Waal and the course of the Maas, after it has received the Waal, and by the sea. The Waal or Vahalis seems to have undergone considerable changes, and the place of its junction with the Maas may have varied. Pliny makes the island nearly 100 miles in length, which is about the distance from the fort of Schenkenschanz, where the first separation of the Rhine takes place, to the mouth of the Maas. The name of Batavia was no doubt the genuine name, which is still preserved in Betuwe, the name of a district at the bifurcation of the Rhine and the Waal. The Canninefates, a people of the same race as the Batavi, also occupied the island, and as the Batavi seem to have been in the eastern part, it is supposed that the Canninefates occupied the western. They were subdued by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus. of the Batavi and the Canninefates, as also other islands of the FrisiiThe Frisii or Frisones were one of the great tribes of north-western Germany, properly belonging to the group of the Ingævones. They in- habited the country about Lake Flevo and other lakes, between the Rhine and the Ems, so as to be bounded on the south by the Bructeri, and on the east by the Chauci. Tacitus distinguishes between the Frisii Majores and Minores, and it is supposed that the latter dwelt on the east of the canal of Drusus in the north of Holland, and the former between the rivers Flevus and Amisia, that is, in the country which still bears the name of Friesland. The Chauci have been previously mentioned., the Chauci, the FrisiabonesThe Frisiabones or Frisævones are again mentioned in C. 31 of the present Book as a people of Gaul. In what locality they dwelt has not been ascertained by historians., the SturiiThe Sturii are supposed to have inhabited the modern South Holland, while the Marsacii probably inhabited the island which the Meuse forms at its junction with the Rhine, at the modern Dortrecht in Zealand., and the Marsacii, which lie between HeliumSupposed to be the site of the modern fortress of Briel, situate at the mouth of the Meuse. and FlevumProbably the same as the modern Vlieland (thus partly retaining its ancient name), an island north of the Texel. The more ancient writers speak of two main arms, into which the Rhine was divided on entering the territory of the Batavi, of which the one on the east continued to bear the name of Rhenus, while that on the west into which the Masa, Maas or Meuse, flowed, was called Vahalis or Waal. After Drusus, B.C. 12, had connected the Flevo Lacus or Zuvder-Zee with the Rhine by means of a canal, in forming which he probably made use of the bed of the Yssel, we find mention made of three mouths of the Rhine. Of these the names, as given by Pliny, are, on the west, Helium (the Yahalis of other writers), in the centre Rhenus, and at the north Flevum; but at a later period we again find mention made of only two mouths.. These are the names of the mouths into which the Rhine divides itself, discharging its waters on the north into the lakes there, and on the west into the river Mosa. At the middle mouth which lies between these two, the river, having but a very small channel, preserves its own name.

Opposite to this coast is the island called Britannia, so celebrated in the records of GreeceBritain was spoken of by some of the Greek writers as superior to all other islands in the world. Dionysius, in his Periegesis, says, "that no other islands whatsoever can claim equality with those of Britain." and of our own country. It is situate to the north-west, and, with a large tract of intervening sea, lies opposite to Germany, Gaul, and Spain, by far the greater part of Europe. Its former name was AlbionSaid to have been so called from the whiteness of its cliffs opposite the coast of Gaul.; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of "Britanniæ." This island is distant from Gesoriacum, on the coast of the nation of the MoriniAfterwards called Bononia, the modern Boulogne. As D'Anville remarks, the distance here given by Pliny is far too great, whether we measure to Dover or to Hythe; our author's measurement however is probably made to Rutupiæ (the modern Richborough), near Sandwich, where the Romans had a fortified post, which was their landing-place when crossing over from Gaul. This would make the distance given by Pliny nearer the truth, though still too much., at the spot where the passage across is the shortest, fifty miles. Pytheas and Isidorus say that its circumference is 4875 miles. It is barely thirty years since any extensive knowledge of it was gained by the successes of the Roman arms, and even as yet they have not penetrated beyond the vicinity of the CaledonianProbably the Grampian range is here referred to. forest. Agrippa believes its length to be 800 miles, and its breadth 300; he also thinks that the breadth of Hibernia is the same, but that its length is less by 200 miles. This last island is situate beyond Britannia, the passage across being the shortest from the territory of the SiluresThe people of South Wales., a distance of thirty miles. Of the remaining islands none is said to have a greater circumference than 125 miles. Among these there are the OrcadesThe Orkney islands were included under this name. Pomponius Mela and Ptolemy make them but thirty in number, while Solinus fixes their number at three only., forty in number, and situate within a short distance of each other, the seven islands called AcmodæAlso called Æmodæ or Hæmodæ, most probably the islands now known as the Shetlands. Camden however and the older antiquarians refer the Hæmodæ to the Baltic sea, considering them different from the Acmodæ here mentioned, while Salmasius on the other hand considers the Acmodæ or Hæmodæ and the Hebrides as identical. Parisot remarks that off the West Cape of the Isle of Skye and the Isle of North Uist, the nearest of the Hebrides to the Shetland islands, there is a vast gulf filled with islands, which still bears the name of Mamaddy or Maddy, from which the Greeks may have easily derived the words Ai( Maddai\, whence the Latin Hæmodæ., the Hæbudes, thirty in number, and, between Hibernia and Britannia, the islands of MonaThe Isle of Anglesea., MonapiaMost probably the Isle of Man., RicinaCamden and Gosselin (Rech. sur la Géogr. des Anciens) consider that under this name is meant the island of Racklin, situate near the north-eastern extremity of Ireland. A Ricina is spoken of by Ptolemy, but that island is one of the Hebrides., VectisThis Vectis is considered by Gosselin to be the same as the small island of White-Horn, situate at the entrance of the Bay of Wigtown in Scotland. It must not be confounded with the more southern Vectis, or Isle of Wight., LimnusAccording to Gosselin this is the island of Dalkey, at the entrance of Dublin Bay., and AndrosCamden thinks that this is the same as Bardsey Island, at the south of the island of Anglesea, while Mannert and Gosselin think that it is the island of Lambay.. Below it are the islands called Samnis and AxantosAccording to Brotier these islands belong to the coast of Britanny, being the modern isles of Sian and Ushant., and opposite, scattered in the German Sea, are those known as the GlæsariæAs already mentioned, he probably speaks of the islands of Œland and Gothland, and Ameland, called Austeravia or Actania, in which glœsum or amber was found by the Roman soldiers. See p. 344., but which the Greeks have more recently called the Electrides, from the circumstance of their producing electrum or amber. The most remote of all that we find mentioned is ThuleThe opinions as to the identity of ancient Thule have been numerous in the extreme. We may here mention six:—1. The common, and apparently the best founded opinion, that Thule is the island of Iceland. 2. That it is either the Ferroe group, or one of those islands. 3. The notion of Ortelius, Farnaby, and Schœnning, that it is identical with Thylemark in Norway. 4. The opinion of Malte Brun, that the continental portion of Denmark is meant thereby, a part of which is to the present day called Thy or Thyland. 5. The opinion of Rudbeck and of Calstron, borrowed originally from Procopius, that this is a general name for the whole of Scandinavia. 6. That of Gosselin, who thinks that under this name Mainland, the principal of the Shetland Islands, is meant. It is by no means impossible that under the name of Thule two or more of these localities may have been meant, by different authors writing at distant periods and under different states of geographical knowledge. It is also pretty generally acknowledged, as Parisot remarks, that the Thule mentioned by Ptolemy is identical with Thylemark in Norway., in which, as we have previously statedB. ii. c. 77., there is no night at the summer solstice, when the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, while on the other hand at the winter solstice there is no day. Some writers are of opinion that this state of things lasts for six whole months together. Timæus the historian says that an island called MictisBrotier thinks that under this name a part of Cornwall is meant, and that it was erroneously supposed to be an island. Parisot is of opinion that the copyists, or more probably Pliny himself, has made an error in transcribing Mictis for Vectis, the name of the Isle of Wight. It is not improbable however that the island of Mictis had only an imaginary existence. is within six days' sail of Britannia, in which white load"White lead": not, however, the metallic substance which we understand by that name, but tin. is found; and that the Britons sail over to it in boats of osierCommonly known as "coracles," and used by the Welch in modern times. See B. vii. c. 57 of this work, and the Note., covered with sewed hides. There are writers also who make mention of some other islands, ScandiaBrotier, with many other writers, takes these names to refer to various parts of the coast of Norway. Scandia he considers to be the same as Scania, Bergos the modern Bergen, and Nerigos the northern part of Norway. On the other hand, Gosselin is of opinion that under the name of Bergos the Scottish island of Barra is meant, and under that of Nerigos, the island of Lewis, the northern promontory of which is in the old maps designated by the name of Nary or Nery. Ptolemy makes mention of an island called Doumna in the vicinity of the Orcades. namely, Dumna, Bergos, and, greater than all, Nerigos, from which persons embark for Thule. At one day's sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, which by some is called the Cronian Sea.

The whole of Gaul that is comprehended under the one general name of ComataTransalpine Gaul, with the exception of that part of it called Narbonensis, was called Gallia Comata, from the custom of the people allowing their hair to grow to a great length., is divided into three races of people, which are more especially kept distinct from each other by the following rivers. From the Scaldis to the SequanaFrom the Scheldt to the Seine. it is Belgic Gaul; from the Sequana to the GarumnaFrom the Seine to the Garonne. it is Celtic Gaul or LugdunensisLyonese Gaul, from Lugdunum, the ancient name of the city of Lyons.; and from the Garumna to the promontory of the Pyrenæan range it is Aquitanian Gaul, formerly called AremoricaSaid by Camden to be derived from the Celtic words Ar - mor, "by the Sea.". Agrippa makes the entire length of the coast of Gaul to be 1800 miles, measured from the Rhine to the Pyrenees: and its length, from the ocean to the mountains of Gebenna and Jura, excluding there from Gallia Narbonensis, he computes at 420 miles, the breadth being 318.

Beginning at the Scaldis, the parts beyondThe provinces of Antwerp and North Brabant. are inhabited by the Toxandri, who are divided into various peoples with many names; after whom come the MenapiiInhabiting Western Flanders., the MoriniSo called, it is supposed, from the Celtic word Mor, which means "the sea." Térouane and Boulogne are supposed to occupy the site of their towns, situate in the modern Pas de Calais., the OromarsaciD'Anville places them between Calais and Gravellines, in the Pas de Calais, and on the spot now known as the Terre de Marck or Merk., who are adjacent to the burgh which is known as GesoriacumBoulogne, previously mentioned., the BritanniCluver thinks that "Brianni" would be the correct reading here; but D'Anville places the Britanni on the southern bank of the stream called La Canche in the Pas de Calais., the AmbianiAccording to Parisot and Ansart they occupied the department of the Somme, with places on the site of Amiens (derived from their name) and Abbeville for their chief towns., the Bel- lovaciThey dwelt in the modern department of the Oise, with Beauvais (which still retains their name) for their chief town., the HassiD'Anville is of opinion that the place called Haiz or Hez in the diocese of Beauvais, received its name from this people, of whom nothing else is known. The name is omitted in several of the editions., and, more in the interior, the CatoslugiD'Anville is of opinion that their chief town was situate at the modern Chaours, at the passage of the river Serre, not far from Vervins in the department of the Aisne., the AtrebatesAccording to Ptolemy their chief town would be on the site of the modern Orchies in the department du Nord, but Cæsar makes it to be Nemetacum, the modern Arras, the capital of the department of the Pas de Calais., the NerviiAccording to Ansart their chief town was Bavai, in the department du Nord. They are called "Liberi," or free, because they were left at liberty to enjoy their own laws and institutions., a free people, the VeromanduiTheir capital was Augusta Veromanduorum, and it has been suggested that the place called Vermand, in the department de l'Aisne, denotes its site; but according to Bellay and D'Anville the city of St. Quentin, which was formerly called Aouste, marks the spot., the SuæuconiNothing whatever is known of them, and it is suggested by the commentators that this is a corrupted form of the name of the Suessiones, which follows., the SuessionesThey gave name to Soissons in the southern part of the department de l'Aisne., a free people, the UlmanetesIt has been suggested that these are the same as the Silvanectes, the inhabitants of Senlis in the department de l'Oise., a free people, the TungriThe people of Tongres, in the provinces of Namur, Liège, and Limbourg., the SunuciThey are supposed to have dwelt in the eastern part of the province of Limbourg., the FrisiabonesThey probably dwelt between the Sunuci and the Betasi., the BetasiThey are supposed to have dwelt in the western part of the province of Limbourg, on the confines of that province and South Brabant, in the vicinity probably of the place which still bears the name of Beetz, upon the river Gette, between Leau and Haclen, seven miles to the east of Louvain., the LeuciAccording to Ptolemy the Leuci dwelt on the sites of Toul in the department of the Meurthe, and of Nais or Nays in that of the Meuse., a free people, the TreveriFrom them Trèves or Trier, in the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine, takes its name., who were formerly free, and the LingonesTheir chief town was on the site of Langres, in the department of the Haute Marne., a federal state, the federal Remigave name to the city of Rheims in the department of the Marne., the MediomatriciTheir chief town stood on the site of the modern Metz, in the department of the Moselle., the SequaniBesançon stands on the site of their chief town, in the department of the Doubs, extending as far as Bale., the RauriciThe inhabitants of the district called the Haut Rhin or Higher Rhine., and the HelvetiiThe inhabitants of the west of Switzerland.. The Roman colonies are EquestrisOr the "Equestrian Colony," probably founded by the Roman Equites. It is not known where this colony was situate, but it is suggested by Cluver and Monetus that it may have been on the lake of Geneva, in the vicinity of the modern town of Nyon. and RauriacaLittré, in a note, remarks that Rauriaca is a barbarism, and that the reading properly is "Raurica.". The nations of Germany which dwell in this province, near the sources of the Rhine, are the NemetesSpire was their chief city, in the province of the Rhine., the TribociThey are supposed to have occupied Strasbourg, and the greater part of the department of the Lower Rhine., and the VangionesThey dwelt in the modern Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt; Worms was their chief city.; nearer againThat is, nearer the mouths of the Rhine., the UbiiThey originally dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, but were transported across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 37, at their own request, from a wish to escape the attacks of the Suevi., the ColonyNow known as the city of Cologne. It took its name from Agrippina, the wife of Claudius and the mother of Nero, who was born there, and who, as Tacitus says, to show off her power to the allied nations, planted a colony of veteran soldiers in her native city, and gave to it her own name. of Agrippina, the CugerniTheir district was in the modern circle of Clèves, in the province of Juliers-Berg-Clèves., the BataviDwelling in the Insula Batavorum, mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book., and the peoples whom we have already mentioned as dwelling on the islands of the Rhine.

That part of Gaul which is known as LugdunensisHe first speaks of the nations on the coast, and then of those more in the interior. con- tains the LexoviiDwelling in the west of the department of Calvados, and the east of the department of the Eure. From them Lisieux takes its name., the VellocassesThey occupied the department of the Lower Seine., the GaletiThey are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of Lillebonne, in the department of the Lower Seine., the VenetiThey gave name to the town of Vannes in the department of Morbihan., the AbrincatuiFrom them the city of Avranches, in the department of La Manche, derives its name., the OssismiThey occupied the modern department of Finisterre., and the celebrated river LigerisThe Loire., as also a most remarkable peninsula, which extends into the ocean at the extremityThis spot is placed by D'Anville near the modern city of Saint Brieuc. He refers here to the peninsula of Brittany, which ends in Finisterre. of the territory of the Ossismi, the circumference of which is 625Ansart remarks that the circuit of the peninsula from Saint Brieuc to the mouth of the river Vilaine is only 450 miles, but that if taken from the city of Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, it is 650. miles, and its breadth at the neck 125Ansart states that from Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, in a straight line, is twenty miles less than the distance here given by Pliny.. Beyond this are the NannetesInhabitants of the department of the Lower Loire or Loire Inférieure., and in the interior are the ÆduiThis extensive people inhabited the present departments of the Saone et Loire, Allier, Nievre, Rhone nord, and Loire nord. Autun and Chalonssur-Marne stand on the site of their ancient towns., a federal people, the CarnutiThey inhabited the departments of the Eure et Loire, and portions of those of the Seine et Oise, of the Loire et Cher, and of the Loiret. Chartres occupies the site of their town., a federal people, the BoiiThey occupied a part of the department of the Allier. Moulins stands on the site of their chief town., the SenonesSens, in the department of the Yonne, stands on the site of their chief town., the Aulerci, both those surnamed EburovicesThe chief town of the Aulerci Eburovices was on the site of the present Passy-sur-Eure, called by the inhabitants Old Evreux, in the department of the Eure. and those called CenomanniThey dwelt in the vicinity of the city of Le Mans, in the department of the Sarthe., the MeldiMeaux, in the department of the Seine et Marne, denotes the site of their principal town., a free people, the ParisiiParis, anciently Lutetia, denotes their locality., the TricassesThe city of Troyes, in the department of the Aube, denotes their locality., the An- decaviTheir chief town stood on the site of Angers, in the department of the Maine et Loire., the ViducassesD'Anville says that their chief town stood on the spot now known as Vieux, two leagues from Caen, in the department of Calvados., the BodiocassesThe reading here is not improbably "Vadicasses." If so, they were a people situate at a great distance from the other tribes here mentioned by Pliny. They dwelt in the department De l'Oise, in the district formerly known as Valois, their chief town or city occupying the site of Vez, not far from Villers Cotterets., the VenelliD'Anville assigns to the Venelli, or Unelli, as some readings have it, the former district of Cotantin, now called the department of La Manche., the CariosvelitesAccording to D'Anville, Corseuil, two leagues from Dinan, in the department of the Côtes du Nord, denotes the site of their chief town. Hardouin takes Quimper to mark the locality., the DiablintiThey are supposed by Ansart to have occupied that part of the department of La Mayenne where we find the village of Jublains, two leagues from the city of Mayenne., the RhedonesD'Anville assigns to them the greater part of the department of the Ile et Vilaine, and is of opinion that the city of Rennes occupies the site of Condate, their chief town., the TuronesTours, in the department of the Indre et Loire, marks the site of their chief town., the AtesuiThey are supposed to have occupied a portion of the department of the Loire., and the SecusianiThey probably occupied a part of the department of the Loire, as also of that of the Rhone. Their town, Forum Secusianorum, stood on the site of the present Feurs, in the department of the Loire., a free people, in whose territory is the colony of LugdunumThe city of Lyons occupies the site of ancient Lugdunum. It is suggested by Hardouin, that the name Lugdunum is a corruption of "Lucudunum," a compound of the Latin word lucus, "a grove," and the Celtic dun, "a hill" or "mountain.".

In Aquitanica are the AmbilatriThey are mentioned by Cæsar (B. C. iii. 9), in conjunction with the Nannetes, Morini, and others, but nothing can be inferred as to the precise position they occupied., the AnagnutesTheir locality also is unknown, but it is supposed that they dwelt in the vicinity of the department of La Vendée., the PictonesFrom them ancient Poitou received its name. They are supposed to have occupied the department of the Haute-Vienne, and portions of the departments of La Vendée, the Loire Inférieure, the Maine et Loire, the Deux-Sèvres, and La Vienne., the SantoniThey gave name to the former Saintonge, now the department of Charente and Charente Inférieure. The town of Saintes occupies the site of their chief town., a free people, the BiturigesThey occupied the modern department of the Gironde. The city of Bordeaux occupies the site of their chief town., surnamed Vivisci, the AquitaniThey gave name to Aquitaine, which became corrupted into Guyenne. Pliny is the only author that makes the Aquitani a distinct people of the province of Aquitanica. The Tarusates are supposed to have afterwards occupied the site here referred to by him, with Atures for their chief town, afterwards called Aire, in the department of the Landes., from whom the province derives its name, the SediboviatesTheir locality is unknown, but it has been suggested that they occupied the departments of the Basses Pyrénées, or Lower Pyrenees., the ConvenæSo called from the Latin verb convenire, "to assemble" or "meet together." They are said to have received this name from the circumstance that Ptolemy, after the close of the Sertorian war, finding a pastoral people of predatory habits inhabiting the range of the Pyrenees, ordered them to unite together and form a community in a town or city. From them the present town of Saint Bertrand de Comminges, in the S.W. of the department of the Haute Garonne, derives its Latin name "Lugdunum Convenarum.", who together form one town, the BegerriBy Cæsar called the Bigerriones. Their name was preserved in that of the district of Bigorre, now the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées. Their chief town was Turba, now Tarbes., the Tarbelli QuatuorsignaniBy calling the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani, he seems to imply that their chief town was a place garrisoned by four maniples of soldiers, each with a signum or standard. Aquæ Tarbellicæ was their chief town, the modern Acqs or Dax, in the S.W. of the department of the Landes., the Cocosates SexsignaniTheir chief town was probably garrisoned by six signa or maniples. Cocosa, or Coequosa, as it is written in the Antonine Itinerary, is the first place on a road from Aque Tarbellicse or Dax to Burdegala or Bordeaux, now called Marensin. Their locality was in the southern part of the department of the Landes, the inhabitants of which are still divided into two classes, the Bouges, those of the north, or of the Tête de Buch; and the Cousiots, those of the south., the VenamiTheir locality is unknown., the OnobrisatesD'Anville would read "Onobusates," and thinks that they dwelt in the district called Nébousan, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées. He is also of opinion that their town stood on the site of the modern Cioutat, between the rivers Adour and Neste., the BelendiThey occupied the southern part of the department of the Gironde., and then the Pyrenæan range. Below these are the MonesiFrom them Hardouin suggests that Moneins, in the department of the Basses Pyrénées, takes its name., the OscidatesD'Anville is of opinion that they inhabited and gave name to the Vallée d'Ossun, between the Pyrenees and the city of Oléron in the department of the Basses Pyrénées. a mountain race, the SibyllatesD'Anville places them in the Vallée de Soule, in the department of the Basses Pyrénées., the CamponiFrom them Campon, a place in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées, is supposed to have received its name., the BercorcatesBiscarosse, not far from Tête de Buch in the department of the Landes, is supposed to derive its name from this tribe., the PindedunniNothing whatever is known of them., the LassunniThe more general reading is "Sassumini." Ansart suggests that the town of Sarrum, between Cognac and Périgueux, in the department of the Dordogne, may have received its name from them., the VellatesAnsart suggests that Rieumes, in the department of the Haute Garonne, occupies the site of Ryesium, their chief town, mentioned by Ptolemy., the TornatesThey are supposed to have given name to Tournay, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées., the ConsoranniSupposed to be the same as the Consuarini, mentioned in B. iii. c. 5., the AusciThey probably gave name to Auch, in the department of Gers., the ElusatesTheir chief town occupied the site of Euse or Eause, in the department of Gers., the SottiatesTheir locality is marked by Soz, in the department of the Lot-et-Garonne., the Oscidates CampestresOr "Oscidates of the Plains." They probably gave name to Ossun, two miles from Tarbes, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénæes., the SuccassesFrom them the village of Cestas, three leagues from Bordeaux, in the department of the Gironde, is supposed to derive its name., the TarusatesThe village of Tursan, in the department of the Landes, probably derived its name from this tribe., the BasabocatesTheir town was Cossio, afterwards Vasates, now Bazas, in the department of the Gironde., the VasseiThe site of the Vassei and the Sennates appears to be unknown., the Sennates, and the Cambolectri AgessinatesD'Anville is of opinion that this tribe gave name to Aisenay or Azenay, a village four leagues distant from Bourbon-Vendée, in the department of La Vendée.. Joining up to the Pictones are the BiturigesThey occupied the district formerly known as Berry, but now the departments of the Indre, the Cher, and the west of the department of the Allier. Their chief town was Avaricum, now Bourges., a free people, who are also known as the Cubi, and then the LemovicesThey inhabited the district formerly known as the Limosin, now the departments of the Creuse, the Haute Vienne, and the Corrèeze. Their chief town was Augustoritum, afterwards Lemovices, now Limoges., the ArverniThey occupied the district formerly known as Auvergne, forming the present department of the Allier, and the southern part of the Puy de Dòme and the Cantal. Augustonemetum was their chief town, now Clermont., a free people, and the GabalesSituate in the district formerly known as Gevaudan, now the department of La Lozére. Their chief town stood on the site of the present small town of Javoulx, four leagues from Mende..

Again, adjoining the province of Narbonensis are the RuteniThey are supposed to have occupied the former district of Rouergue, now known as the department of Aveyron. Their chief town was Segodunum, afterwards Ruteni, now known as Rhodez., the CadurciThey occupied the former district of Querci, the present department of Lot and Lot-et-Garonne. Divona, afterwards Cadurci, now Cahors, was their principal town., the NitiobrigesAccording to Ptolemy their town was Aginnum, probably the modern Agen, in the present department of Lot-et-Garonne. "Antobroges," however, is the more common reading., and the PetrocoriThey occupied the district formerly known as Périgord, in the department of the Dordogne; their town was Vesanna, afterwards Petrocori, now Périgueux., separated by the river Tarnis from the Tolosani. The seas around the coast are the Northern Ocean, flowing up to the mouth of the Rhine, the Britannic Ocean between the Rhine and the Sequana, and, between it and the Pyrenees, the Gallic Ocean. There are many islands belonging to the Veneti, which bear the name of "Veneticæ,Ansart says they are about 200 in number, consisting of Belle Isle, Groaix, Houat, Hoedic, and others. Also probably Morbihan." as also in the Aquitanic Gulf, that of UliarusThe Isle of Oleron, the fountain-head of the maritime laws of Europe..

At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more narrow, not only than Gaul, but even than itselfHe means to say that it gradually increases in breadth after leaving the narrow neck of the Pyrenees and approaching the confines of Lusitania. in its other parts, as we have previously mentionedB. iii. c. 3., seeing to what an immense extent it is here hemmed in by the ocean on the one side, and by the Iberian Sea on the other. A chain of the Pyrenees, extending from due east to south-westFrom Ruscino to Gades., divides Spain into two parts, the smaller one to the north, the larger to the south. The first coast that presents itself is that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis. On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we meet with the forest ranges of the VasconesIn the province now known as Guipuzcoa., OlarsoSupposed to be the present Cabo do la Higuera., the towns of the VarduliProbably inhabiting the eastern part of the provinces of Biscay and Alava, the eastern portion of Navarre, and, perhaps, a part of the province of Guipuzcoa., the MorosgiAccording to Hardouin the modern San Sebastian occupies the site of their town., MenoscaOn the same site as the modern Bermeo, according to Mannert. Hardouin thinks, however, and with greater probability, that it was situate at the mouth of the river Orio., VesperiesD'Anville considers this to be the site of the city of Bermeo., and the Port of AmanusPoinsinet thinks that this is Flavio in Bilbao, D'Anville calls it Portugalette, and Mannert thinks that it is the same as Santander, with which opinion Ansart agrees., where now stands the colony of Flaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine states of the CantabriAccording to Ptolemy, the Cantabri possessed the western part of the province of La Montana, and the northern parts of the provinces of Palencia and Toro., the river SaugaMost probably the present Rio de Suancès, by Mannert called the Saya, into which the Besanga flows. Hardouin however calls it the Nervio., and the Port of Victoria of the JuliobrigensesAnsart suggests that this is the modern San Vicente de la Barquera. If the river Sauga is the same with the Suancès, this cannot be the port of Santander, as has been suggested., from which place the sources of the IberusOr Ebro. are distant forty miles. We next come to the Port of BlendiumAccording to Ansart, this is either the modern Ensenada de Ballota or else the Puerta de Pô, the OrgenomesciAccording to Ansart, the Orgenomesci occupied the same territory which Ptolemy has assigned to the Cantabri in general. See Note 10 above., a people of the Cantabri, VereasuecaHardouin takes this to be Villaviciosa. Ansart thinks that Ria de Cella occupies its site. their port, the country of the As- turesThey are supposed to have occupied the greater part of the principality of the Asturias and the province of Leon., the town of NoegaHardouin and Mannert consider this to be identical with Navia or Nava, six miles to the east of Oviedo, an obscure place in the interior. Ansart however would identify it with Villaviciosa., and on a peninsulaNo doubt the headland now known as the Cabo de Penas., the Pæsici. Next to these we have, belonging to the jurisdiction of LucusNow Lugo in Gallicia., after passing the river NavilubioSupposed by Ansart to be the Rio Caneiro, into which the Rio Labio discharges itself., the CibarciSupposed by Ansart to have dwelt in the vicinity of the Celtic promontory, now Cabo de Finisterra or Cape Finisterre. Of the Egovarri and Iadoni nothing whatever is known., the Egovarri, surnamed Namarini, the Iadoni, the ArrotrebæTheir towns are mentioned by Ptolemy as being situate on a bay near Nerium or the promontory of Cape Finisterre., the Celtic Promontory, the rivers FloriusMannert thinks that the Nelo is the same as the Rio Allones; the Florius seems not to have been identified. and Nelo, the CelticiThe inhabitants of Cape Finisterre., surnamed Neri, and above them the TamariciDwelling on the banks of the river which from them takes its modern name of Tambre., in whose peninsulaMannert and Ansart are of opinion that this peninsula was probably the modern Cabo Taurinan or Cabo Villano, most probably the latter. are the three altars called Sestianæ, and dedicatedOn the occasion probably of his expedition against the Cantabri. to Augustus; the CaporiTheir towns, Iria Flavia and Lacus Augusti, lay in the interior, on the sites of the present Santiago de Compostella and Lugo., the town of NoelaProbably the modern Noya., the Celtici surnamed Præsamarci, and the CilenThey are supposed to have occupied the district in which the warm springs are found, which are known as Caldas de Contis and Caldas deRey.: of the islands, those worthy of mention are CorticataIt is suggested by Ansart that the islands here meant are those called Carreira, at the mouth of the river Ulla, and the Islas de Ons, at the mouth of the Tenario. and Aunios. After passing the Cileni, belonging to the jurisdiction of the BracariSee B. iii. c. 4., we have the HeleniInhabiting the vicinity of the modern Pontevedra., the GraviiAccording to Ptolemy also their town was Tudse, the modern Tuy., and the fortress of Tyde, all of them deriving their origin from the Greeks. Also, the islands called CicæThe modern Islas de Scyas or of Bayona., the famous city of AbobricaThe town of Bayona, about six leagues from the mouth of the river Minho., the river MiniusThe Minho., four miles wide at its mouth, the Leuni, the SeurbiThey occupied the tract of country lying between the rivers, and known as Entre Douro y Minho., and AugustaNow Braga on the Cavado., a town of the Bracari, above whom lies Gallæcia. We then come to the river LimiaThe Lima., and the river DuriusThe river Douro., one of the largest in Spain, and which rises in the district of the PelendonesSee B. iii. c. 3., passes near Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccæi, dividing the Vettones from Asturia, the Gallæci from Lusitania, and separating the Turduli from the Bracari. The whole of the region here mentioned from the Pyrenees is full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black and whiteBoth lead, properly so called, and tin..

After passing the Durius, LusitaniaIn a great degree corresponding with modern Portugal, except that the latter includes the tract of country between the Minho and Douro. begins. We here have the ancient TurdulTo distinguish them from the nation of the same name sprung from them, and occupying the Farther Spain. (B. iii. c. 3.) The Pæsuri occupied the site of the present towns of Lamego and Arouca., the Pæsuri, the river VagaThe modern Vouga, which runs below the town of Aveiro, raised from the ruins of ancient Talabrica., the town of Talabrica, the town and riverAgueda, which, according to Hardouin, is the name of both the river and the town. of Æminium, the towns of ConimbricaCoimbra, formerly Condeja la Veja., CollippoLeiria is supposed to occupy its site., and EburobritiumAccording to Hardouin, the modern Ebora de Alcobaza, ten leagues from Leiria.. A promontoryThe modern Cabo de la Roca, seven leagues from Lisbon. then advances into the sea in shape of a large horn; by some it has been called ArtabrumPliny, in C. 34, places the Arrotrebæ, belonging to the Conventus of Lucus Augusti, about the Promontorium Celticum, which, if not the same as the Nerium (or Cape Finisterre) of the others, is evidently in its immediate neighbourhood; but he confuses the whole matter by a very curious error. He mentions a promontory called Artabrum as the headland at the N. W. extremity of Spain; the coast on the one side of it looking to the north and the Gallic Ocean, on the other to the west and the Atlantic Ocean. But he considers this promontory to be the west headland of the estuary of the Tagus, and adds, that some called it Magnum Promontorium, or the "Great Promontory," and others Olisiponense, from the city of Olisipo, or Lisbon. He assigns, in fact, all the west coast of Spain, down to the mouth of the Tagus, to the north coast, and, instead of being led to detect his error by the resemblance of name between his Artabrum Promontorium and his Arrotrebæ (the Artabri of his predecessors, Strabo and Mela), he perversely finds fault with those who had placed above the promontory Artabrum, a people of the same name who never were there., by others the Great Promon- tory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from the cityOn the site of which the present city of Lisbon stands. near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the land, the sea, and the heavens. Here ends one sideSee note 18 in the preceding page. of Spain; and, when we have doubled the promontory, the front of Spain begins. (22.) On one side of it lie the North and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the West and the Atlantic. The length of this promontory has been estimated by some persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to the Pyrenees at 1250 miles; and, committing a manifest error, place here the nation of the Artabri, a nation that neverSee note18. was here. For, making a slight change in the name, they have placed at this spot the Arrotrebæ, whom we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the Celtic Promontory.

Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated rivers. From the Minius, which we have previously mentioned, according to Varro, the river ÆminiusSee note13 in the preceding page. is distant 200 miles, which othersAmong these is Pomponius Mela, who confounds the river Limia, mentioned in the last chapter, with the Æminius, or Agueda. suppose to be situate elsewhere, and called Limæa. By the ancients it was called the "River of Oblivion," and it has been made the subject of many fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the Durius is the Tagus, the MundaNow the river Mondego. lying between them. The Tagus is famous for its golden sandsSee B. xxxiii. c. 21.. At a distance of 160 miles from it is the Sacred PromontoryNow Cape St. Vincent., projecting from nearly the very middle of the frontPliny continues his error here, in taking part of the western side of Spain for the north, and part of the southern coast for the western. of Spain. From this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees, Varro says, is a distance of 1400 miles; while to the Anas, by which we have mentionedB. iii. c. 2. Lusitania as being separated from Bætica, is 126 miles, it being 102 more to Gades.

The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the Tagus, the VettonesWith the Vettones, situate in the province of the Alentejo. See B. iii. c. 3.. From the river Anas to the Sacred PromontoryIn the present province of Algarve. are the Lusitani. The cities worthy of mention on the coast, beginning from the Tagus, are that of OlisipoNow Lisbon. Both Strabo, Solinus, and Martianus Capella make mention of a story that Ulysses came to Spain and founded this city., famous for its mares, which conceiveSee B. viii. c. 67 of the present work. from the west wind; SalaciaAccording to Hardouin, followed by D'Anville and Uckert, this place gives name to Alcazar do Sal, nearly midway between Evora and the sea-shore. Mannert says Setuval, which D'Anville however supposes to be the ancient Cetobriga., which is surnamed the Imperial City; MerobricaOn its site stands Santiago de Cacem, nearly midway between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent.; and then the Sacred Promontory, with the other known by the name of CuneusOr the "Wedge," generally supposed to be Cabo de Santa Maria. Ansart however thinks that it is the Punta de Sagres, near Cape St. Vincent. Pliny's words indeed seem to imply a closer proximity than that of Capes St. Vincent and Santa Maria., and the towns of OssonobaAccording to Hardouin, the modern Estombar; according to D'Anville, in the vicinity of Faro; but ten leagues from that place, according to Mannert., BalsaHardouin and D'Anville are of opinion that Tavira occupies its site., and MyrtiliNow Mertola, on the river Guadiana..

The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdictions, those of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in all forty-six peoples, among whom there are five colonies, one municipal town of Roman citizens, three with the ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are tributaries. The colonies are those of Augusta EmeritaNow Merida, on the Guadiana. A colony of veterans (Emeriti) was planted there by Augustus., situate on the river Anas, MetallinumNow Medellin, in the province of Estremadura., PaxPax Julia, or Pax Augusta, in the country of the Turduli, or Turdetani; now Beja, in the province of the Alentejo, and NorbaNow Alcantara, in the province of Estremadura., surnamed Cæsariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people of Castra ServiliaNow Truxillo, so called from Turis Julia. and Castra CæciliaNow Caceres. resort. The fifth jurisdiction is that of ScalabisNow called Santarem, from Saint Irene, the Virgin., which also has the name of Præsidium Julium"The Garrison of Julius.". Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia"The Success of Julius.", is a municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin rights are EboraEvora, between the Guadiana and the Tagus., which also has the name of Liberalitas Julia"The Liberality of Julius.", and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have previously mentioned. Those among the tributaries whom it may not be amiss to mention, in addition to those alreadyB. iii. c. 3. alluded to among the names of those in Bætica, are the AugustobrigensesHardouin takes Augustobriga to have stood on the site of Villar del Pedroso on the Tagus. Other writers think that it is represented by the present Ponte del Arcobispo., the AmmiensesFrom Ammia, now Portalegre, on the frontier of Portugal. The sites of Arabrica and Balsa do not appear to have been ascertained., the Aranditani, the Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Cesarobricenses, the CaperensesCapera stood on the site now called Las Ventas de Capara, between Alcantara and Coria. The site of Cæsarobrica has not been ascertained., the CaurensesCoria, in Estremadura, probably occupies the site of Caura., the Colarni, the Cibilitani, the ConcordiensesHardouin suggests that the modern Tomar occupies the site of Concordia., the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the Lan- ciensesMannert is of opinion that the city of Lancia was situate in the north of Lusitania, on the river Durius, or Douro, near the modern Zamora., the Mirobrigenses, surnamedTo distinguish them from the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Turduli, mentioned in B. iii. c. 3. Some writers think that this Mirobriga is the present Ciudad Rodrigo; but Ambrose Morales takes it to be the place called Malabriga, in the vicinity of that city. Celtici, the MedubrigensesThe name of Medubriga was afterwards Aramenha, of which Hardouin says the ruins only were to be seen. They were probably called Plumbarii, from lead mines in their vicinity., surnamed Plumbarii, the OcelensesAccording to Hardouin, Ocelum was in the vicinity of the modern Capara. or Lancienses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori. Agrippa states, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallæcia, is 540 miles in length, and 536 in breadth. The provinces of Spain, measured from the two extremeFrom Cape de Creuz to the Promontory between the cities of Fontarabia and Saint Sebastian. promontories of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of the entire coast, are thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while some writers make them to be but 2600.

Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the Greeks called CassiteridesFrom the Greek kassi/teros, "tin." It is generally supposed that the "Tin Islands" were the Scilly Isles, in the vicinity of Cornwall. At the same time the Greek and Roman geographers, borrowing their knowledge from the accounts probably of the Phoenician merchants, seem to have had a very indistinct notion of their precise locality, and to have thought them to be nearer to Spain than to Britain. Thus we find Strabo, in B. iii., saying, that "the Cassiterides are ten in number, lying near each other in the ocean, towards the north from the haven of the Artabri." From a comparison of the accounts, it would almost appear that the ancient geographers confused the Scilly Islands with the Azores, as those, who enter into any detail, attribute to the Cassiterides the characteristics almost as much of the Azores and the sea in their vicinity, as of the Scilly Islands., in consequence of their abounding in tin: and, facing the PromontoryCape Finisterre. of the Arrotrebæ, are the six Islands of the Gods, which some persons have called the Fortunate IslandsOr the "Islands of the Blest." We cannot do better than quote a portion of the article on this subject in Dr. Smith's "Dictionary of Ancient Geography." "' Fortunatæ Insulæ' is one of those geographical names whose origin is lost in mythic darkness, but which afterwards came to have a specific application, so closely resembling the old mythical notion, as to make it almost impossible to doubt that that notion was based, in part at least, on some vague knowledge of the regions afterwards discovered. The earliest Greek poetry places the abode of the happy departed spirits far beyond the entrance of the Mediterranean, at the extremity of the earth, and upon the shores of the river Oceanus, or in islands in its midst; and Horner's poetical description of the place may be applied almost word for word to those islands in the Atlantic, off the west coast of Africa, to which the name was given in the historical period. (Od. iv. 1. 563, seq.) 'There the life of mortals is most easy; there is no snow, nor winter, nor much rain, but Ocean is ever sending up the shrill breathing breezes of Zephyrus to refresh men.' Their delicious climate, and their supposed identity of situation, marked out the Canary Islands, the Madeira group, and the Azores, as worthy to represent the Islands of the Blest. In the more specific sense, however, the name was applied to the two former groups; while, in its widest application, it may have even included the Cape de Verde Islands, its extension being in fact adapted to that of maritime discovery." Pliny gives a further description of them in B. vi. c. 37.. At the very commencement of Bætica, and twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Straits of Gades, is the island of Gadis, twelve miles long and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At its nearest part, it is less than 700 feetThe strait between the island and the mainland is now called the River of Saint Peter. The circuit of the island, as stated by Pliny, varies in the MSS. from fifteen to twenty-five miles, and this last is probably correct. distant from the mainland, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a city which enjoys the rights of Roman citizensJulius Cæsar, on his visit to the city of Gades, during the Civil War in Spain, B.C. 49, conferred the citizenship of Rome on all the citizens of Gades. Under Augustus it became a municipium, with the title of 'Augusta urbs Julia Gaditana.' The modern city of Cadiz is built upon its site., and whose people are called the Augustani of the city of Julia Gaditana. On the side which looks towards Spain, at about 100 paces distance, is another long island, three miles wide, on which the original city of Gades stood. By Ephorus and Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timæus and Silenus AphrodisiasOr the Island of Venus., and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timæus says, that the larger island used to be called CotinusaFrom the Greek word ko/tinos, "an olive-tree.", from its olives; the Romans call it TartessosIf Gades was not the same as Tartessus (probably the Tarshish of Scripture), its exact locality is a question in dispute. Most ancient writers place it at the mouth of the river Bætis, while others identify it, and perhaps with more probability, with the city of Carteia, on Mount Calpe, the Rock of Gibraltar. The whole country west of Gibraltar was called Tartessis. See B. iii. c. 3.; the Carthaginians GadirOr more properly 'Agadir,' or 'Hagadir.' It probably received this name, meaning a 'hedge,' or 'bulwark,' from the fact of its being the chief Phœnician colony outside of the Pillars of Hercules., that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge. It was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original an- cestors of the Carthaginians, were said to have come from the Erythræn, or Red Sea. In this island Geryon is by some thought to have dwelt, whose herds were carried off by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his island is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there formerly called by that nameOf Erythræ, or Erytheia. The monster Geryon, or Geryones, fabled to have had three bodies, lived in the fabulous Island of Erytheia, or the "Red Isle," so called because it lay under the rays of the setting sun in the west. It was originally said to be situate off the coast of Epirus, but was afterwards identified either with Gades or the Balearic islands, and was at all times believed to be in the distant west. Geryon was said to have been the son of Chrysaor, the wealthy king of Iberia..

Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now give the complete measurement of it, in order that those who wish to be acquainted with this subject may not feel themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and Isidorus have given its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214 miles. Polybius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in a line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even in his day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance of Italy, as we have previouslyAlluding to B. iii. c. 6. From Rhegium to the Alps. But there the reading is 1020. stated, as far as the Alps, is 1120 miles, from which, through Lugdunum to the British port of the MoriniMeaning Gessoriacum, the present Boulogne. He probably calls it Britannicum, from the circumstance that the Romans usually embarked there for the purpose of crossing over to Britain., the direction which Polybius seems to follow, is 1168 miles. But the better ascertained, though greater length, is that taken from the Alps through the Camp of the LegionsThe present Santen in the Duchy of Cleves. in Germany, in a north-westerly direction, to the mouth of the Rhine, being 1543 miles. We shall now have to speak of Africa and Asia.

Summary.—Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * * *.

Roman Authors Quoted.—Cato the CensorSee end of B. iii., M. VarroSee end of B. ii., M. AgrippaSee end of B. iii., the late Emperor AugustusSee end of B. iii., Varro AtacinusSee end of B. iii., Cornelius NeposSee end of B. ii., HyginusSee end of B. iii., L. VetusSee end of B. iii., Mela PomponiusSee end of B. iii., Licinius MucianusSee end of B. ii., Fabricius TuscusSee end of B. iii., Ateius CapitoSee end of B. iii., Ateius the PhilologistAteius, surnamed Prœtextatus, and also Philologus, which last name he assumed to indicate his learning, was born at Athens, and was one of the most celebrated grammarians of Rome, in the latter part of the first century B.C. He was originally a freedman of the jurist Ateius Capito, by whom he was described as "a rhetorician among grammarians, and a grammarian among rhetoricians." He was on terms of intimacy with Sallust the historian, and Asinius Pollio. It is supposed that he assisted Sallust in the compilation of his history; but to what extent is not known. But few of his numerous commentaries were extant even in the time of Suetonius..

Foreign Authors Quoted.—PolybiusA native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, born about B.C. 204. He was trained probably in political knowledge and the military art under Philopœmen, and was sent as a prisoner to Rome, with others, to answer the charge of not aiding the Romans in their war against Perseus. Here, by great good fortune, he secured the friendship of Scipio Africanus, with whom he was present at the destruction of Carthage. His history is one of the most valuable works that has come down to us from antiquity., HecatæusOf Miletus, one of the earliest and most distinguished Greek historians and geographers. He lived about the 65th Olympiad, or B.C. 520. A few fragments, quoted, are all that are left of his historical and geographical works. There is little doubt that Herodotus extensively availed himself of this writer's works, though it is equally untrue that he has transcribed whole passages from him, as Porphyrius has ventured to assert., HellanicusOf Mitylene, supposed to have flourished about B.C. 450. He appears to have written numerous geographical and historical works, which, with the exception of a considerable number of fragments, are lost., DamastesOf Sigæum, a Greek historian, contemporary with Herodotus. He wrote a history of Greece, and several other works, all of which, with a few unimportant exceptions, are lost., EudoxusSee end of B. ii., DicæarchusSee end of B. ii., TimosthenesA Rhodian by birth. He was admiral of the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who reigned from B.C. 285 to 247. He wrote a work "On Harbours," in ten books, which was copied by Eratosthenes, and is frequently quoted by ancient writers. Strabo also says that he composed poetry., EratosthenesSee end of B. ii., EphorusOf Cumæ, or Cymæ, in Ionia. He flourished about B.C. 408. He studied under Isocrates, and gained considerable fame as a historian. Though anxious to disclose the truth, he has been accused of sometimes forcing his authorities to suit his own views. Of his history of Greece, and his essays on various subjects, a few fragments only survive., Crates the GrammarianA grammarian of Mallus, in Cilicia. He lived in the time of Ptolemy Philopater, and resided at Pergamus, under the patronage of Eumenes II. and Attalus II. In his grammatical system he made a strong distinction between criticism and grammar, the latter of which sciences he regarded as quite subordinate to the former. Of his learned commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey, only a few fragments have come down to us., SerapionSee end of B. ii. of Antioch, CallimachusOf Cyrene, an Alexandrian grammarian and poet. He flourished at Alexandria, whither Ptolemy Philadelphus had invited him to a place in the Museum. Of his Hymns and Epigrams many are still extant. His Elegies, which were of considerable poetical merit, with the exception of a few fragments, have all perished. Of his numerous other works in prose, not one is extant in an entire state., ArtemidorusSee end of B. ii., ApollodorusProbably Apollodorus of Artemita, in Mesopotamia. It is probably to him that a Treatise on Islands and Cities has been ascribed by Tzetzes, as also a History of the Parthians, and a History of Pontus., AgathoclesProbably the author of that name, who wrote the history of Cyzicus, is the person here referred to. He is called by Athenæus both a Babylonian and a Cyzican. His work is entirely lost; but it appears to have been extensively read, and is referred to by Cicero and other ancient writers., EumachusOf Neapolis. He wrote a History of Hannibal, and to him has been ascribed a Description of the Universe, of which a fragment still survives., Timæus the Sici- lianOf Tauromenium, in Sicily; a celebrated historian, who flourished about the year B.C. 300. He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile at Athens. He composed a History of Sicily, from the earliest times to the year B.C. 264. The value of his history has been gravely attacked by Polybius; but there is little doubt that it possessed very considerable merit. Of this, and other works of Timæus, only a few fragments survive., MyrsilusA Greek historian; a native of Lesbos. When he lived is unknown. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, has borrowed from him a portion of his account of the Pelasgians. He is said to have been the author of the notion that the Tyrrhenians, in consequence of their wanderings after they left their original settlement, got the name of pelargoi\, or "storks." He is supposed to have written a History of Lesbos, as also a work called "Historical Paradoxes.", Alexander PolyhistorSee end of B. iii., ThucydidesSee end of B. iii., DosiadesOf this author nothing whatever seems to be known., AnaximanderOf Miletus, born B.C. 610. One of the earliest philosophers of the Ionian school, and said to be a pupil of Thales. Unless Pherecydes of Scyros be an exception, he was the first author of a philosophical treatise in Greek prose. Other writings are ascribed to him by Suidas; but, no doubt, on insufficient grounds. Of his treatise, which seems to have contained summary statements of his opinions, no remains exist., Philistides MallotesOf this writer nothing whatever is known, beyond the fact that, from his name, he seems to have been a native of Mallus, in Cilicia., DionysiusIt seems impossible to say which, out of the vast number of the authors who bore this name, is the one here referred to. It is not improbable that Dionysius of Chalcis, a Greek historian who lived before the Christian era, is meant. He wrote a work on the Foundation of Towns, in five books, which is frequently referred to by the ancients. It is not probable that the author of the Periegesis, or "Description of the World," is referred to, as that book bears internal marks of having been compiled in the third or fourth century of the Christian era., AristidesOf Miletus. He was the author of the "Milesiaca," a romance of licentious character, which was translated into Latin by L. Cornelius Sisenna. He is looked upon as the inventor of the Greek romance, and the title of his work is supposed to have given rise to the term Milesian, as applied to works of fiction., CallidemusA Greek author, of whom nothing is known, except that Pliny, and after him Solinus, refer to him as the authority for the statement that Eubœa was originally called Chalcis, from the fact of (xalko\s) copper being first discovered there. MenæchmusProbably Menæchmus of Sicyon, who wrote a book on Actors, a History of Alexander the Great, and a book on Sicyon. Suidas says that he flourished in the time of the successors of Alexander., Agla- osthenesWhen he flourished is unknown. He is said by Hyginus to have written a History of the Island of Naxos., AnticlidesHe lived after the time of Alexander the Great; but his age is unknown. He wrote a book, peri\ no/stwn, on the returns of the Greeks from their various expeditions, an account of Delos, a History of Alexander the Great, and other works, all of which have perished., HeraclidesOf Heraclæa, in Pontus. He was a pupil of Plato, and, after him, of Aristotle. His works upon philosophy, history, mathematics, and other subjects, were very numerous; but, unfortunately, they are nearly all of them lost. He wrote a Treatise upon Islands, and another upon the Origin of Cities., PhilemonA geographical writer, of whom nothing further is known., XenophonThe Greek historian, the disciple of Socrates, deservedly styled the "Attic Bee." His principal works are the Anabasis, or the History of the Expedition of the younger Cyrus and the Retreat of the Ten Thousand; the Hellenica, or History of Greece, from the time when that of Thucydides ends to the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362; and the Cyropædia, or Education of Cyrus. The greater portion of his works is now lost., PytheasSee end of B. ii., IsidorusSee end of B. ii., PhilonidesThere were two physicians of this name, one of Catana, in Sicily, the other of Dyrrhachium, in Illyricum, who, like his namesake, was the author of numerous works. It is doubtful, however, whether Pliny here refers to either of those authors., XenagorasA Greek historian, quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. If the same person as the father of the historian Nymphis, he must have lived in the early part of the second century B.C. He wrote a work on Islands, and another entitled Xrf/noi, or Chronicles., AstynomusA Greek geographer, who seems to have written an account of Cyprus., StaphylusHe is quoted by Strabo, Athenæus, and the Scholiasts; but all that is known of him is, that he wrote a work on Thessaly, Æolia, Attica, and Arcadia., AristocritusHe wrote a work relative to Miletus; but nothing further is known of him., MetrodorusSee end of B. iii., CleobulusProbably a writer on geography, of whom no particulars are known., PosidoniusSee end of B. ii..

The Greeks have given the name of LibyaNot reckoning under that appellation the country of Egypt, which was more generally looked upon as forming part of Asia. Josephus informs us that Africa received its name from Ophir, great-grandson of Abraham and his second wife, Keturah. to Africa, and have called the sea that lies in front of it the Libyan Sea. It has Egypt for its boundary, and no part of the earth is there that has fewer gulfs or inlets, its shores extending in a lengthened line from the west in an oblique direction. The names of its peoples, and its cities in especial, cannot possibly be pronounced with correctness, except by the aid of their own native tongues. Its population, too, for the most part dwells only in fortressesCastella,' fortified places, erected for the purpose of defence; not towns formed for the reception of social communities..

(1.) On our entrance into Africa, we find the two Mauritanias, which, until the time of Caius CæsarThe Emperor Caligula, who, in the year 41 A.D., reduced the two Mauritanias to Roman provinces, and had King Ptolemy, the son of Juba, put to death., the son of Germanicus, were kingdoms; but, suffering under his cruelty, they were divided into two provinces. The extreme promontory of Africa, which projects into the ocean, is called AmpelusiaNow Cape Spartel. By Scylax it is called Hermæum, and by Ptolemy and Strabo Cote, or Coteis. Pliny means "extreme," with reference to the sea-line of the Mediterranean, in a direction due west. by the Greeks. There were formerly two towns, Lissa and CotteMentioned again by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 6. Lissa was so called, according to Bochart, from the Hebrew or Phœnician word liss, 'a lion.' At the present day there is in this vicinity a headland called the 'Cape of the Lion.' Bochart thinks that the name 'Cotta,' or 'Cotte,' was derived from the Hebrew quothef, a 'vine-dresser.', beyond the Pillars of Hercules; but, at the present day, we only find that of TingiThe modern Tangier occupies its site. It was said to have derived its name from Tinge, the wife of Antæus, the giant, who was slain by Hercules. His tomb, which formed a hill, in the shape of a man stretched out at full length, was shown near the town of Tingis to a late period. It was also believed, that whenever a portion of the earth covering the body was taken away, it rained until the hole was filled up again. Sertorius is said to have dug away a portion of the hill; but, on discovering a skeleton sixty cubits in length, he was struck with horror, and had it immediately covered again. Procopius says, that the fortress of this place was built by the Canaanites, who were driven by the Jews out of Palestine., which was for- merly founded by Antæus, and afterwards received the name of Traducta JuliaIt has been supposed by Salmasius and others of the learned, that Pliny by mistake here attributes to Claudius the formation of a colony which was really established by either Julius Cæsar or Augustus. It is more probable, however, that Claudius, at a later period, ordered it to be called "Traducta Julia," or "the removed Colony of Julia," in remembrance of a colony having proceeded thence to Spain in the time of Julius Cæsar. Claudius himself, as stated in the text, established a colony here., from Claudius Cæsar, when he established a colony there. It is thirty miles distant from BelonIts ruins are to be seen at Belonia, or Bolonia, three Spanish miles west of the modern Tarifa., a town of Bætica, where the passage across is the shortest. At a distance of twenty-five miles from Tingi, upon the shores of the oceanAt this point Pliny begins his description of the western side of Africa., we come to Julia Constantia ZilisNow Arzilla, in the territory of Fez. Ptolemy places it at the mouth of the river Zileia. It is also mentioned by Strabo and Antoninus., a colony of Augustus. This place is exempt from all subjection to the kings of Mauritania, and is included in the legal jurisdiction of Bætica. Thirty-two miles distant from Julia Constantia is LixosNow El Araiche, or Larache, on the river Lucos., which was made a Roman colony by Claudius Cæsar, and which has been the subject of such wondrous fables, related by the writers of antiquity. At this place, according to the story, was the palace of Antaeus; this was the scene of his combat with Hercules, and here were the gardens of the HesperidesMentioned again in B. ix. c. 4 and c. 5 of the present Book, where Pliny speaks of them as situate elsewhere. The story of Antæus is further enlarged upon by Solinus, B. xxiv.; Lucan, B. iv. 1. 589, et seq.; and Martianus Capella, B. vi.. An arm of the sea flows into the land here, with a serpentine channel, and, from the nature of the locality, this is interpreted at the present day as having been what was really represented by the story of the dragon keeping guard there. This tract of water surrounds an island, the only spot which is never overflowed by the tides of the sea, although not quite so elevated as the rest of the land in its vicinity. Upon this island, also, there is still in existence the altar of Hercules; but of the grove that bore the golden fruit, there are no traces left, beyond some wild olive-trees. People will certainly be the less surprised at the marvellous falsehoods of the Greeks, which have been related about this place and the river LixosNow the Lucos., when they reflect that some of our ownHardouin is of opinion, that he here has a hit at Gabinius, a Roman author, who, in his Annals of Mauritania, as we learn from Strabo (B. xvii.), inserted numerous marvellous and incredible stories. countrymen as well, and that too very recently, have related stories in reference to them hardly less monstrous; how that this city is remarkable for its power and extensive influence, and how that it is even greater than Great Carthage ever was; how, too, that it is situate just opposite to Carthage, and at an almost immeasurable distance from Tingi, together with other details of a similar nature, all of which Cornelius Nepos has believed with the most insatiate credulityWhen we find Pliny accusing other writers of credulity, we are strongly reminded of the proverb, 'Clodius accusat mœchos.'.

In the interior, at a distance of forty miles from Lixos, is BabbaOr the "Julian Colony on the Plains." Marcus suggests that the word Babba may possibly have been derived from the Hebrew or Phœnician word beab or beaba, "situate in a thick forest." Poinsinet takes Babba to be the Beni-Tuedi of modern times. D'Anville thinks that it is Naranja., surnamed Julia Campestris, another colony of Augustus; and, at a distance of seventy-five, a third, called BanasaThere is considerable difficulty about the site of Banasa. Moletius thinks that it is the modern Fanfara, or Pefenfia as Marmol calls it. D'Anville suggests that it may be Old Mahmora, on the coast; but, on the other hand, Ptolemy places it among the inland cities, assigning to it a longitude at some distance from the sea. Pliny also appears to make it inland, and makes its distance from Lixos seventy-five miles, while he makes the mouth of the Subur to be fifty miles from the same place., with the surname of Valentia. At a distance of thirty-five miles from this last is the town of Volubilis, which is just that distance also from bothFrom both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. According to Poinsinet, Volubilis was the synonym of the African name Fez, signifying a 'band,' or 'swathe.' Mannert conjectures that it is the same as the modern Walili, or Qualili. D'Anville calls it Guulili, and says that there are some remains of antiquity there. seas. On the coast, at a distance of fifty miles from Lixos, is the river SuburThe modern Subu, or Sebou. D'Anville is of opinion that this river has changed a part of its course since the time of Pliny., which flows past the colony of Banasa, a fine river, and available for the purposes of navigation. At the same distance from it is the city of SalaMost probably the modern Sallee stands on its site., situate on a river which bears the same name, a place which stands upon the very verge of the desert, and though infested by troops of elephants, is much more exposed to the attacks of the nation of the Autololes, through whose country lies the road to Mount Atlas, the most fabulousNot in reference to the fact of its existence, but the wonderful stories which were told respecting it. locality even in Africa.

It is from the midst of the sands, according to the story, that this mountainLike others of the ancient writers, Pliny falls into the error of considering Atlas, not as an extensive chain of mountains, but as an isolated mountain, surrounded by sands. With reference to its height, the whole range declines considerably from west to east; the highest summits in Morocco reaching near 13,000 feet, in Tunis not 5000. raises its head to the heavens; rugged and craggy on the side which looks toward the shores of the ocean to which it has given its name, while on that which faces the interior of Africa it is shaded by dense groves of trees, and refreshed by flowing streams; fruits of all kinds springing up there spontaneously to such an extent, as to more than satiate every possible desire. Throughout the daytime, no inhabitant is to be seen; all is silent, like that dreadful stillness which reigns in the desert. A religious horror steals imperceptibly over the feelings of those who approach, and they feel themselves smitten with awe at the stupendous aspect of its summit, which reaches beyond the clouds, and well nigh approaches the very orb of the moon. At night, they say, it gleams with fires innumerable lighted up; it is then the scene of the gambols of the ÆgipansOr "Goat-Pans;" probably another name for the Fauni, or Fauns. More usually, there is but one Ægipan mentioned,—the son, according to Hyginus, of Zeus or Jupiter, and a goat,—or of Zeus and Æga, the wife of Pan. As a foundation for one part of the stories here men- tioned, Brotier suggests the fact, that as the Kabyles, or mountain tribes, are in the habit of retiring to their dwellings and reposing during the heat of the day, it would not, consequently, be improbable that they would devote the night to their amusements, lighting up fires, and dancing to the music of drums and cymbals. and the Satyr crew, while it re-echoes with the notes of the flute and the pipe, and the clash of drums and cymbals. All this is what authors of high character have stated, in addition to the labours which Hercules and Perseus there experienced. The space which intervenes before you arrive at this mountain is immense, and the country quite unknown.

There formerly existed some Commentaries written by HannoUnder his name we still possess a "Periplus," or account of a voyage round a part of Libya. The work was originally written in Punic, but what has come down to us is a Greek translation. We fail, however, to discover any means by which to identify him with any one of the many Carthaginians of the same name. Some writers call him king, and others dux, or imperator of the Carthaginians; from which we may infer, that he held the office of suffetes. This expedition has by some been placed as far back as the time of the Trojan war, or of Hesiod, while others again place it as late as the reign of Agathocles. Falconer, Bougainville, and Gail, place the time of Hanno at about B.C. 570, while other critics identify him with Hanno, the father or son of Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, B.C. 480. Pliny often makes mention of him; more particularly see B. viii. c. 21., a Carthaginian general, who was commanded, in the most flourishing times of the Punic state, to explore the sea-coast of Africa. The greater part of the Greek and Roman writers have followed him, and have related, among other fabulous stories, that many cities there were founded by him, of which no remembrance, nor yet the slightest vestige, now exists.

While Scipio Æmilianus held the command in Sicily, Polybius the historian received a fleet from him for the purpose of proceeding on a voyage of discovery in this part of the world. He relates, that beyondM. Gosselin thinks that the spot here indicated was at the south-western extremity of the Atlas range, and upon the northern frontier of the Desert of Zahara. Mount Atlas, pro- ceeding in a westerly direction, there are forests filled with wild beasts, peculiar to the soil of Africa, as far as the river AnatisSupposed by some geographers to be the same as that now called the Ommirabih, or the Om-Rabya. This is also thought by some to have been the same river as is called by Pliny, in p. 381, by the name of Asana; but the distances do not agree., a distance of 485 miles, Lixos being distant from it 205 miles. Agrippa says, that Lixos is distant from the Straits of Gades 112 miles. After it we come to a gulf which is called the Gulf of SagutiSupposed by Gosselin to be the present bay of Al-cazar, on the African coast, in the Straits of Cadiz; though Hardouin takes it to be the ko/lpos e)mporiko\s, or "Gulf of Commerce," of Strabo and Ptolemy. By first quoting from one, and then at a tangent from another, Pliny involves this subject in almost inextricable confusion., a town situate on the Promontory of MulelachaProbably the place called Thymiaterion in the Periplus of Hanno., the rivers Subur and SalatThe present Subu, and the river probably of Sallee, previously mentioned., and the port of RutubisThe modern Mazagan, according to Gosselin., distant from Lixos 213 miles We then come to the Promontory of the SunCape Cantin, according to Gosselin; Cape Blanco, according to Marcus., the port of RisardirProbably the Safi, Asafi, or Saffee of the present day., the Gætulian Autololes, the river CosenusThe river Tensift, which runs close to the city of Morocco, in the interior., the nations of the Selatiti and the Masati, the river MasathatThe river Mogador of the present day., and the river DaratThe modern river Sus, or Sous., in which crocodiles are found. After this we come to a large gulf, 616The learned Gosselin has aptly remarked, that this cannot be other than an error, and that "ninety-six" is the correct reading, the Gulf of Sainte-Croix being evidently the one here referred to. miles in extent, which is enclosed by a promontory of Mount BarceMount Barce seems to be here a name for the Atlas, or Daran chain., which runs out in a westerly direction, and is called SurrentiumSupposed by Gosselin to be the present Cape Ger.. Next comes the river SalsusThe river Assa, according to Gosselin. There is also a river Suse placed here in the maps., beyond which lie the Æthiopian Perorsi, at the back of whom are the PharusiiThese two tribes probably dwelt between the modern Capes Ger and Non., who are bordered upon by the Gætulian DaræMarcus believes these to have been the ancestors of the present race of the Touaricks, while the Melanogætuli were the progenitors of the Tibbos, of a darker complexion, and more nearly resembling the negroes in bodily conformation., lying in the interior. Upon the coast again, we find the Æthiopian Daratitæ, and the river BambotusSupposed by Gosselin to be the present river Nun, or Non. According to Bochart, this river received its name from the Hebrew or Phoenician word behemoth or bamoth, the name by which Job (xl. 15) calls the crocodile [or rather the hippopotamus]. Bochart, however, with Mannert, Bougainville, De Rennet, and De Heeren, is of opinion, that by this name the modern river Senegal is meant. Marcus is of opinion that it is either the Non or the modern Sobi., teeming with crocodiles and hippopotami. From this river there is a continuous rangeMarcus here observes, that from Cape Alfach, below Cape Non, there are no mountains, but continual wastes of sand, bordering on the sea-shore. Indeed there is no headland, of any considerable height, between Cape Sobi and Cape Bajador. of mountains till we come to the one which is known by the name of Theon OchemaThe Chariot of the Gods." Marcus is of opinion that it is the modern Cape Verde; while, on the other hand, Gosselin takes it to be Cape Non. Brotier calls it Cape Ledo., from which to the Hesperian PromontoryIn B. vi. c. 36, Pliny speaks of this promontory as the "Hesperian Horn," and says that it is but four days' sail from the Theon Ochema. Brotier identifies this promontory with the modern Cape Roxo. Marcus is of opinion that it was the same as Cape Non ; but there is considerable difficulty in determining its identity. is a voyage of ten days and nights; and in the middle of this space heAlluding to Polybius; though, according to the reading which Sillig has adopted a few lines previously, Agrippa is the last author mentioned. Pliny has here mistaken the meaning of Polybius, who has placed Atlas midway between Carthage, from which he had set out, and the Promontory of Theon Ochema, which he reached. has placed Mount Atlas, which by all other writers has been stated to be in the extreme parts of Mauritania.

The Roman arms, for the first time, pursued their conquests into Mauritania, under the Emperor Claudius, when the freedman Ædemon took up arms to avenge the death of King PtolemyPtolemy the son of Juba II. and Cleopatra, was summoned to Rome in the year A.D. 40, by Caligula, and shortly after put to death by him, his riches having excited the emperor's cupidity. Previously to this, he had been on terms of strict alliance with the Roman people, who had decreed him a toga picta and a sceptre, as a mark of their friendship., who had been put to death by Caius Cæsar; and it is a well-known fact, that on the flight of the barbarians our troops reached Mount Atlas. It became a boast, not only among men of consular rank, and generals selected from the senate, who at that time held the command, but among persons of equestrian rank as well, who after that period held the government there, that they had penetrated as far as Mount Atlas. There are, as we have already stated, five Roman colonies in this province; and it may very possibly appear, if we listen only to what report says, that this mountain is easily accessible. Upon trial, however, it has been pretty generally shown, that all such statements are utterly fallacious; and it is too true, that men in high station, when they are disinclined to take the trouble of inquiring into the truth, through a feeling of shame at their ignorance arc not averse to be guilty of falsehood; and never is implicit credence more readily given, than when a falsehood is supported by the authority of some personage of high consideration. For my own part, I am far less surprised that there are still some facts remaining undiscovered by men of the equestrian order, and even those among them who have attained senatorial rank, than that the love of luxury has left anything unascertained; the impulse of which must be great indeed, and most powerfully felt, when the very forests are ransacked for their ivory and citron-woodIvory and citron-wood, or cedar, were used for the making and inlaying of the tables used by the Roman nobility. See B. xiii. c. 23., and all the rocks of Gætulia are searched for the murex and the purple.

From the natives, however, we learn, that on the coast, at a distance of 150 miles from the Salat, the river AsanaSupposed by some geographers to be the modern Wadi-Tensift. It has been also confounded with the Anatis (see note 1, p. 369); while others again identify it with the Anidus. It is more commonly spelt 'Asama.' presents itself; its waters are salt, but it is remarkable for its fine harbour. They also say that after this we come to a river known by the name of FutOr Phuth. It does not appear to have been identified., and then, after crossing another called Vior which lies on the road, at a distance of 200 miles we arrive at DyrisThe range is still called by the name of Daran., such being the name which in their language they give to Mount Atlas. According to their story there are still existing in its vicinity many vestiges which tend to prove that the locality was once inhabited; such as the remains of vineyards and plantations of palm-trees.

Suetonius PaulinusThe same general who afterwards conquered the Britons under Boadicea or Bonduca. While Proprætor in Mauritania under the Emperor Claudius, in the year A.D. 42, he defeated the Mauri who had risen in revolt, and advanced, as Pliny here states, as far as Mount Atlas. It is not known from what point Paulinus made his advance towards the Atlas range. Mannert and Marcus are of opinion that he set out from Sala, the modern Sallee, while Latreille, Malte Brun, and Walkenaer think that his point of departure was the mouth of the river Lixos. Sala was the most southerly town on the western coast of Africa that in the time of Pliny had submitted to the Roman arms., whom we have seen Consul in our own time, was the first Roman general who advanced a distance of some miles beyond Mount Atlas. He has given us the same information as we have received from other sources with reference to the extraordinary height of this mountain, and at the same time he has stated that all the lower parts about the foot of it are covered with dense and lofty forests composed of trees of species hitherto unknown. The height of these trees, he says, is remarkable; the trunks are without knots, and of a smooth and glossy surface; the foliage is like that of the cypress, and besides sending forth a powerful odour, they are covered with a flossy down, from which, by the aid of art, a fine cloth might easily be manufactured, similar to the textures made from the produce of the silk-worm. He informs us that the summit of this mountain is covered with snow even in summer, and says that having arrived there after a march of ten days, he proceeded some distance beyond it as far as a river which bears the name of GerSome of the editions read 'Niger' here. Marcus suggests that that river may have been called 'Niger' by the Phœnician or Punic colonists of the western Mauritania, and 'Ger' or' Gar' in another quarter. The same writer also suggests that the Sigilmessa was the river to which Paulinus penetrated on his march beyond Atlas.; the road being through deserts covered with a black sandThe Sigilmessa, according to Marmol, flows between several mountains which appear to be of a blackish hue., from which rocks that bore the appearance of having been exposed to the action of fire, projected every here and there; localities rendered quite uninhabitable by the intensity of the heat, as he himself experienced, although it was in the winter season that he visited them. We also learn from the same source that the people who inhabit the adjoining forests, which are full of all kinds of elephants, wild beasts, and serpents, have the name of Canarii; from the circumstance that they partake of their food in common with the canine race, and share with it the entrails of wild beasts.

It is a well-known fact, that adjoining to these localities is a nation of Æthiopians, which bears the name of Perorsi. Juba, the father of Ptolemy, who was the first kingBocchus however, the kinsman of Massinissa, had previously for some time reigned over both the Mauritanias, consisting of Mauritania Tingitana and Mauritania Cæsariana. who reigned over both the Mauritanias, and who has been rendered even more famous by the brilliancy of his learning than by his kingly rank, has given us similar information relative to Mount Atlas, and states that a certain herb grows there, which has received the name of 'euphorbia'See B. xxv. c. 7. 12, and B. xxvi. c. 8. from that of his physician, who was the first to discover it. Juba extols with wondrous praises the milky juice of this plant as tending to improve the sight, and acting as a specific against the bites of serpents and all kinds of poison; and to this subject alone he has devoted an entire book. Thus much, if indeed not more than enough, about Mount Atlas.

(2.) The province of Tingitana is 170 miles in lengthExtending from the sea to the river Moluga, now called the Molucha and Molochath, or Malva and Malvana.. Of the nations in this province the principal one was formerly that of the MauriFrom whom the Moors of the present day take their name. Marcus observes here, that though Pliny distinguishes the Mauri from the Gætuli, they essentially belonged to the same race and spoke the same language, the so-called Berber, and its dialects, the Schellou and the Schoviah., who have given to it the name of Mauritania, and have been by many writers called the MaurusiiMaursii' was the Greek name, 'Mauri' the Latin, for this people. Marcus suggests that Mauri was a synonym only for the Greek word nomades, 'wanderers.'. This nation has been greatly weakened by the disasters of war, and is now dwindled down to a few families onlyAs Marcus observes, Pliny is here greatly in error. On the inroads of Paulinus, the Mauri had retreated into the interior and taken refuge in the deserts of Zahara, whence they had again emerged in the time of the geographer Ptolemy.. Next to the Mauri was formerly the nation of the MassæsyliFrom the time of the second Punic War this people had remained in undisputed possession of the country situate between the rivers Molochath or Moluga and Ampsaga, which formed the Cæsarian Mauritania. Ptolemy speaks of finding some remains of them at Siga, a town situate on a river of the same name, and at which King Syphax had formerly resided.; they in a similar manner have become extinct. Their country is now occupied by the Gætulian nationsWhile Pomponius Mela does not make any difference between the Mauri and the Gætuli, Pliny here speaks of them as being essentially different., the BaniuræDerived, according to Marcus, from the Arabic compound bani-our, 'child of nakedness,' as equivalent to the Greek word gymnetes, by which name Pliny and other ancient writers designate the wandering naked races of Western Africa., the AutololesThe Autololes or, as Ptolemy calls them, the Autolole, dwelt, it is supposed, on the western coast of Africa, between Cape Cantin and Cape Ger. Their city of Autolala or Autolalæ is one of Ptolemy's points of astronomical observation, having the longest day thirteen hours and a half, being distant three hours and a half west of Alexandria, and having the sun vertical once a year, at the time of the winter solstice. Reichard takes it for the modern Agulon or Aquilon., by far the most powerful people among them all, and the Vesuni, who formerly were a part of the Autololes, but have now separated from them, and, turning their steps towards the ÆthiopiansThe Æthiopian Daratitæ, Marcus says., have formed a distinct nation of their own. This province, in the mountainous district which lies on its eastern side produces elephants, as also on the heights of Mount AbylaThe present Ceuta. and among those elevations which, from the similarity of their height, are called the Seven BrothersThey were so called from the circumstance, Marcus says, of their peaks being so numerous, and so strongly resembling each other. They are now called, according to D'Anville, 'Gebel Mousa,' which means "the Mountain of Apes," an animal by which they are now much frequented, instead of by elephants as in Pliny's time.. Joining the range of Abyla these mountains overlook the Straits of Gades. At the extremity of this chain begin the shores of the inland seaOr Mediterranean. and we come to the TamudaThe modern Bedia, according to Olivarius, the Tasanel, according to Dupinet, and the Alamos or Kerkal, according to Ansart. Marcus says that it is called the Setuan, and is the largest stream on the northern shores of Western Africa., a navigable stream, with the site of a former town of the same name, and then the river LaudThe modern Gomera according to Hardouin, the Nocor according to Mannert., which is also navigable for vessels, the town and port of RhysaddirThe modern Melilla most probably., and MalvaneThe modern Maluia. Antoninus calls it Malva, and Ptolemy Maloua., a navigable stream.

The city of SigaIts site is occupied by the modern Aresgol, according to Mariana, Guardia or Sereni according to Dupinet, Ned-Roma according to Mannert and D'Anville, and Tachumbrit according to Shaw. Marcus is inclined to be of the same opinion as the last-mentioned geographer., formerly the residence of King Syphax, lies opposite to that of MalacaNow the city of Malaga. in Spain: it now belongs to the secondMauritania Cæsariensis, or Cæsarian Mauritania, now forming the French province of Algiers. Mauritania. But these countries, I should remark, for a long time retained the names of their respective kings, the further Mauritania being called the "land of Bogud"Bogudiana;" from Bogud or Bogoas. The last king Bogud was deprived of his kingdom by Bocchus, king of Mauritania Cæsariensis, a warm partisan of Cæsar.," while that which is now called Cæsariensis was called the "country of Bocchus." After passing Siga we come to the haven called "Portus MagnusOr the "Great Harbour," now Arzeu according to D'Anville, and Mars-el-Kebir according to Marcus." from its great extent, with a town whose people enjoy the rights of Roman citizens, and then the river MuluchaThe same river probably as the Malva or Malvana previously mentioned, the word mulucha or malacha coming from the Greek molo/xh, "a marsh mallow," which malva, as a Latin word, also signifies. See p. 383., which served as the limit between the territory of Bocchus and that of the Massæsyli. Next to this is Quiza XenitanaFrom the Greek word ce/nos, "a stranger." Pomponius Mela and Antoninus call this place Guiza, and Ptolemy Quisa. D'Anville places it on the right side of the river Malvana or Mulucha, and Shaw says that it was situate in the vicinity of the modern town of Oran., a town founded by strangers, and ArsenariaNow Marz-Agolet, or situate in its vicinity, according to Hardouin and Ansart, and the present Arzen, according to Marcus, where numerous remains of antiquity are found., a place with the ancient Latin rights, three miles distant from the sea. We then come to CartennaNow Tenez, according to D'Anville, and Mesgraïm, according to Mannert; with which last opinion Marcus agrees., a colony founded under Augustus by the second legion, and GunugumPtolemy and Antoninus place this colony to the east of the Promontory of Apollo, and not the west as Pliny does., another colony founded by the same emperor, a prætorian cohort being established there; the Promontory of ApolloThe present Cape Mestagan., and a most celebrated city, now called CæsareaAccording to Dupinet and Mannert, the modern Tenez occupies its site, Zershell according to Hardouin and Shaw, Vacur according to D'Anville and Ansart, and Algiers according to others. It is suggested by Marcus that the name Iol is derived from the Arabic verb galla, "to be noble" or "famous." There is no doubt that the magnificent ruins at Zershell are those of Iol, and that its name is an abbreviation of Cæsarea Iol., but formerly known by the name of Iol; this place was the residence of King Juba, and received the rights of a colony from the now deified Emperor Claudius. Oppidum NovumOr New Town. is the next place; a colony of veterans was established here by command of the same emperor. Next to it is TipasaScylax calls it Thapsus; Ammianus Marcellinus, Tiposa. According to Mannert it was situate in the vicinity of the modern Damas., which has received Latin rights, as also IcasiumOr Icosium. It has been identified by inscriptions discovered by the French as standing on the same site as the modern Algiers. D'Anville, Mannert and others identify it with Scherchell or Zershell, thus placing it too far west. Mannert was evidently misled by an error in the Antonine Itinerary, whereby all the places along this coast are, for a considerable distance, thrown too far to the west; the researches however which followed the French conquest of the country have revealed inscriptions which completely set the question at rest., which has been presented by the Emperor Vespasianus with similar rights; RusconiæAccording to Mannert, this was situate on the modern Cape Arbatel. Marcus thinks that the Hebrew ros, or Arab ras, "a rock," enters into the composition of the word., a colony founded by Augustus; RusucuriumNow Hur according to D'Anville, Colcah according to Mannert., honoured by Claudius with the rights of Roman citizens; RuzacusThe modern Acor, according to Marcus., a colony founded by Augustus; SaldeThe modern Pedeles or Delys, according to Ortellius and Mannert, Tedles according to D'Anville., another colony founded by the same emperor; IgilgiliThe modern Jigeli or Gigeri. It was probably in ancient times the emporium of the surrounding country., another; and the town of TuccaDestroyed, according to Hardouin, and probably by the incursions of the sea. At the mouth of the Ampsaga (now called the Wad-El-Kebir or Sufjimar, and higher up the Wadi Roumel) there is situate a small sea-port called Marsa Zeitoun., situate on the sea-shore and upon the river Ampsaga. In the interior are the colony of Augusta, also called SuccabarNear the present Mazuaa, according to Mannert., TubusuptusThe modern Burgh, according to D'Anville and Mannert, but more probably considerably to the east of that place., the cities of Timici and TigavæThe modern El-Herba, according to Mannert., the rivers SardabalMarcus suggests that this is the Chinalaph of Ptolemy, and probably the modern Schellif., AvesThe same that is called Savis by Ptolemy, who places Icosium on its banks., and NabarBy Mela called the Vabar. Marcus supposes it to be the same as the modern Giffer., the nation of the Macurebi, the river UsarBy Ptolemy called the Sisar; the Ajebbi of modern geographers, which falls into the Mediterranean, near the city of Budja., and the nation of the Nababes. The river Ampsaga is distant from Cæsarea 322Brotier says that this reading is incorrect, and that 222 is the proper one, that being the true distance between the river Ampsaga or Wadel-Kebir and the city of Cæsarea, the modern Zershell. miles. The length of the two Mauritanias is 1038, and their breadth 467 miles.

At the river Ampsaga Numidia begins, a country rendered illustrious by the fame of Masinissa. By the Greeks this region was called MetagonitisIt was not only Numidia that bore this name, but all the northern coast of Africa from the frontiers of the kingdom of Carthage near Hippo Regius to the Columns of Hercules. It was thus called from the Greek metagonos, a "descendant" or "successor;" as the Carthaginians established a number of small towns and villages on the coast, which were thus posterior in their origin to the large cities already founded there.; and the Numidians received the name of "Nomades" from their frequent changes of pasturage; upon which occasions they were accustomed to carryHardouin says that the Moors in the interior still follow the same usage, carrying their houses from pasture to pasture on waggons. their mapalia, or in other words, their houses, upon waggons. The towns of this country are CulluNow Chollum or Collo. and RusicadeThe modern Sgigada or Stora, according to Mannert, D'Anville, and Shaw.; and at a distance of forty-eight miles from the latter, in the interior, is the colony of CirtaThe modern Constantina occupies its site. Numerous remains of the ancient town are still discovered. Sitius was an officer who served under Cæsar, and obtained a grant of this place after the defeat of Juba., surnamed "of the Sitiani;" still more inland is another colony called SiccaCalled Urbs, or Kaff, according to D'Anville and Shaw; the latter of whom found an inscription there with the words Ordo Siccensium., with the free town of Bulla RegiaOr 'Royal Bulla'; which epithet shows that it was either a residence or a foundation of the kings of Numidia, and distinguishes it from a small place called Bulla Mensa, south of Carthage. Bulla Regia was four days' journey south-west of Carthage, on a tributary of the river Bagrada, the valley of which is still called Wad-el-Boul. This place was one of the points of Ptolemy's recorded astronomical observations, having its longest day fourteen hours and one-eighth, and being distant from Alexandria two hours to the west.. On the coast are TacatuaThe modern Tamseh, according to Shaw and Mannert, and Tagodet, according to D'Anville., Hippo RegiusIts ruins are south of the modern Bona. It received the name of Regius or 'Royal' from being the residence of the Numidian kings. It was also famed as being the see of St. Augustine. It was a colony of Tyre, and stood on the bay now forming the Gulf of Bona. It was one of the most flourishing cities of Africa till it was destroyed by the Vandals A.D. 430., the river ArmuaNow the Mafragg, according to Mannert., and the town of TabracaStill called Tabarca, according to Hardouin., with the rights of Roman citizens. The river TuscaNow the Zaina, according to Marcus. forms the boundary of Numidia. This country produces nothing remarkable except its marbleFor the character of the Numidian marble, see Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 7. and wild beasts.

Beyond the river Tusca begins the region of ZeugitanaExtending from the river Tusca, or Zaina, to the northern frontiers of Byzacium. It corresponds with the Turkish province or beylik of Tunis., and that part which properly bears the name of AfricaHe says this not only to distinguish it from Africa, considered as one-third of the globe, but also in contradistinction to the proconsular province of the Roman empire of the same name, which contained not only the province of Zeugitana, but also those of Numidia, Byzacium, and Tripolis.. We here find three promontories; the White PromontoryCandidum: now Ras-el-Abiad., the Promontory of ApollThe references to this headland identify it with Cape Farina, or Ras Sidi Ali-al-Mekhi, and not, as some have thought, the more westerly Cape Zibeeb or Ras Sidi Bou-Shoushe. Shaw however applies the name of Zibeeb to the former., facing Sardinia, and that of MercuryNow Cape Bon, or Ras-Addar., opposite to Sicily. Projecting into the sea these headlands form two gulfs, the first of which bears the name of "Hipponensis" from its proximity to the city called Hippo DirutusMore properly called Hippo Diarrhytus or Zaritus, a Tyrian colony, situate on a large lake which communicated with the sea, and received the waters of another lake. Its situation exposed it to frequent inundations, whence, as the Greeks used to state, the epithet dia/r)r(utos. It seems more probable however that this is the remnant of some Phœnician title, as the ancients were not agreed on the true form of the name, and of this uncertainty we have a further proof in the Hippo Dirutus of our author., a corruption of the Greek name Diarrhytus, which it has received from the channels made for irrigation. Adjacent to this place, but at a greater distance from the sea-shore, is TheudalisThis is placed by Ptolemy to the south-east of Hippo, and near the southern extremity of Lake Sisar., a town exempt from tribute. We then come to the Promontory of Apollo, and upon the second gulf, we find UticaThis important city stood on the north part of the Carthaginian Gulf, west of the mouth of the Bagrada, and twenty-seven Roman miles N.W. of Carthage; but the site of its ruins at the modern Bou-Shater is now inland, in consequence of the changes made by the Bagrada in the coast-line. In the Third Punic war Utica took part with the Romans against Carthage, and was rewarded with the greater part of the Carthaginian territory., a place enjoying the rights of Roman citizens, and famous for the death of Cato; the river BagradaNow called the Mejerdah, and though of very inconsiderable size, the chief river of the Carthaginian territory. The main stream is formed by the union of two branches, the southern of which, the ancient Bagrada, is now called the Mellig, and in its upper course the Meskianah. The other branch is called the Hamiz., the place called Castra CorneliaOr the "Cornelian Camp." The spot where Cornelius Scipio Africa- nus the Elder first encamped, on landing in Africa, B.C. 204. Cæsar describes this spot, in his description of Curio's operations against Utica, B. C. b. ii. c. 24, 25. This spot is now called Ghellah., the co- lonyThis colony was first established by Caius Gracchus, who sent 6000 settlers to found on the site of Carthage the new city of Junonia. The Roman senate afterwards annulled this with the other acts of Gracchus. Under Augustus however the new city of Carthage was founded, which, when Strabo wrote, was as prosperous as any city in Africa. It was made, in place of Utica, which had favoured the Pompeian party, the seat of the proconsul of Old Africa. It stood on the peninsula terminated by Ras-Sidi-Bou-Said, Cape Carthage or Carthagena. As Gibbon has remarked, "The place might be unknown if some broken arches of an aqueduct did not guide the footsteps of the inquisitive traveller." of Carthage, founded upon the remains of Great CarthageThe original city of Carthage was called 'Carthago Magna' to distinguish it from New Carthage and Old Carthage, colonies in Spain., the colony of MaxulaNow Rhades, according to Marcus., the towns of CarpiMarcus identifies it with the modern Gurtos., Misua, and ClypeaBy the Greeks called 'Aspis.' It derived its Greek and Roman names from its site on a hill of a shield-like shape. It was built by Agathocles, the Sicilian, B.C. 310. In the first Punic war it was the landing-place of Manlius and Regulus, whose first action was to take it, B.C. 256. Its site is still known as Kalebiah, and its ruins are peculiarly interesting. The site of Misua is occupied by Sidi-Doud, according to Shaw and D'Anville., the last a free town, on the Promontory of Mercury; also Curubis, a free townShaw informs us that an inscription found on the spot designates this place as a colony, not a free city or town. Its present name is Kurbah., and NeapolisThe present Nabal, according to D'Anville..

Here commences the second divisionZeugitana extended from the river Tusca to Horrea-Cælia, and Byzacium from this last place to Thenæ. of Africa properly so called. Those who inhabit Byzacium have the name of LibyphœnicesAs sprung partly from the Phœnician immigrants, and partly from the native Libyans or Africans.. Byzacium is the name of a district which is 250 miles in circumference, and is remarkable for its extreme fertility, as the ground returns the seed sown by the husbandman with interest a hundred-foldPliny says, B. xvii. c. 3, "A hundred and fifty fold." From Shaw we learn that this fertility no longer exists, the fields producing not more than eight- or at most twelve-fold.. Here are the free towns of LeptisThe modern Lempta occupies its site., AdrumetumOriginally a Phœnician colony, older than Carthage. It was the capital of Byzacium, and stood within the southern extremity of the Sinus Neapolitanus or Gulf of Hammamet. Trajan made it a colony, under the high-sounding name, as we gather from inscriptions, of Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetana, or, as set forth on coins, Colonia Concordia Julia Hadrumetana Pia. The epithet Frugifera refers to the fact that it was one of the chief sea-ports for the corn-producing country of Byzacium. It was destroyed by the Vandals, but restored by the Emperor Justinian under the name of Justiniana or Justinianopolis. The modern Sousa stands on its site; and but slight traces of the ancient city are to be found., RuspinaSituate in the vicinity of the modern Monastir., and ThapsusShaw discovered its ruins at the modern town of Demas.; and then ThenæNow Taineh, according to D'Anville. This place formed the boundary between the proconsular province of Africa and the territory of the Numidian king Masinissa and his descendants., MacomadesThe present Mahometa, according to Marcus, El Mahres according to D'Anville., TacapeNow Cabès, according to D'Anville, giving name to the Gulf of Cabès. Marcus calls it Gaps., and SabrataNow Tripoli Vecchio; also called Sabart according to D'Anville. which touches on the Lesser Syrtis; to which spot, from the Ampsaga, the length of Numidia and Africa is 580 miles, and the breadth, so far as it has been ascertained, 200. That portion which we have called Africa is divided into two provinces, the Old and the New; these are separated by a dyke which was made by order of the second Scipio AfricanusScipio Æmilianus, the son-in-law of Æmilius Paulus. and the kingsMicipsa, the son of Masinissa, and his two legitimate brethren. Scipio having been left by Masinissa executor of his will, the sovereign power was divided by him between Micipsa and his two brethren Gulussa and Mastanabal. On this occasion also he separated Numidia from Zeugitana and Byzacium, by a long dyke drawn from Thenæ, due south, to the borders of the Great Desert, and thence in a north-westerly direction to the river Tusca., and extended to Thenæ, which town is distant from Carthage 216 miles.

A third Gulf is divided into two smaller ones, those of the two SyrtesThe Syrtes or 'Quicksands' are now called, the Lesser Syrtes the Gulf of Cabès, and the Greater the Gulf of Sydra. The country situate between the two Syrtes is called Tripoli, formerly Tripolis, a name which, according to Solinus, it owed to its three cities, Sabrata, Leptis, and Œa., which are rendered perilous by the shallows of their quicksands and the ebb and flow of the sea. Polybius states the distance from Carthage to the Lesser Syrtis, the one which is nearest to it, to be 300 miles. The inlet to it he also states to be 100 miles across, and its circumference 300. There is also a wayMarcus observes with reference to this passage, that both Hardouin and Poinsinet have mistaken its meaning. They evidently think that Pliny is speaking here of a route to the Syrtes leading from the interior of Africa, whereas it is pretty clear that he is speaking of the dangers which attend those who approach it by the line of the sea-coast, as Cato did, on his march to Utica, so beautifully described by Lucan in his Ninth Book. This is no doubt the same route which was taken by the caravans on their passage from Lebida, the ancient Leptis, to Berenice in Cyrenaica. to it by land, to find which we must employ the guidance of the stars and cross deserts which present nothing but sand and serpents. After passing these we come to forests filled with vast multitudes of wild beasts and elephants, then desert wastesThose which we find at the middle of the coast bordering upon the Greater Syrtis, and which separate the mountains of Fezzan and Atlas from Cyrenaïca and Barca., and beyond them the GaramantesIn its widest sense this name is applied to all the Libyan tribes inhabiting the Oases on the eastern part of the Great Desert, as the Gætulians inhabited its western part, the boundary between the two nations being drawn at the sources of the Bagrada and the mountain Usargala. In the stricter sense however, and in which the term must be here understood, the name 'Garamantes' denoted the people of Phazania, the modern Fezzan, which forms by far the largest oasis in the Grand Desert of Zahara., distant twelve days' journey from the AugylæAugylæ, now Aujelah, was an oasis in the desert of Barca, in the region of Cyrenaica, about 3 1/2° south of Cyrene. It has been remarked that Pliny, here and in the Eighth Chapter of the present Book, in abridging the account given by Herodotus of the tribes of Northern Africa, has transferred to the Augylæ what that author really says of the Nasamones. This oasis forms one of the chief stations on the caravan route from Cairo to Fezzan. It is placed by Rennell in 30°3′ North Lat. and 22°46′ East Long., 180 miles south-east of Barca, 180 west by north of Siwah, the ancient Ammonium, and 426 east by north of Mourzouk. Later authorities, however, place the village of Aujelah in 29°15′ North Lat. and 21°55′ East Long.. Above the Garamantes was formerly the na- tion of the PsylliFor an account of the Psylli see B. vii. c. 2. They probably dwelt in the vicinity of the modern Cape Mesurata., and above them again the Lake of LycomedesNow Lake Lynxama, according to Marcus., surrounded with deserts. The Augylæ themselves are situate almost midway between Æthiopia which faces the westMarcus observes that in order properly to understand this passage we must remember that the ancients considered Africa as terminating north of the Equator, and imagined that from the Straits of Hercules the western coast of Africa ran, not towards the south-west, but slanted in a southeasterly direction to the Straits of Babelmandel., and the region which lies betweenThe modern Tripoli. the two Syrtes, at an equal distance from both. The distance along the coast that lies between the two Syrtes is 250 miles. On it are found the city of ŒaA flourishing city with a mixed population of Libyans and Sicilians. It was at this place that Apuleius made his eloquent and ingenious defence against the charge of sorcery brought against him by his step-sons. According to some writers the modern Tripoli is built on its site, while other accounts make it to have been situate six leagues from that city., the river CinypsNow called the Wady-el-Quaham., and the country of that name, the towns of NeapolisMannert is of opinion that this was only another name for the city of Leptis Magna or the "Greater Leptis" here mentioned by Pliny. There is little doubt that his supposition is correct., GrapharaThe more common reading is Taphra or Taphara. D'Anville identifies it with the town of Sfakes., and AbrotonumScylax identifies it with Neapolis or Leptis, and it is generally looked upon as being the same place as Sabrata or Old Tripoli., and the second, surnamed the Greater, LeptisNow called Lebida. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Septimius Severus. It was almost destroyed by an attack from a Libyan tribe A.D. 366, and its ruin was completed by the invasion of the Arabs. Its ruins are considerable..

We next come to the Greater Syrtis, 625 miles in circumference, and at the entrance 312 miles in width; next after which dwells the nation of the Cisippades. At the bottom of this gulf was the coast of the Lotophagi, whom some writers have called the AlachroæMen of sea complexion," is the meaning of this Greek name. According to Marcus they dwelt between the Greater Leptis and the Lake Tritonis, at the present day called Schibkah-el-Loudeah. For a further account of the Lotophagi, see B. xiii. c. 32., extending as far as the Altars of the PhilæniTwo brothers, citizens of Carthage, who in a dispute as to their respective territories with the people of Cyrene, submitted to be buried alive in the sand, at the boundary-line between the two countries. Sallust (Jugurthine War) is the main authority for the story. It is also related by Pomponius Mela, B. i. c. 7, and Valerius Maximus, B. v. c. 6, but from the Greek name of the brothers, meaning "lovers of praise," it is doubtful whether the story is not of spurious origin.; these Altars are formed of heaps of sand. On passing these, not far from the shore there is a vast swampThe Lake Tritonis mentioned in note11, p. 393. which receives the river TritonNow called El Hammah, according to Shaw. and from it takes its name: by Callimachus it is called PallantiasAccording to some accounts the goddess Pallas or Minerva was born on the banks of Lake Tritonis., and is said by him to be on the nearer side of the Lesser Syrtis; many other writers however place it between the two Syrtes. The promontory which bounds the Greater Syrtis has the name of BorionThe modern Cape of Tajuni.; beyond it is the province of Cyrene.

Africa, from the river Ampsaga to this limit, includes 516 peoples, who are subject to the Roman sway, of which six are colonies; among them UthinaNow called Udina, according to Marcus. and TuburbiNow called Tabersole, according to Marcus., besides those already mentioned. The towns enjoying the rights of Roman citizens are fifteen in number, of which I shall mention, as lying in the interior, those of AssuræIn the north of Byzacium, near the Bagrada and the confines of Numidia. It was the station of a Roman garrison, and considerable remains of it are still visible near the modern Zanfour., Abutucum, Aborium, CanopicumCalled Cannopissæ by Ptolemy, who places it to the east of Tabraca., CilmaThere is great doubt as to the correct orthography of these places, most of which can be no longer identified., Simithium, Thunusidium, Tuburnicum, Tynidrumum, Tibiga, the two towns called Ucita, the Greater and the Lesser, and vaga. There is also one town with Latin rights, Uzalita by name, and one town of tributaries, Castra CorneliaAccording to Marcus the present Porto Tarina.. The free towns are thirty in number, among which we may mention, in the interior, those of AchollaAlso called Achilla and Achulla, the ruins of which are to be seen at the modern El Aliah. It stood on the sea-coast of Byzacium, a little above the northern extremity of the Lesser Syrtis. It was a colony from the island of Melita, now Malta., Aggarita, Avina, Abzirita, Cano- pita, Melizita, Matera, Salaphita, TusdritaNow called El-Jemma, according to Marcus., Tiphica, TunicaFrom it modern Tunis takes its name., Theuda, TagastaThe birth-place of St. Augustin. It was to the north-west of Hippo Regius., TigaIn the vicinity of this place, if it is the same as the Tigisis mentioned by Procopius, there were two columns to be seen in his day, upon which was written in the Phœnician language, "We fled from before the robber, Joshua the son of Nun.", Ulusubrita, a second Vaga, Visa, and ZamaThere were two towns of this name in the proconsular province of Africa. The first was situate in the country of Zeugitana, five days' journey west of Carthage, and it was here that Scipio defeated Hannibal. The other bore the surname of Regia or Royal, from being the frequent residence of the Numidian kings. It lay in the interior, and at the present day its site bears the name of 'Zowarin' or 'Zewarin.'. Of the remaining number, most of them should be called, in strictness, not only cities, but nations even; such for instance as the Natabudes, the CapsitaniThe ruins of Capsa still bear the name of Cafsa or Ghafsah. It was an important city in the extreme south of Numidia, situate in an oasis, in the midst of an arid desert abounding in serpents. In the Jugurthine war it was the treasury of Jugurtha, and was taken and destroyed by Marius; but was afterwards rebuilt and made a colony., the Musulami, the Sabarbares, the MassyliThey dwelt between the river Ampsaga or Wady-El-Kebir and the Tusca or Wady-Zain, the western boundary of the Carthaginian territory., the Nisives, the Vamacures, the Cinithi, the Musuni, the MarchubiiDwelling to the east of the mountain Zalycus, now known as the Wanashrise, according to Shaw., and the whole of GætuliaThe ancients called by the name of 'Gætulians' all the people of Africa who dwelt south of the Mauritanias and Numidia, as far as the line which, according to their ideas, separated Africa from Æthiopia., as far as the river NigrisThe Quorra most probably of modern geographers., which separates Africa proper from Æthiopia.

The region of Cyrenaica, also called PentapolisSo called, as mentioned below, from its five principal cities., is rendered famous by the oracle of HammonWhere Jupiter Ammon or Hammon was worshiped under the form of a ram, the form he was said to have assumed when the deities were dispersed in the war with the Giants. Ancient Ammonium is the present oasis of Siwah in the Libyan Desert., which is distant 400 miles from the city of Cyrene; also by the Fountain of the SunThe same that has been already mentioned in B. ii. c. 106. It is mentioned by Herodotus and Pomponius Mela. there, and five cities in especial, those of BerenicePreviously called Hesperis or Hesperides. It was the most westerly city of Cyrenaica, and stood just beyond the eastern extremity of the Greater Syrtis, on a promontory called Pseudopenias, and near the river Lethon. Its historical importance only dates from the times of the Ptolemies, when it was named Berenice, after the wife of Ptolemy III. or Euergetes. Having been greatly reduced, it was fortified anew by the Emperor Justinian. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Ben Ghazi., ArsinoëSo called from Arsinoë, the sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Its earlier name was Taucheira or Teucheira, which name, according to Marcus, it still retains., PtolemaisIts ruins may still be seen at Tolmeita or Tolometa. It was situate on the N.W. coast of Cyrenaica, and originally bore the name of Barca. From which of the Ptolemies it took its name is not known. Its splendid ruins are not less than four miles in circumference., ApolloniaIts ruins are still to be seen, bespeaking its former splendour, at the modern Marsa Sousah. It was originally only the port of Cyrene, but under the Ptolemies it flourished to such an extent as to eclipse that city. It is pretty certain that it was the Sozusa of the later Greek writers. Eratosthenes was a native of this place., and CyreneThe chief city of Cyrenaica, and the most important Hellenic colony in Africa, the early settlers having extensively intermarried with wives of Libyan parentage. In its most prosperous times it maintained an extensive commerce with Greece and Egypt, especially in silphium or assafœtida, the plantations of which, as mentioned in the present chapter, extended for miles in its vicinity. Great quantities of this plant were also exported to Capua in Southern Italy, where it was extensively employed in the manufacture of perfumes. The scene of the 'Rudens,' the most picturesque (if we may use the term) of the plays of Plautus, is laid in the vicinity of Cyrene, and frequent reference is made in it to the extensive cultivation of silphium; a head of which plant also appears on the coins of the place. The philosophers Aristippus and Carneades were born here, as also the poet Callimachus. Its ruins, at the modern Ghrennah, are very extensive, and are indicative of its former splendour. itself. Berenice is situate upon the outer promontory that bounds the Syrtis; it was formerly called the city of the Hesperides (previously mentionedIn C. 1 of the present Book. It was only the poetical fancy of the Greeks that found the fabled gardens of the Hesperides in the fertile regions of Cyrenaica. Scylax distinctly mentions the gardens and the lake of the Hesperides in this vicinity, where we also find a people called Hesperidæ, or, as Herodotus names them, Euesperidæ. It was probably in consequence of this similarity of name, in a great degree, that the gardens of the Hesperidcs were assigned to this locality.), according to the fables of the Greeks, which very often change their localities. Not far from the city, and running before it, is the river Lethon, and with it a sacred grove, where the gardens of the Hesperides are said to have formerly stood; this city is distant from Leptis 375 miles. From Berenice to Arsinoë, commonly called Teuchira, is forty-three miles; after which, at a distance of twenty-two, we come to Ptolemais, the ancient name of which was Barce; and at a distance of forty miles from this last the Promontory of PhycusNow called Ras-Sem or Ras-El-Kazat. It is situate a little to the west of Apollonia and N.W. of Cyrene., which extends far away into the Cretan Sea, being 350 miles distant from TænarumAccording to Ansart, 264 miles is the real distance between Capes Ras-Sem and Tænarum or Matapan., the promontory of Laconia, and from Crete 225. After passing this promontory we come to Cyrene, which stands at a distance of eleven miles from the sea. From Phycus to ApolloniaAs already mentioned, Apollonia formed the harbour of Cyrene. is twenty-four miles, and from thence to the ChersonesusThis was called the Chersonesus Magna, being so named in contradistinction to the Chersonesus Parva, on the coast of Egypt, about thirty-five miles west of Alexandria. It is now called Ras-El-Tin, or more commonly Raxatin. eighty-eight; from which to CatabathmosSo called from the peculiar features of the locality, the Greek word katabaqmo\s, signifying "a descent." A deep valley, bounded east and west by ranges of high hills, runs from this spot to the frontiers of Egypt. It is again mentioned by Pliny at the end of the present Chapter. The spot is still known by a similar name, being called Marsa Sollern, or the "Port of the Ladder." In earlier times the Egyptian territory ended at the Gulf of Plinthinethes, now Lago Segio, and did not extend so far as Catabathmos. is a distance of 216 miles. The MarmaridæThis name was unknown to Herodotus. As Marcus observes, it was probably of Phœnician origin, signifying "leading a wandering life," like the term "nomad," derived from the Greek. inhabit this coast, extending from almost the region of ParætoniumNow called El Bareton or Marsa-Labeit. This city was of considerable importance, and belonged properly to Marmaria, but was included politically in the Nomos Libya of Egypt. It stood near the promontory of Artos or Pythis, now Ras-El-Hazeit. to the Greater Syrtis; after them the Ararauceles, and then, upon the coasts of the Syrtis, the NasamonesSo called from the words Matû-Ammon, "the tribe of Ammon," according to Bochart. The Nasamones were a powerful but savage people of Libya, who dwelt originally on the shores of the Greater Syrtis, but were driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterwards by the Romans., whom the Greeks formerly called Mesammones, from the circumstance of their being located in the very midst of sandsFrom meso\s "the middle," and a)/mmos "sand.". The territory of Cyrene, to a distance of fifteen miles from the shore, is said to abound in trees, while for the same distance beyond that district it is only suitable for the cultivation of corn: after which, a tract of land, thirty miles in breadth and 250 in length, is productive of nothing but laser [or silphiumSee note6 in p. 396.].

After the Nasamones we come to the dwellings of the Asbystæ and the MacæHerodotus places this nation to the west of the Nasamones and on the river Cinyps, now called the Wadi-Quaham., and beyond them, at eleven days' journey to the west of the Greater Syrtis, the AmantesIn most of the editions they are called 'Hammanientes.' It has been suggested that they were so called from the Greek word a)/mmos "sand.", a people also surrounded by sands in every direction. They find water however without any difficulty at a depth mostly of about two cubits, as their district receives the overflow of the waters of Mauritania. They build houses with blocks of saltThis story he borrows from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 158., which they cut out of their mountains just as we do stone. From this nation to the TroglodytæFrom the Greek word trwglodu/tai, "dwellers in caves." Pliny has used the term already (B. iv. c. 25) in reference to the nations on the banks of the Danube. It was a general name applied by the Greek geographers to various uncivilized races who had no abodes but caves, and more especially to the inhabitants of the western coasts of the Red Sea, along the shores of Upper Egypt and Æthiopia. the distance is seven days' journey in a south-westerly direction, a people with whom our only intercourse is for the purpose of procuring from them the precious stone which we call the carbuncle, and which is brought from the interior of Æthiopia. Upon the road to this last people, but turning off towards the deserts of Africa, of which we have previouslyAt the beginning of C. 4. made mention as lying beyond the Lesser Syrtis, is the region of PhazaniaWhich gives name to the modern Fezzan.; the nation of Phazanii, belonging to which, as well as the cities of AleleNow called Tanet-Mellulen, or the station of Mellulen, on the route from Gadamez to Oserona. and CillibaZaouila or Zala, half way between Augyla and Mourzouk., we have subdued by force of arms, as also CydamusNow Gadamez, which, according to Marcus, is situate almost under the same meridian as Old Tripoli, the ancient Sabrata., which lies over against Sabrata. After passing these places a range of mountains extends in a prolonged chain from east to west: these have received from our people the name of the Black MountainsAccording to Marcus this range still bears the name of Gibel-Assoud, which in the Arabic language means the "Black Mountain.", either from the appearance which they naturally bear of having been exposed to the action of fire, or else from the fact that they have been scorched by the reflection of the sun's rays. Beyond itIn a southerly direction. He alludes probably to the Desert of Bildulgerid. is the desert, and then Talgæ, a city of the Garamantes, and Debris, at which place there is a springThis spring is also mentioned by Pliny in B. ii. c. 106. Marcus suggests that the Debris of Pliny is the same as the Bedir of Ptolemy. He also remarks that the English traveller Oudney discovered caverns hewn out of the sides of the hills, evidently for the purposes of habitation, but of which the use is not known by the present people. These he considers to have been the abodes of the ancient Troglodytæ or "cave-dwellers." In the Tibesti range of mountains, however, we find a race called the Rock Tibboos, from the circumstance of their dwelling in caves., the waters of which, from noon to midnight, are at boiling heat, and then freeze for as many hours until the following noon; Garama too, that most famous capital of the Garamantes; all which places have been subdued by the Roman arms. It was on this occasion that Cornelius BalbusCornelius Balbus Gaditanus the Younger, who, upon his victories over the Garamantes, obtained a triumph in the year B.C. 19. was honoured with a triumph, the only foreigner indeed that was ever honoured with the triumphal chariot, and presented with the rights of a Roman citizen; for, although by birth a native of Gades, the Roman citizenship was granted to him as well as to the elder BalbusL. Cornelius Balbus the Elder, also at native of Gades. He obtained the consulship in B.C. 40, the first instance, as we find mentioned by Pliny, B. vii. c. 44, in which this honour had been conferred upon one who was not a Roman citizen., his uncle by the father's side. There is also this remarkable circumstance, that our writers have handed down to us the names of the cities above-men- tioned as having been taken by Balbus, and have informed us that on the occasion of his triumphOn the occasion of a triumph by a Roman general, boards were carried aloft on "fercula," on which were painted in large letters the names of vanquished nations and countries. Here too models were exhibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and pictures of the mountains, rivers, and other great natural features of the subjugated region, with appropriate inscriptions. Marcus is of opinion that the names of the places here mentioned do not succeed in any geographical order, but solely according to their presumed importance as forming part of the conquest of Balbus. He also thinks that Balbus did not penetrate beyond the fifteenth degree of north latitude, and that his conquests did not extend so far south as the banks of Lake Tchad., besides Cydamus and GaramaThe site of Garama still bears the name of 'Gherma,' and presents very considerable remains of antiquity. It is four days' journey north of Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan., there were carried in the procession the names and models of all the other nations and cities, in the following order: the town of TabudiumNow Tibesti, according to Marcus., the nation of Niteris, the town of Nigligemella, the nation or town of BubeiumMarcus suggests that this is probably the Febabo of modem geographers, to the N.E. of Belma and Tibesti., the nation of Enipi, the town of Thuben, the mountain known as the Black Mountain, Nitibrum, the towns called Rapsa, the nation of DisceraDiscera was the Im-Zerah of modern travellers, on the road from Sockna to Mourzouk, according to Marcus, who is of opinion that the places which follow were situate at the east and north-east of Thuben and the Black Mountain., the town of DebrisOm-El-Abid, to the N.W. of Garama or Gherma, according to Marcus, and Oudney the traveller., the river NathaburThe same, Marcus thinks, as the modem Tessava in Fezzan., the town of ThapsagumMarcus suggests that this may be the modern Sana., the nation of Nannagi, the town of Boin, the town of PegeThe town of Winega mentioned by Oudney, was probably the ancient Pega, according to Marcus., the river Dasibari; and then the towns, in the following order, of Baracum, Buluba, Alasit, Galia, Balla, MaxallaThe modern Missolat, according to Marcus, on the route from Tripoli to Murmuck., Zizama, and Mount GyriAccording to Marcus, this was the Mount Goriano of the English travellers Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, where, confirming the statement here made by Pliny, they found quartz, jasper, onyx, agates, and cornelians., which was preceded by an inscription stating that this was the place where precious stones were produced.

Up to the present time it has been found impracticable to keep open the road that leads to the country of the Garamantes, as the predatory bands of that nation have filled up the wells with sand, which do not require to be dug for to any great depth, if you only have a knowledge of the locality. In the late warMentioned by Tacitus, B. iv. c. 50. The town of Œa has been alluded to by Pliny in C. 4. however, which, at the beginning of the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, the Romans carried on with the people of Œa, a short cut of only four days' journey was discovered; this road is known as the "Pæter Caput SaxiPast the head of the rock." Marcus suggests that this is the Gibel-Gelat or Rock of Gelat spoken of by the English travellers Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, forming a portion of the chain of Guriano or Gyr. He says, that at the foot of this mountain travellers have to pass from Old and New Tripoli on their road to Missolat, the Maxala of Pliny, and thence to Gerama or Gherma, the ancient capital of Fezzan.." The last place in the territory of Cyrenaica is Catabathmos, consisting of a town, and a valley with a sudden and steep descent. The length of Cyrenean Africa, up to this boundary from the Lesser Syrtis, is 1060 miles; and, so far as has been ascertained, it is 800As Marcus observes, this would not make it to extend so far south as the sixteenth degree of north latitude. in breadth.

The region that follows is called Libya MareotisThe Mareotis of the time of the Ptolemies extended from Alexandria to the Gulf of Plinthinethes; and Libya was properly that portion of territory which extended from that Gulf to Catabathmos. Pliny is in error here in confounding the two appellations, or rather, blending them into one. It includes the eastern portion of the modern Barca, and the western division of Lower Egypt. It most probably received its name from the Lake Mareotis, and not the lake from it., and borders upon Egypt. It is held by the Marmaridæ, the Adyrmachidæ, and, after them, the Mareotœ. The distance from Catabathmos to Parætonium is eighty-six miles. In this district is ApisThis was a seaport town on the northern coast of Africa, probably about eleven or twelve miles west of Parætonium, sometimes spoken of as belonging to Egypt, sometimes to Marmorica. Scylax places it at the western boundary of Egypt, on the frontier of the Marmaridæ. Ptolemy, like Pliny, speaks of it as being in the Libyan Nomos. The distances given in the MSS. of Pliny of this place from Parætonium are seventy-two, sixty-two, and twelve miles; the latter is probably the correct reading, as Strabc, B. xvii., makes the distance 100 stadia. It is extremely doubtful whether the Apis mentioned by Herodotus, B. ii. c. 18, can be the same place: but there is little doubt, from the words of Pliny here, that it was dedicated to the worship of the Egyptian god Apis, who was represented under the form of a bull., a place rendered famous by the religious belief of Egypt. From this town Parætonium is distant sixty-two miles, and from thence to Alexandria the distance is 200 miles, the breadth of the district being 169. Eratosthenes says that it is 525 miles by land from Cyrene to Alexandria; while Agrippa gives the length of the whole of Africa from the Atlantic Sea, and including Lower Egypt, as 3040 miles. Polybius and Eratosthenes, who are generally considered as remarkable for their extreme correctness, state the length to be, from the ocean to Great Carthage 1100 miles, and from Carthage to Canopus, the nearest mouth of the Nile, 1628 miles; while Isidorus speaks of the distance from Tingi to Canopus as being 3599 miles. Artemidorus makes this last distance forty miles less than Isidorus.

These seas contain not so very many islands. The most famous among them is MeninxNow called Zerbi and Jerba, derived from the name of Girba, which even in the time of Aurelius Victor, had supplanted that of Meninx. It is situate in the Gulf of Cabes. According to Solinus, C. Marius lay in concealment here for some time. It was famous for its purple. See B. ix. c. 60., twenty-five miles in length and twenty-two in breadth: by Eratosthenes it is called Lotophagitis. This island has two towns, Meninx on the side which faces Africa, and Troas on the other; it is situate off the promontory which lies on the right-hand side of the Lesser Syrtis, at a distance of a mile and a half. One hundred miles from this island, and opposite the promontory that lies on the left, is the free island of CercinaNow called Kerkéni, Karkenah, or Ramlah., with a city of the same name. It is twenty-five miles long, and half that breadth at the place where it is the widest, but not more than five miles across at the extremity: the diminutive island of CercinitisNow Gherba. It was reckoned as a mere appendage to Cercina, to which it was joined by a mole, and which is found often mentioned in history., which looks towards Carthage, is united to it by a bridge. At a distance of nearly fifty miles from these is the island of LopadusaStill called Lampedusa, off the coast of Tunis. This island, with Gaulos and Galata, has been already mentioned among the islands off Sicily; see B. iii. c. 14., six miles in length; and beyond it Gaulos and Galata, the soil of which kills the scorpion, that noxious reptile of Africa. It is also said that the scorpion will not live at Clypea; opposite to which place lies the island of CosyraNow Pantellaria. See B. iii. c. 14., with a town of the same name. Opposite to the Gulf of Carthage are the two islands known as the ÆgimuriA lofty island surrounded by dangerous cliffs, now called Zowamour or Zembra.; the AltarsIn the former editions the word "Aræ" is taken to refer to the Ægimuri, as meaning the same islands. Sillig is however of opinion that totally distinct groups are meant, and punctuates accordingly. The "Aræ" were probably mere rocks lying out at sea, which received their name from their fancied resemblance to altars. They are mentioned by Virgil in the Æneid, B. i. l. 113, upon which lines Servius says, that they were so called because there the Romans and the people of Africa on one occasion made a treaty., which are rather rocks than islands, lie more between Sicily and Sardinia. There are some authors who state that these rocks were once inhabited, but that they have gradually subsided in the sea.

If we pass through the interior of Africa in a southerly direction, beyond the Gætuli, after having traversed the intervening deserts, we shall find, first of all the Liby- EgyptiansThe greater portion of this Chapter is extracted almost verbatim from the account given by Mela. Ptolemy seems to place the Liby-Egyptians to the south of the Greater and Lesser Oasis, on the route thence to Darfour., and then the country where the Leucæthio- piansOr "White Æthiopians," men though of dark complexion, not negroes. Marcus is of opinion that the words "intervenientibus desertis" refer to the tract of desert country lying between the Leucæthiopians and the Liby-Egyptians, and not to that between the Gætulians on the one hand and the Liby-Egyptians and the Leucæthiopians on the other. dwell. BeyondMeaning to the south and the south-east of these three nations, according to Marcus. Rennel takes the Leucæthiopians to be the present Mandingos of higher Senegambia: Marcus however thinks that they are the Azanaghis, who dwell on the edge of the Great Desert, and are not of so black a complexion as the Mandingos. these are the NigritæProbably the people of the present Nigritia or Soudan., nations of Æthiopia, so called from the river NigrisMarcus is of opinion that Pliny does not here refer to the Joliba of Park and other travellers, as other commentators have supposed; but that he speaks of the river called Zis by the modern geographers, and which Jackson speaks of as flowing from the south-east towards north-west. The whole subject of the Niger is however enwrapped in almost impenetrable obscurity, and as the most recent inquirers have not come to any conclusion on the subject, it would be little more than a waste of time and space to enter upon an investigation of the notions which Pliny and Mela entertained on the subject., which has been previously mentioned, the GymnetesFrom gumno\s, "naked.", surnamed Pharusii, and, on the very margin of the ocean, the PerorsiMentioned in C. 1 of the present Book., whom we have already spoken of as lying on the boundaries of Mauritania. After passing all these peoples, there are vast deserts towards the east until we come to the Garamantes, the Augylæ, and the Troglodytæ; the opinion of those being exceedingly well founded who place two Æthiopias beyond the deserts of Africa, and more particularly that expressed by Homer7 He refers to the words in the Odyssey, B. i. l. 23, 24.— Ai)qi/opas toi\ di/xqa dedaia/tai, e)/sxatoi a)/ndrwn) Oi( me\n dusome/nou (Uperi/onos, oi( d) a)nio/ntos. "The Æhiopians, the most remote of mankind, are divided into two parts, the one at the setting of Hyperion, the other at his rising.", who tells us that the Æthiopians are divided into two nations, those of the east and those of the west. The river Nigris has the same characteristics as the Nile; it produces the calamus, the papyrus, and just the same animals, and it rises at the same seasons of the year. Its source is between the Tarrælian Æthiopians and the Œcalicæ. Magium, the city of the latter people, has been placed by some writers amid the deserts, and, next to them the Atlantes; then the Ægipani, half men, half beasts, the BlemmyæA tribe of Æthiopia, whose position varied considerably at different epochs of history. Their predatory and savage habits caused the most extraordinary reports to be spread of their appearance and ferocity. The more ancient geographers bring them as far westward as the region beyond the Libyan Desert, and into the vicinity of the Oases. In the time however of the Antonines, when Ptolemy was composing his description of Africa, they appear to the south and east of Egypt, in the wide and almost unknown tract which lay between the rivers Astapus and Astobores., the Gamphasantes, the Satyri, and the Himantopodes.

The AtlantesMela speaks of this race as situate farthest to the west. The description of them here given is from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 183–185, who speaks of them under the name of "Atarantes.", if we believe what is said, have lost all characteristics of humanity; for there is no mode of distinguishing each other among them by names, and as they look upon the rising and the setting sun, they give utterance to direful imprecations against it, as being deadly to themselves and their lands; nor are they visited with dreamsThe people who are visited by no dreams, are called Atlantes by Herodotus, the same name by which Pliny calls them. He says that their territory is ten days' journey from that of the Atarantes., like the rest of mortals. The Troglodytæ make excavations in the earth, which serve them for dwellings; the flesh of serpents is their food; they have no articulate voice, but only utter a kind of squeaking noiseThis also is borrowed from Herodotus. As some confirmation of this account, it is worthy of remark, that the Rock Tibboos of the present day, who, like the ancient Troglodytæ, dwell in caves, have so peculiar a kind of speech, that it is compared by the people of Aujelah to nothing but the whistling of birds. The Troglodytæ of Fezzan are here referred to, not those of the coasts of the Red Sea.; and thus are they utterly destitute of all means of communication by language. The Garamantes have no institution of marriage among them, and live in promiscuous concubinage with their women. The Augylæ worship no deitiesMela says that they look upon the Manes or spirits of the departed as their only deities. but the gods of the infernal regions. The Gamphasantes, who go naked, and are unacquainted with warThis is said, in almost the same words, of the Garamantes, by Herodotus. The mistake was probably made by Mela in copying from Herodotus, and continued by Pliny when borrowing from him., hold no intercourse whatever with strangers. The Blemmyæ are said to have no heads, their mouths and eyes being seated in their breasts. The SatyriSo called from their supposed resemblance in form to the Satyrs of the ancient mythology, who were represented as little hairy men with horns, long ears, and tails. They were probably monkeys, which had been mistaken for men., beyond their figure, have nothing in common with the manners of the human race, and the form of the ÆgipaniHalf goat, half man. See the Note relative to Ægipan, in C. 1 of the present Book, p. 378. is such as is commonly represented in paintings. The HimantopodesEvidently intended to be derived from the Greek i(ma\s "a thong," and po/des "the feet." It is most probable that the name of a savage people in the interior bore a fancied resemblance to this word, upon which the marvellous story here stated was coined for the purpose of tallying with the name. From a statement in the Æthiopica of Heliodorus, B. x., Marcus suggests that the story as to the Blemmyee having no heads arose from the circumstance, that on the invasion of the Persians they were in the habit of falling on one knee and bowing the head to the breast, by which means, without injury to themselves, they afforded a passage to the horses of the enemy. are a race of people with feet resembling thongs, upon which they move along by nature with a serpentine, crawling kind of gait. The Pharusii, descended from the ancient Persians, are said to have been the companions of Hercules when on his expedition to the Hesperides. Beyond the above, I have met with nothing relative to AfricaIt must be remembered, as already mentioned, that the ancients looked upon Egypt as forming part of Asia, not of Africa. It seems impossible to say how this supposition arose, when the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez form so natural and so palpable a frontier between Asia and Africa. worthy of mention.

Joining on to Africa is Asia, the extent of which, according to Timosthenes, from the Canopic mouth of the Nile to the mouth of the Euxine, is 2639 miles. From the mouth of the Euxine to that of Lake Mæotis is, according to Eratosthenes, 1545 miles. The whole distance to the Tanais, including Egypt, is, according to Artemidorus and Isidorus, 6375It is not improbable that these numbers are incorrectly stated in the MSS. of our author. miles. The seas of Egypt, which are several in number, have received their names from those who dwell upon their shores, for which reason they will be mentioned together.

Egypt is the country which lies next to Africa; in the interior it runs in a southerly direction, as far as the territory of the Æthiopians, who lie extended at the back of it. The river Nile, dividing itself, forms on the right and left the boundary of its lower part, which it embraces on every sideParisot remarks that Pliny is in error in this statement. A considerable part of Lower Egypt lay both on the right and left of the Delta or island formed by the branches of the Nile. It must be remembered, however, that our author has already included a portion of what was strictly Egypt, in his description of Libya Mareotis.. By the Canopic mouth of that river it is separated from Africa, and by the Pelusiac from Asia, there being a distance between the two of 170 miles. For this reason it is that some persons have reckoned Egypt among the islands, the Nile so dividing itself as to give a triangular form to the land which it encloses: from which circumstance also many persons have named Egypt the DeltaBy reason of its triangular form, D., after that of the Greek letter so called. The distance from the spot where the channel of the river first divides into branches, to the Canopic mouth, is 146 miles, and to the Pelusiac, 166.

The upper part of Egypt, which borders on Æthiopia, is known as Thebais. This district is divided into prefectures of towns, which are generally designated as "Nomes." These are OmbitesThe Ombite nome worshipped the crocodile as the emblem of Sebak. Its capital was Ombos., ApollopolitesThis nome destroyed the crocodile and worshipped the sun. Its capital was Apollinopolis Magna., HermonthitesIt worshipped Osiris and his son Orus. The chief town was Thermonthis., ThinitesProbably the original kingdom of Menes of This, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. It worshipped Osiris. Its capital was This, afterwards called Abydos., PhaturitesThe nome of Thebes, which was its chief town., CoptitesIts capital was Coptos., TentyritesIts chief town was Tentyra. This nome worshipped Athor or Venus, Isis, and Typhon. It destroyed the crocodile., DiopolitesPerhaps the same as the Panopolite or Chemmite nome, which had for its chief town Chemmis or Panopolis. It paid divine honours to a deified hero., An- tæopolitesIt probably worshipped Typhon. Its capital was Antæopolis., AphroditopolitesProbably an offshoot from a nome in the Heptanomis of similar name., and LycopolitesDedicated to the worship of the wolf. Its chief town was Lycopolis. It should be remarked that these names do not appear to be given by Pliny in their proper geographical order.. The district which lies in the vicinity of Pelusium contains the following Nomes, Pharbæthites, BubastitesSome of these nomes were inconsiderable and of little importance. The Bubastite nome worshipped Bubastis, Artemis, or Diana, of whom it contained a fine temple., Sethroites, and TanitesIts chief town was Tanis. In this nome, according to tradition, Moses was born.. The remaining Nomes are those called the Arabian; the Hammonian, which lies on the road to the oracle of Jupiter Hammon; and those known by the names of Oxyrynchites, Leontopolites, AthribitesIts capital was Athribis, where the shrew-mouse and crocodile were worshipped., CynopolitesThe seat of the worship of the dog-headed deity Anubis. Its capital was Cynopolis; which is to be distinguished from the Deltic city and other places of that name, as this was a nome of the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt, to which also the Hammonian nome belonged., HermopolitesThe border nome of Upper and Middle Egypt., Xoites, Mendesim, SebennytesIts capital was Pachnamunis. It worshipped a goddess corresponding to the Greek Leto, or the Latona of the Romans., Cabasites, Latopolites, Heliopolites, Prosopites, Panopolites, BusiritesIts capital was Busiris. It worshipped Isis, and at one period was said to have sacrificed the nomad tribes of Syria and Arabia., OnuphitesIts chief town was Onuphis., SaïtesIts chief city was Sais, and it worshipped Neith or Athene, and contained the tomb and a sanctuary of Osiris., Ptenethu, PhthemphuIts capital was Tava., NaucratitesIts chief town was Naucratis on the coast, the birth-place of Athenæus, the Deipnosophist. By some authors it is made part of the Saitic nome. The names given by Pliny vary very considerably from those found in others of the ancient writers., Metelites, Gynæcopolites, Menelaites,—all in the region of Alexandria, besides Mareotis in Libya.

HeracleopolitesThe capital of this nome was Heracleopolis, 'The city of Hercules,' as Pliny calls it, situate, as he says, on an island, at the entrance of the nome of Arsinoïtes, formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis, it was probably the most important city couth of the Thebaid. Its ruins are inconsiderable; a portion of them are to be seen at the modern hamlet of Amasieh. is a Nome on an islandThe capital of this nome was Heracleopolis, 'The city of Hercules,' as Pliny calls it, situate, as he says, on an island, at the entrance of the nome of Arsinoïtes, formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis, it was probably the most important city couth of the Thebaid. Its ruins are inconsiderable; a portion of them are to be seen at the modern hamlet of Amasieh. of the Nile, fifty miles in length, upon which there is a city, called the 'City of Hercules.' There are two places called ArsinoïtesHe probably means Arsinoë or Arsinoïtis, the chief town of the nome of that name, and the city so called at the northern extremity of the Heroöpolite Gulf in the Red Sea. The former is denoted by the modern district of El-Fayoom, the most fertile of ancient Egypt. At this place the crocodile was worshipped. The Labyrinth and Lake Mœris were in this nome. Extensive ruins at Medinet-el-Fayoom, or El-Fares, represent its site. The modern Ardscherud, a village near Suez, corresponds to Arsinoë on the Red Sea. There is some little doubt however whether this last Arsinoë is the one here meant by Pliny.: these and MemphitesMemphis was the chief city of this nome, which was situate in Middle Egypt, and was the capital of the whole country, and the residence of the Pharaohs, who succeeded Psammetichus, B.C. 616. This nome rose in importance on the decline of the kingdom of Thebais, but was afterwards eclipsed by the progress of Alexandria under the successors of Alexander the Great. extend to the apexAt which Middle Egypt terminates. of the Delta; adjoining to which, on the side of Africa, are the two Nomes of OasitesThey are more generally looked upon as forming one nome only, and included under the name of Hammonium.. Some writers vary in some of these names and substitute for them other Nomes, such as HeroöpolitesIts chief town was Heroöpolis, a principal seat of the worship of Typhon, the evil or destroying genius. and CrocodilopolitesThe same as the nome of Arsinoïtes, the capital of which, Arsinoë, was originally called Crocodilopolis.. Between Arsinoïtes and Memphites, a lakeNow known as Birket-el-Keroum. This was a vast lake on the western side of the Nile in Middle Egypt, used for the reception and subsequent distribution of a part of the overflow of the Nile. The supposition that it was formed by artificial means is now pretty generally exploded, and it is regarded as of natural formation. It was situate in the nome of Arsinoïtes or Crocodilopolites. Its length seems to be overstated by our author, as at the present day it is only thirty miles in length and five in breadth at the widest part., 250 miles, or, according to what Mucianus says, 450 miles in circumference and fifty paces deep, has been formed by artificial means: after the king by whose orders it was made, it is called by the name of Mœris. The distance from thence to Memphis is nearly sixty-two miles, a place which was formerly the citadel of the kings of Egypt; from thence to the oracle of Hammon it is twelve days' journey. Memphis is fifteen miles from the spot where the river Nile divides into the different channels which we have mentioned as forming the Delta.

The sources of the NileAnd it is generally supposed that they are so up to the present day. The ethnographer Jablonski is of opinion that this river derives its name from the Coptish word tneialei "to rise at stated times." Servius, the commentator on Virgil, says that it is derived from the two Greek words ne/a i)lu\s "fresh mud," in allusion to the fresh mud or slime which it leaves after each inundation. Singularly enough, Champollion prefers this silly etymology to that suggested by Jablonski. are unascertained, and, travelling as it does for an immense distance through deserts and burning sands, it is only known to us by common report, having neither experienced the vicissitudes of warfare, nor been visited by those arms which have so effectually explored all other regions. It rises, so far indeed as King Juba was enabled to ascertain, in a mountainAn interesting disquisition on the probable sources of the Nile, as viewed by the ancients, is to be found in the Ninth Book of Lucan's Pharsalia. The Indian word "nilas," "black," has also been suggested as its possible origin. of Lower Mauritania, not far from the ocean; immediately after which it forms a lake of standing water, which bears the name of NilidesWhat spot is meant under this name, if indeed it is anything more than the creation of fancy, it is impossible to ascertain with any degree of precision. It is possible however that the ancients may have had some knowledge of Lake Tchad, and the Mountains of the Moon, or Djebel-Kumri, though at the same time it is more than doubtful that the Nile has its source in either of those localities, the former especially.. In this lake are found the several kinds of fish known by the names of alabetaPerhaps a kind of river lamprey. As to the Coracinus, see B. ix. c. 24, 32, and B. xxxii. c. 19, 24, 34, 44, and 53; and as to the Silurus, B. ix. c. 17, 25, and B. xxxii. c. 31, 36, 40, 43, 44, &c., coracinus, and silurus; a crocodile also was brought thence as a proof that this really is the Nile, and was consecrated by Juba himself in the temple of Isis at CæsareaThe modern Vacur in Northern Africa., where it may be seen at the present day. In addition to these facts, it has been observed that the waters of the Nile rise in the same proportion in which the snows and rains of Mauritania increase. Pouring forth from this lake, the river disdains to flow through arid and sandy deserts, and for a distance of several days' journey conceals itself; after which it bursts forth at another lake of greater magnitude in the country of the MassæsyliA district which in reality was at least 1200 or 1500 miles distant from any part of the Nile, and probably near 3000 from its real source., a people of Mauritania Cæsariensis, and thence casts a glance around, as it were, upon the communities of men in its vicinity, giving proofs of its identity in the same peculiarities of the animals which it produces. It then buries itself once again in the sands of the desert, and remains concealed for a distance of twenty days' journey, till it has reached the confines of Æthiopia. Here, when it has once more become sensible of the presence of man, it again emerges, at the same source, in all probability, to which writers have given the name of Niger, or Black. After this, forming the boundary-line between Africa and Æthiopia, its banks, though not immediately peopled by man, are the resort of numbers of wild beasts and animals of various kinds. Giving birth in its course to dense forests of trees, it travels through the middle of Æthiopia, under the name of Astapus, a word which signifies, in the language of the nations who dwell in those regions, "water issuing from the shades below." Proceeding onwards, it dividesSpargit." It is doubtful whether this word means here "waters," or "divides." Probably however the latter is its meaning. innumerable islands in its course, and some of them of such vast magnitude, that although its tide runs with the greatest rapidity, it is not less than five days in passing them. When making the circuit of Meroë, the most famous of these islands, the left branch of the river is called AstoboresThis is the third or eastern branch of the river, now known as the Tacazze. It rises in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11°40′ north lat. and 39°40′ east long., and joins the main stream of the Nile, formed by the union of the Abiad and the Azrek, in 17°45′ north lat. and about 34°5′ east long.; the point of junction being the apex of the island of Meroë, here mentioned by Pliny., or, in other words, "an arm of the water that issues from the shades," while the right arm has the name of AstosapesPossibly by this name he designates the Bahr-el-Abied, or White River, the main stream of the Nile, the sources of which have not been hitherto satisfactorily ascertained. The Astapus is supposed to have been really the name of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, the third branch of the Nile, the sources of which are in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11°40′ north lat. and 39°40′ east long., which adds to its original signification the meaning of "sideOr "side of the water that issues from the shades." As Hardouin says, this does not appear to be a very satisfactory explanation.." It does not obtain the name of "Nile" until its waters have again met and are united in a single stream; and even then, for some miles both above and below the point of confluence, it has the name of Siris. Homer has given to the whole of this river the name of Ægyptus, while other writers again have called it TritonSaid by Tzetzes to have been derived from the Greek tri(tos, "the third," because it had three times changed its name: having been called, first, the Ocean; secondly, Aëtus, or the Eagle; and thirdly, Ægyptus.. Every now and then its course is interrupted by islands which intervene, and which only serve as so many incentives to add to the impetuosity of its torrent; and though at last it is hemmed in by mountains on either side, in no part is the tide more rapid and precipitate. Its waters then hastening onwards, it is borne along to the spot in the country of the Æthiopians which is known by the name of "CatadupiOr the "Cataracts," for which it is the Greek name. The most northerly of these cataracts, called the First Cataract, is, and always has been, the southern boundary of Egypt. According to the most recent accounts, these Cataracts are devoid of any stupendous features, such as characterize the Falls of Niagara.;" where, at the last CataractThe one now called the First Cataract., the complaint is, not that it flows, but that it rushes, with an immense noise between the rocks that lie in its way: after which it becomes more smooth, the violence of its waters is broken and subdued, and, wearied out as it were by the length of the distance it has travelled, it discharges itself, though by many mouthsSeven mouths in ancient times, which have now dwindled down to two of any importance, the Damietta mouth on the east, and the Rosetta on the west., into the Egyptian sea. During certain days of the year, however, the volume of its waters is greatly increased, and as it traverses the whole of Egypt, it inundates the earth, and, by so doing, greatly promotes its fertility.

There have been various reasons suggested for this increase of the river. Of these, however, the most probable are, either that its waters are driven back by the Etesian windsThe Etesians are periodical winds, which blow steadily from one quarter for forty days each year, during the season of the Dog-days. The opinion here stated was that promulgated by Thales the philosopher. Seneca refutes it in B. iv. c. 2. of his Quæst. Nat., which are blowing at this season of the year from an opposite direction, and that the sea which lies beyond is driven into the mouths of the river; or else that its waters are swollen by the summer rains of ÆthiopiaThis was the opinion of Democritus of Abdera, and of Agatharchidas of Cnidos. It is combated by Diodorus Siculus, B. i., but it is the opinion most generally received at the present day. See the disquisition on the subject introduced in the Ninth book of Lucan's Pharsalia., which fall from the clouds conveyed thither by the Etesian winds from other parts of the earth. Timæus the mathematician has alleged a reason of an occult nature: he says that the source of the river is known by the name of Phiala, and that the stream buries itself in channels underground, where it sends forth vapours generated by the heat among the steaming rocks amid which it conceals itself; but that, during the days of the inundation, in consequence of the sun approaching nearer to the earth, the waters are drawn forth by the influence of his heat, and on being thus exposed to the air, overflow; after which, in order that it may not be utterly dried up, the stream hides itself once more. He says that this takes place at the rising of the Dog-Star, when the sun enters the sign of Leo, and stands in a vertical position over the source of the river, at which time at that spot there is no shadow thrown. Most authors, however, are of opinion, on the contrary, that the river flows in greater volume when the sun takes his departure for the north, which he does when he enters the signs of Cancer and Leo, because its waters then are not dried up to so great an extent; while on the other hand, when he returns towards the south pole and re-enters Capricorn, its waters are absorbed by the heat, and consequently flow in less abundance. If there is any one inclined to be of opinion, with Timæus, that the waters of the river may be drawn out of the earth by the heat, it will be as well for him to bear in mind the fact, that the absence of shadow is a phænomenon which lasts continuouslyAnd that the high tide or inundation would be consequently continuous as well. in these regions.

The Nile begins to increase at the next new moon after the summer solstice, and rises slowly and gradually as the sun passes through the sign of Cancer; it is at its greatest height while the sun is passing through Leo, and it falls as slowly and gradually as it arose while he is passing through the sign of Virgo. It has totally subsided between its banks, as we learn from Herodotus, on the hundredth day, when the sun has entered Libra. While it is rising it has been pronounced criminal for kings or prefects even to sail upon its waters. The measure of its increase is ascertained by means of wellsThe principal well for this purpose was called the "Nilometer," or "Gauge for the Nile.". Its most desirable height is sixteen cubitsOn this subject see Pliny, B. xviii. c. 47, and B. xxxvi. c. 11.; if the waters do not attain that height, the overflow is not universal; but if they exceed that measure, by their slowness in receding they tend to retard the process of cultivation. In the latter case the time for sowing is lost, in consequence of the moisture of the soil; in the former, the ground is so parched that the seed-time comes to no purpose. The country has reason to make careful note of either extreme. When the water rises to only twelve cubits, it experiences the horrors of famine; when it attains thirteen, hunger is still the result; a rise of fourteen cubits is productive of gladness; a rise of fifteen sets all anxieties at rest; while an increase of sixteen is productive of unbounded transports of joy. The greatest increase known, up to the present time, is that of eighteen cubits, which took place in the time of the Emperor Claudius; the smallest rise was that of five, in the year of the battle of PharsaliaSeneca says that the Nile did not rise as usual in the tenth and eleventh years of the reign of Cleopatra, and that the circumstance was said to bode ruin to her and Antony.—Nat. Quæst. B. iv. c. 2., the river by this prodigy testifying its horror, as it were, at the murder of Pompeius Magnus. When the waters have reached their greatest height, the people open the embankments and admit them to the lands. As each district is left by the waters, the business of sowing commences. This is the only river in existence that emits no vapoursHe means dense clouds, productive of rain, not thin mists. See what is said of the Borysthenes by our author, B. xxxi. c. 30..

The Nile first enters the Egyptian territory at SyeneSyene was a city of Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile just below the First Cataract, and was looked upon as the southern frontier city of Egypt against Æthiopia. It was an important point in the geography and astronomy of the ancients; for, lying just under the tropic of Cancer, it was chosen as the place through which they drew their chief parallel of latitude. The sun was vertical to Syene at the time of the summer solstice, and a well was shown there where the face of the sun was seen at noon at that time. Its present name is Assouan or Ossouan., on the frontiers of Æthiopia; that is the name of a peninsula a mile in circumference, upon which CastraIf this word means the "Camp," it does not appear to be known what camp is meant. Most editions have "Cerastæ," in which case it would mean that at Syene the Cerastes or horned serpent is found. is situate, on the side of Arabia. Opposite to it are the four islands of PhilæOne of these (if indeed Philæ did consist of more than a single island, which seems doubtful) is now known as Djeziret-el-Birbe, the "Island of the Temple.", at a distance of 600 miles from the place where the Nile divides into two channels; at which spot, as we have already stated, the Delta, as it is called, begins. This, at least, is the distance, according to Artemidorus, who also informs us that there were in it 250 towns; Juba says, however, that the distance between these places is 400 miles. Aristocreon says that the distance from Elephantis to the sea is 750 miles; ElephantisThis island was seated just below the Lesser Cataract, opposite Syene, and near the western bank of the Nile. At this point the river becomes navigable downward to its mouths, and the traveller from Meroë or Æthiopia enters Egypt Proper. The original name of this island was "Ebo," Eb being in the language of hieroglyphics the symbol of the elephant and ivory. It was remarkable for its fertility and verdure, and the Arabs of the present day designate the island as Djesiret-el-Sag, or "the Blooming." being an inhabited island four miles below the last Cataract, sixteenThis is a mistake of Pliny's, for it was opposite to Syene. Brotier thinks that Pliny intended to write' Philæ,' but by mistake inserted Syene. beyond Syene, 585 from Alexandria, and the extreme limit of the navigation of Egypt. To such an extent as this have the above-named authorsArtemidorus, Juba, and Aristocreon. been mistaken! This island is the place of rendezvous for the vessels of the Æthiopians: they are made to fold upThey were probably made of papyrus, or else of hides, like the British coracles., and the people carry them on their shoulders whenever they come to the Cataracts.

Egypt, besides its boast of extreme antiquity, asserts that it contained, in the reign of King AmasisThe last king of the line of Psammetichus, B.C. 569. He succeeded Apries, whom the Egyptians put to death. He died just before the invasion by Cambyses, having displayed great abilities as a ruler., 20,000 inhabited cities: in our day they are still very numerous, though no longer of any particular note. Still however we find the following ones mentioned as of great renown—the city of ApolloThere was the Greater Apollinopolis, the modem Edfoo, in the Thebaid, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 25° north, about thirteen miles below the lesser Cataract: its inhabitants were enemies of the crocodile and its worshippers. The remains of two temples there are considered second only to the temple of Denderah as specimens of the sacred structures of Egypt. A Lesser Apollinopolis was in Upper Egypt, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° north. Another Lesser Apollinopolis was a town of the Thebaid in the Coptite Nome, in lat. 26° north, situate between Thebes and Coptos. It was situate at the present Kuss.; next, that of LeucotheaIts site is unknown. Hardouin suggests that it is the Eilethuia of Ptolemy, the modern El-Kab.; then Great DiospolisCity of Jupiter," the Greek name for Thebes, the No or No Ammon of Scripture. It stood in the centre of the Thebaid, on both banks of the Nile, above Coptos, and in the Nomos Coptites. Its ruins, which are the most magnificent in the world, enclose within their site the four villages of Carnac, Luxor, Medinet Abou, and Gournou., otherwise Thebes, known to fame for its hundred gates; CoptosIts hieroglyphical name was Kobto, and its site is now occupied by the modern town of Kouft or Keft. It was situate in lat. 26° north, on the right bank of the Nile, about a mile from its banks. As a halting place or rather watering-place for the caravans, it was enriched by the commerce between Libya and Egypt on the one hand, and Arabia and India and Egypt on the other, the latter being carried on through the port of Berenice on the Red Sea, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 266. In the seventh century of the Christian era, it bore for some time the name of Justinianopolis. There are a few remains of Roman buildings to be seen on its site., which from its proximity to the Nile, forms its nearest emporium for the merchandise of India and Arabia; then the town of VenusAlso called Aphrodite or Aphroditopolis. Of this name there were several towns or cities in ancient Egypt. In Lower Egypt there was Atarbechis, thus named, and a town mentioned by Strabo in the nome of Leontopolites. In the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt there was the place, the ruins of which are called Aftyeh, on the east side of the Nile, and the capital of the nome of Aphroditopolites. In Upper Egypt or the Thebais there was the present Tachta, on the west side of the Nile, between Ptolemais and Panopolis, capital of another nome of Aphroditopolites, and that one the ruins of which are now called Deir, on the west bank of the Nile, higher up than the former, and, like it, some distance from the river. It was situate in the nome Hermonthites., and then another town of Jupi- terAnother Diospolis. Great Diospolis is mentioned in the preceding page.. After this comes TentyrisOr Tentyra. The modern Dendera of the Arabs, called Dendôri or Hidendôri by the ancient Egyptians., below which is AbydusIn ancient times called This, and in Coptic Ebôt, the ruins of which are now known as Arábat-el-Matfoon. It was the chief town of the Nomos Thinites, and was situate in lat. 26°10′ north and long. 32°3′ east. In the Thebaid it ranked next to Thebes itself. Here according to general belief was the burial-place of Osiris. In the time of Strabo it had sunk into a mere village. Its ruins, though nearly buried in the sand, are very extensive. There is, however, some uncertainty as to the exact identity of This with Abydus., the royal abode of Memnon, and famous for a temple of OsirisThe ruins of these places are still to be seen at Abydus., which is situate in LibyaHe calls the whole of the country on the western bank of the Nile by this name., at a distance from the river of seven miles and a half. Next to it comes PtolemaisCalled Absou or Absaï by the Arabs, and Psoë by the ancient Egyptians. It has been suggested that it was the same place as This, more generally identified with Abydus., then PanopolisIts site is now called Ekhmin or Akhmin by the Arabs, Khmim being its ancient Egyptian name. It was the chief town of the nome of Panopolites, and the deity Phthah was worshipped there under the form of Priapus., and then another town of VenusAnother Aphroditopolis, the present Tachta, mentioned above, in Note6 in the last page. Pliny distinguishes it from that now called Deir, mentioned above., and, on the Libyan side, LyconNow known as Es-Siout., where the mountains form the boundary of the province of Thebais. On passing these, we come to the towns of MercuryOr Hermopolis—the modern Esh-moon or Ash-mounion, on the eastern bank of the Nile, in lat. 27°54′ north. It was the capital of the Hermopolite nome in the Heptanomis. It was a place of great opulence and densely populated. The deities Typhon and Thoth were principally worshipped at this place. The latter, the inventor of the pen and letters, nearly corresponded with the Hermes of the Greeks (the Mercury of the Romans), from which the Hellenized name of the place. Its ruins are very extensive., AlabastronThis town was no doubt connected with the alabaster quarries of Mount Alabasternus, now Mount St. Anthony, and the hill of Alabastrites, now the Côteau Hessan., the town of DogsOr Cynopolis, the chief place of the Cynopolite nome. The Dog-headed deity Anubis was worshipped here. The modern Samallus occupies its site. This place was in the Heptanomis, but there were several other towns of the same name, one of which was situate in the Delta or Lower Egypt., and that of Hercules already mentionedIn C. 9, when speaking of the nome of Heracleopolites; of which nome, this place, called Heracleopolis, was the capital. It was situate at the entrance of the valley of the Fayoum, on an island formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis it was probably the most important city north of the Thebaid. It furnished two dynasties of kings to Egypt. The ichneumon was worshipped here, from which it may be inferred that the people were hostile to the crocodile. Its ruins are inconsiderable; the village of Anasieh covers part of them.. We next come to ArsinoëThe capital of the nome of Arsinoites, seated on the western bank of the Nile, between the river and Lake Mœris, south-west of Memphis, in lat. 29° north. It was called under the Pharaohs, "the City of Crocodiles," from the reverence paid by the people to that animal. Its ruins are to be seen at Medinet-el-Fayoom or El-Fares., and MemphisIts magnificent ruins, known by the name of Menf and Metrabenny, are to be seen about ten miles above the pyramids of Gizeh., which has been previously mentioned; between which last and the Nome of Arsinoïtes, upon the Libyan side, are the towers known as the Pyramids, the LabyrinthThis lay beyond Lake Mœris, or Birket-el-Keroun, at a short distance from the city of Arsinoë. It had 3000 apartments, 1500 of which were underground. The accounts given by modern travellers of its supposed ruins do not agree with what we have learned from the ancients respecting its architecture and site. The purposes for which it was built are unknown. Its supposed site is called Havara. on Lake Mœris, in the construction of which no wood was employed, and the town of CrialonIf this is not an abbreviation or corruption for Crocodilon, as Hardouin suggests, it may probably mean the "town of Rams," from the worship perhaps of that animal there.. Besides these, there is one place in the interior, on the confines of Arabia, of great celebrity, the City of the SunHeliopolis or Rameses. In Scripture it is called by the names of On and No—Gen. xli. 45 and Ezek. xxx. 15. It stood on the eastern side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, near the right bank of the Great Canal which connected the river with the Red Sea, and close adjoining to the present overland route for travellers to India. It was one of the most ancient of the Egyptian cities; here the father-in-law of Joseph exercised the office of high-priest, and here the prophet Jeremiah is supposed to have written his Book of Lamentations. Its priests were the great depositaries of the theological and historical learning of Egypt. Solon, Thales, and Plato were reputed each to have visited its schools. According to Macrobius, Baalbec, the Syrian City of the Sun, was a colony from this place. It was the capital of the nome Heliopolites, and paid worship to the sun and the bull Mnevis, the rival of Apis. From Josephus we learn that after the dispersion and fall of the tribes of Judah and Israel, great numbers of the Jews took refuge at this place, forming almost one-half of its population. The ruins, which were extremely magnificent, occupied in the twelfth century an area nearly three miles in extent. Pliny speaks of the great obelisk there, which is still standing. (See B. xxxvi. c. 9.) The village of Matarieh occupies a part of its site, and besides the obelisk of red granite, there are a few remains of the Temple of the Sun..

(10.) With the greatest justice, however, we may lavish our praises upon Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great on the shores of the Egyptian Sea, upon the soil of Africa, at twelve miles' distance from the Canopic Mouth and near Lake MareotisNow called Birk-el-Mariout.; the spot having previously borne the name of Rhacotes. The plan of this city was designed by the architect DinocharesOr Dinocrates. He was the architect of the new temple of Diana at Ephesus, which was built after the destruction of the former one by Herostratus. It was this architect who formed a design for cutting Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander, with a city in the right hand and a reservoir of the mountain streams in the left., who is memorable for the genius which he displayed in many ways. Building the city upon a wide spaceHolland seems to think that the word "laxitate" applies to chlamys. of ground fifteen miles in circumference, he formed it in the circular shape of a Macedonian chlamysThe chlamys was a scarf or cloak worn over the shoulders, and especially used by military persons of high rank. It did not reach lower than the knees, and was open in front, covering only the neck, back, and shoulders., uneven at the edge, giving it an angular projection on the right and left; while at the same time he devoted one-fifth part of the site to the royal palace.

Lake Mareotis, which lies on the south side of the city, is connected by a canal which joins it to the Canopic mouth, and serves for the purposes of communication with the interior. It has also a great number of islands, and is thirty miles across, and 150 in circumference, according to Claudius Cæsar. Other writers say that it is forty schœni in length, making the schœnum to be thirty stadia; hence, according to them, it is 150 milesIts real dimensions were something less than 300 stadia, or thirty geographical miles long, and rather more than 150 stadia wide. in length and the same in breadth.

There are also, in the latter part of the course of the Nile, many towns of considerable celebrity, and more especially those which have given their names to the mouths of the river—I do not mean, all the mouths, for there are no less than twelve of them, as well as four others, which the people call the False MouthsOr "Pseudostomata." These were crossed in small boats, as they were not navigable for ships of burden.. I allude to the seven more famous ones, the CanopicIn the Pharaonic times Canopus was the capital of the nome of Menelaïtes, and the principal harbour of the Delta. It probably owed its name to the god Canobus, a pitcher full of holes, with a human head, which was worshipped here with peculiar pomp. It was remarkable for the number of its festivals and the general dissoluteness of its morals. Traces of its ruins are to be seen about three miles from the modern Aboukir. Mouth, next to Alexandria, those of BolbitineCorresponding to the modern Raschid or Rosetta. It is supposed that this place was noted for its manufactory of chariots., SebennysThe town of Sebennys or Sebennytum, now Samannoud, gave name to one of the nomes, and the Sebennytic Mouth of the Nile., PhatnisOr the Pathinetic or Bucolic Mouth, said to be the same as the modern Damietta Mouth., MendesThe capital of the Mendesian nome, called by the Arabs Ochmoun. This mouth is now known as the Deibeh Mouth., TanisNow called Szan or Tzan. The Tanitic Mouth, which is sometimes called the Saitic, is at the present day called Omm-Faredjé., and, last of all, PelusiumIts ruins are to be seen at the modern Tineh. This city in early times had the name of Abaris. It was situate on the eastern side of the most easterly mouth of the Nile, which, after it, was called the Pelusiac Mouth, about two miles from the sea, in the midst of morasses. Being the fiontier city towards Syria and Arabia it was strongly fortified. It was the birth-place of Ptolemy the geographer.. Besides the above there are the towns of ButosButos or Buto stood on the Sebennytic arm of the Nile near its mouth, on the southern shores of the Butic Lake. It was the chief seat of the worship of the goddess Buto, whom the Greeks identified with Leto or Latona. The modern Kem Kasir occupies its site., PharbæthosCalled Harbait by the Arabs, and Farbait by the ancient Egyptians., LeontopolisIn the Delta. It was the capital of the nome of Leontopolites, and probably of late foundation, as no writer previous to Pliny mentions it. Its site is uncertain, but Thall-Essabouah, the "Hill of the Lion," has been suggested., AthribisThe chief town of the Athribitic nome in Lower Egypt. It stood on the eastern bank of the Tanitic branch of the Nile. This nome and town derived their name from the goddess Thriphis, whom the inscriptions there and at Panopolis designate as the "most great goddess." The ruins at Atrieb or Trieb, at the spot where the modern canal of Moueys turns off from the Nile, represent the ancient Athribis. They are very extensive, and among them are considerable remains of the Roman era., the town of IsisThis was situate near the city or town of Busiris in the Delta. The modern village of Bahbeyt is supposed to cover the ruins of the temple of Isis., BusirisThe modern Busyr or Abousir, where considerable ruins of the ancient city are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the nome of Busirites, and stood south of Sais, near the Phatnitic mouth, on the western bank of the Nile. This was also the name of a town in Middle Egypt, in the neighbourhood of Memphis, and represented by another village of the name of Abousir. Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 16, speaks of the Catacombs in its vicinity., CynopolisThe place of that name in the Delta is here meant., AphroditesProbably the town of that name, otherwise called Aphroditopolis, in the nome of Leontopolites., SaisThe ruins of which are now called Sa-el-Hajjar. It was situate in the Delta, on the east side of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was the ancient capital of Lower Egypt and contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs. It was the chief seat of the worship of the Egyptian goddess Neith, also known as Sais. It gave its name to the nome of Saïtes., and NaucratisIt was situate in the Delta of Egypt and in the nome of Saïtes, on the eastern bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was a colony of the Milesians, founded probably in the reign of Amasis, about B.C. 550, and remained a pure Greek city. It was the only place in Egypt in which, in the time of the later Pharaohs, foreigners were permitted to settle and trade. In later times it was famous for the worship of Aphrodite or Venus, and rivalled Canopus in the dissoluteness of its manners., from which last some writers call that the Naucratitic Mouth, which is by others called the Heracleotic, and mention it insteadPtolemy the geographer does this. of the Canopic Mouth, which is the next to it.

Beyond the Pelusiac Mouth is ArabiaArabia Petræa; that part of Arabia which immediately joins up to Egypt., which extends to the Red Sea, and joins the Arabia known by the surname of HappyCalled Arabia Felix to the present day., so famous for its perfumes and its wealth. ThisThe part of Arabia which joins up to Egypt, Arabia Petræa namely. is called Arabia of the CatabanesStrabo places this people as far south as the mouth of the Red Sea, i.e. on the east of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Forster (in his 'Arabia,' vol. ii.) takes this name to be merely an inversion of Beni Kahtan, the great tribe which mainly peoples, at the present day, central and southern Arabia., the EsbonitæProbably the people of Esebon, the Heshbon of Scripture, spoken of by Jerome as being the city of Sihon, king of the Amorites., and the ScenitæThe "tent-people," from the Greek skhnh\, "a tent." This seems to have been a name common to the nomadic tribes of Arabia. Ammianus Marcellinus speaks of them as being the same as the Saraceni or Saracens.; it is remarkable for its sterility, except in the parts where it joins up to Syria, and it has nothing remarkable in it except Mount CasiusThe modern El Katieh or El Kas; which is the summit of a lofty range of sandstone hills on the borders of Egypt and Arabia Petræa, immediately south of the Sirbonian Lake and the Mediterranean Sea. On its western side was the tomb of Pompey the Great.. The Arabian nations of the CanchlæiThe same as the Amalekites of Scripture, according to Hardouin. Bochart thinks that they are the same as the Chavilæi, who are mentioned as dwelling in the vicinity of Babylon. join these on the east, and, on the south the CedreiThe position which Pliny assigns to this nation would correspond with the northern part of the modern district of the Hedjaz. Forster identifies them with the Cauraitæ, or Cadraitæ of Arrian, and the Darræ of Ptolemy, tracing their origin to the Cedar or Kedar, the son of Ishmael, mentioned in Genesis xxv. 13, and represented by the modern Harb nation and the modern town of Kedeyre. See Psalm cxx. 5: "Woe is me, that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar!", both of which peoples are adjoining to the NabatæiAn Arabian people, said to have descended from the eldest son of Ishmael, who had their original abodes in the north-western part of the Arabian peninsula, east and south-east of the Moabites and Edomites. Extending their territory, we find the Nabatæi of Greek and Roman history occupying nearly the whole of Arabia Petræa, along the northeast coast of the Red Sea, on both sides of the Ælanitic Gulf, and on the Idumæan mountains, where they had their capital, Petra, hewn out of the rock.. The two gulfs of the Red Sea, where it borders upon Egypt, are called the HeroöpoliticNow the Bahr-el-Soueys, or Gulf of Suez. and the ÆlaniticThe Bahr-el-Akabah, or Gulf of Akabah.. Between the two towns of ÆlanaNow Akabah, an Idumæan town of Arabia Petræa, situate at the head of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, which was called after this town "Ælaniticus Sinus." It was annexed to the kingdom of Judah, with the other cities of Idumæa, by David, 2 Sam. viii. 14, and was one of the harbours on the Red Sea from which the ships of Solomon sailed for Ophir. See 1 Kings ix. 26 and 2 Chron. viii. 17. It was a place of commercial importance under the Romans and the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion. A fortress now occupies its site. and GazaIts site is now known as Guzzah. It was the last city on the south-west frontier of Palestine, and from the earliest times was a strongly fortified place. It was taken from the Philistines by the Jews more than once, but as often retaken. It was also taken by Cyrus the Great and Alexander, and afterwards by Ptolemy Lagus, who destroyed it. It afterwards recovered, and was again destroyed by Alexander Jannæus, B.C. 96, after which, it was rebuilt by Gabinius and ultimately united to the Roman province of Syria. In A.D. 65 it was again destroyed, but was rebuilt, and finally fell into the hands of the Arabs, in A.D. 634. upon our seaMeaning the Mediterranean. there is a distance of 150 miles. Agrippa says that ArsinoëThe present Suez. See B. vi. c. 33., a town on the Red Sea, is, by way of the desert, 125 miles from Pelusium. How different the characteristics impressed by nature upon two places separated by so small a distance!

Next to these countries Syria occupies the coast, once the greatest of lands, and distinguished by many names; for the part which joins up to Arabia was formerly called Palæstina, Judæa, CœleOr the "Hollow" Syria. This was properly the name given, after the Macedonian conquest, to the great valley between the two great ranges of Mount Lebanon, in the south of Syria, bordering upon Phœnicia on the west, and Palestine on the south. In the wars between the Ptolemies and the Seleucidæ, the name was applied to the whole of the southern portion of Syria, which became subject for some time to the kings of Egypt; but under the Romans, it was confined to Cœlesyria proper with the district east of Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a portion of Palestine east of Jordan., and Phœnice. The country in the interior was called Damascena, and that further on and more to the south, Babylonia. The part that lies between the Euphrates and the Tigris was called Mesopotamia, that beyond Taurus Sophene, and that on this side of the same chain Comagene. Beyond Armenia was the country of Adiabene, anciently called Assyria, and at the part where it joins up to Cilicia, it was called Antiochia. Its length, between Cilicia and ArabiaOr Ostracine, the northern point of Arabia., is 470 miles, and its breadth, from Seleucia PieriaThis was a great fortress of Syria founded by Seleucus B.C. 300, at the foot of Mount Pieria and overhanging the Mediterranean, four miles north of the Orontes and twelve miles west of Antioch. It had fallen entirely to decay in the sixth century of our era. There are considerable ruins of its harbour and mole, its walls and necropolis. They bear the name of Seleukeh or Kepse. to ZeugmaFrom the Greek zeu=gma, "a junction ;" built by Seleucus Nicator on the borders of Commagene and Cyrrhestice, on the west bank of the Euphrates, where the river had been crossed by a bridge of boats constructed by Alexander the Great. The modern Rumkaleh is supposed to occupy its site., a town on the Euphrates, 175. Those who make a still more minute division of this country will have it that Phœnice is surrounded by Syria, and that first comes the maritime coast of Syria, part of which is Idumæa and Judæa, after that Phœnice, and then Syria. The whole of the tract of sea that lies in front of these shores is called the Phœnician Sea. The Phœnician people enjoy the glory of having been the inventors of lettersOn this subject see B. vii. c. 57. The invention of letters and the first cultivation of the science of astronomy have been claimed for the Egyptians and other nations. The Tyrians were probably the first who applied the science of astronomy to the purposes of navigation. There is little doubt that warfare must have been studied as an art long before the existence of the Phœnician nation., and the first discoverers of the sciences of astronomy, navigation, and the art of war.

On leaving Pelusium we come to the Camp of ChabriasStrabo places this between Mount Casius and Pelusium., Mount CasiusSee C. 12 of the present Book. Chabrias the Athenian aided Nectanebus II. against his revolted subjects., the temple of Jupiter Casius, and the tomb of Pompeius Magnus. OstracineIts ruins are to be seen on the present Ras Straki., at a distance of sixty-five miles from Pelusium, is the frontier town of Ara- bia. (13.) After this, at the point where the Sirbonian LakeNow called the Sabakat Bardowal. It lay on the coast of Egypt, east of Mount Casius, and it is not improbable that the boundary-line between Egypt and Palæstina or Idumæa ran through the middle of its waters. It was strongly impregnated with asphaltus. A connection formerly existed between it and the Mediterranean, but this being stopped up, it gradually grew smaller by evaporation and is now nearly dry. becomes visible, Idumæa and Palæstina begin. This lake, which some writers have made to be 150 miles in circumference, Herodotus has placed at the foot of Mount Casius; it is now an inconsiderable fen. The towns are RhinocoluraThe present Kulat-el-Arich or El Arish, situate at the mouth of the brook El-Arish, called by the Scriptures the "river of Egypt." Its name signifies in Greek, "cutting off of noses," and is probably derived from the fact of its having been the place of exile for criminals who had been so mutilated, under the Æthiopian kings of Egypt. Poinsinet suggests however that the name means the "town of the circumcised.", and, in the interior, RhapheaThe place on its site is still called Refah, but it was really situate on the coast. Gaza has been already mentioned in a Note to C. 12, p. 423., Gaza, and, still more inland, AnthedonAnthedon was on the coast of Palestine, although Pliny says to the contrary. It was situate about three miles to the south-west of Gaza, and was destroyed by Alexander Jannæus. In the time of Julian it was addicted to the worship of Astarte, the Syrian Venus. According to Dupinet the present name of its site is Daron.: there is also Mount ArgarisBrotier says that this is the same as the Mount Gerizim of Scripture, but that was situate in Samaria, a considerable distance from the southern coast of Palæstina. Pliny is the only author that mentions it.. Proceeding along the coast we come to the region of Samaria; AscaloThe Ascalon of Scripture, one of the five cities of the Philistines, situate on the coast of the Mediterranean, between Gaza and Jamnia. In early times it was the seat of the worship of Derceto, a fish with a woman's head. The ruins, which still bear the name of Askulân, are very extensive, and indicative of great strength. The shalot or scallion was originally a native of this place, and thence derived its name., a free town, AzotusThe Ashdod of Scripture. It was one of the five cities of the Philistines and the chief seat of the worship of Dagon. Herodotus states that it stood a siege of twenty-nine years from Psammetichus, king of Egypt. It was afterwards taken and retaken several times. It was situate between Ascalon and Jamnia, and its site is indicated by the modern village of Esdad, but no ruins of the ancient city are visible., the two JamniæOne of these was a city of the Philistines, assigned to the tribe of Judah in the fifteenth Chapter of Joshua, 45, according to the Septuagint version, but omitted in the Hebrew, which only mentions it in 2 Chron. xxvi. 6 (where it is called Jabneh in the English version), as one of the cities of the Philistines taken and destroyed by King Uzziah. The place of this name that lay in the interior, is probably the one spoken of by Josephus as in that part of the tribe of Judah occupied by the children of Dan, as also in the 1 Maccabees, x. 69–71. The one was probably the port of the other. The ruins of the port still retain the name of Yebora, and are situate on an eminence about an hour's distance from the sea, on the banks of the river Rûbin., one of them in the in- terior; and JoppeOr Joppa of Scripture, now called Yâfa or Jaffa. The timber from Lebanon intended for both the first and second Temples was landed here. It was taken and retaken more than once during the wars of the Maccabees, and was finally annexed by Pompey to the Roman province of Syria. It is mentioned several times in the New Testament in connection with Saint Peter. In the Jewish war, having become a refuge for pirates, it was taken by Cestius and destroyed, and even the very ruins were demolished by Vespasian. It was afterwards rebuilt, and in the time of the Crusades was alternately in the hands of the Christians and the Moslems., a city of the Phœnicians, which existed, it is said, before the deluge of the earth. It is situate on the slope of a hill, and in front of it lies a rock, upon which they point out the vestiges of the chains by which Andromeda was boundTo be devoured by the sea monster, from which she was delivered by Perseus, who had borrowed for the occasion the talaria or winged shoes of Mercury. In B. ix. c. 4, Pliny states that the skeleton of the monster was exhibited at Rome by M. Æmilius Scaurus, when he was Curule Ædile.. Here the fabulous goddess CetoProbably the same as Derceto or Atargatis, the fish-goddess with a woman's head, of the Syrians. is worshipped. Next to this place comes ApolloniaSituate between Cæsarea and Joppa. It is probable that it owed its name to the Macedonian kings of either Egypt or Syria. Arsûf, a deserted village, but which itself was of considerable importance in the time of the Crusades, represents the ancient Apollonia., and then the Tower of StratoThe site of the Turris Stratonis was afterwards occupied by Cæsarea, a city on the coast, founded by Herod the Great, and named Cæsarea in honour of Augustus Cæsar. It was renowned for the extent and magnificence of its harbour, which was secured by a breakwater of stupendous construction. For some time it was considered the principal city of Palestine and the chief seat of the Roman government. Although it again changed its name, as Pliny states, it still retained its name of Cæsarea as the Metropolitan See of the First Palestine. It was also of considerable importance during the occupation of the Holy Land by the Crusaders. Its ruins are still visible, but have served as a quarry for many generations, and Jaffa, Sidon, Acre and Beyrout have been supplied with stones from this site. Massive remains of its mole or break-water and its towers still exist., otherwise Cæsarea, built by King Herod, but now the Colony of Prima Flavia, established by the Emperor Vespasianus: this place is the frontier town of Palæstina, at a distance of 188 miles from the confines of Arabia; after which comes PhœniceOr Phœnicia.. In the interior of Samaria are the towns of NeapolisBy some regarded as the Scriptural town of Sichem, but by others as a distinct place, though in its immediate vicinity. Its present name is Naplous or Nabolos, situate between Mounts Ebal and Gerizim. Its proper name under the Romans was Flavia Neapolis. It was the birth-place of Justin Martyr., formerly called Mamortha, SebasteThe city of Samaria, so called from Shemer, the owner of the hill which Omri, King of Israel, purchased, about B.C. 922, for its site. Herod greatly renovated this city, which he called Sebaste, in honour of his patron Augustus, in Greek "Sebastos." Its site is now occupied by a poor village, which bears the name of Sebustieh., situate on a mountain, and, on a still more lofty one, GamalaA town of Palæstina, frequently mentioned by Josephus as remarkable for the strength of its fortifications, and situate on the Lake Tiberias, opposite to Tarichæa. After a spirited defence, it was taken by Vespasian, who slaughtered 4000 of the survivors, upon which 5000 threw themselves from the walls, and were dashed to pieces below. The site had been forgotten for nearly eighteen centuries, when Lord Lindsay discovered it on a lofty hill on the east of Lake Tiberias, and nearly opposite the town of that name. It is now called El-Hossn, and the ruins of the fortifications are very extensive..

Beyond Idumæa and Samaria, Judæa extends far and wide. That part of it which joins up to SyriaAntiochian Syria. is called Galilæa, while that which is nearest to Arabia and Egypt bears the name of PeræaPeræa was the general name of that part of Palæstina which lay east of the river Jordan; but more usually, in a restricted sense, it signified a part only of that region, namely the district between the rivers Hieromax on the north, and Arnon on the south.. This last is thickly covered with rugged mountains, and is separated from the rest of Judæa by the river Jordanes. The remaining part of Judæa is divided into ten Toparchies, which we will mention in the following order:—That of HiericusJericho, so often mentioned in Scripture. It was celebrated for its palm-grove, which was presented by Antony to Cleopatra. A Bedouin encampment called Riha is all that now occupies its site., covered with groves of palm-trees, and watered by numerous springs, and those of EmmaüsA city eight or ten miles from the village Emmaüs of the New Testament. It was called Nicopolis, in commemoration, it has been suggested, of the destruction of Jerusalem. Its site is still marked by a village called Ammious, on the road from Jerusalem to Jaffa., LyddaSo often mentioned in the New Testament. This town lay to the S.E. of Joppa, and N.W. of Jerusalem, at the junction of several roads which lead from the sea-coast. It was destroyed by the Romans in the Jewish war, but was soon after rebuilt, and called Diospolis. A village called Lud occupies its site., Joppe, AcrabatenaSo called from Acrabbim, its chief town, situate nine miles from Nicopolis. The toparchy of Acrabbim, which formerly formed part of Samaria, was the most northerly of those of Judæa., GophnaSituate in the country of Benjamin. Josephus reckons it second in importance only to Jerusalem, from which, according to Eusebius, it was distant fifteen miles, on the road to the modern Nablous. That author also identifies it with the Eshcol of Scripture. Its site is marked by a small Christian village, called by the natives Jufia., ThamnaLike the two preceding ones, this toparchy for a long time belonged to Samaria. Thamna, or Thamnis, was the Timnath-Serah in Mount Ephraim, mentioned in Joshua xix. 50, and xxiv. 30, as the place where Joshua was buried., BethleptepheneThe toparchy of Bethleptepha of other authors. It appears to have been situate in the south of Judæa, and in that part which is by Josephus commonly called Idumæa. Reland has remarked, that the name resembles Beth-lebaoth, a city of the tribe of Simeon, mentioned in Joshua xix. 6., OrinaFrom the Greek, meaning the "mountain district," or the "hill country," as mentioned in Luke i. 39., in which formerly stood HierosolymaOr "Sacred Solyma.", by far the most famous city, not of Judæa only, but of the East, and HerodiumA fortress of Palæstina, erected by Herod the Great, at a distance of about sixty stadia from Jerusalem, and not far from Tekoa. Its site has been identified by modern travellers with El-Furedis, or the Paradise; probably the same as the spot called the "Frank Mountain," on the top of which the ruined walls of the fortress are still to be seen., with a celebrated town of the same name.

(15.) The river JordanesCalled by the Arabs Bahr-el-Arden. rises from the spring of PaniasSituate on Mount Panias, or Paneas, on the range of Anti-Libanus., which has given its surname to Cæsarea, of which we shall have occasion to speakIn C 16 of the present Book.. This is a delightful stream, and, so far as the situation of the localities will allow of, winds alongOn the contrary, as Parisot observes, the Jordan runs in a straight line almost into the Dead Sea. in its course and lingers among the dwellers upon its banks. With the greatest reluctance, as it were, it moves onward towards AsphaltitesThe Lake of Sodom, or the Dead Sea, in which the Cities of the Plain were swallowed up., a lake of a gloomy and unpropitious nature, by which it is at last swallowed up, and its be praised waters are lost sight of on being mingled with the pestilential streams of the lake. For this reason it is that, as soon as ever the valleys through which it runs afford it the opportunity, it discharges itself into a lake, by many writers known as GenesaraIn Scripture also called the Lake Tiberias, and the Sea of Gennesareth, or Chinnereth. It is now called the Sea of Tabariah, or Tabarieh., sixteen miles in length and six wide; which is skirted by the pleasant towns of JuliasThe one of the two Bethsaidas, which was situate on the north of the Sea of Tiberias. It was enlarged by Philip the Tetrarch, who greatly beautified it, and changed its name to Julias, in honour of the daughter of Augustus, the wife of Tiberius. It is generally supposed by the learned world, that this was not the Bethsaida mentioned so often in the New Testament. Its ruins are probably those now seen on a hill called Et-Tell, on the north-western extremity of the lake. and HippoOn the east of the lake. From it the district of Hippene took its name. on the east, of TaricheaIts ruins are to be seen at El-Kereh, on the south side of the lake. It was strongly fortified, and made a vigorous resistance against the Romans in the Jewish War. It received its name from the great quantities of fish which were salted there, ta/rixoi. on the south (a name which is by many persons given to the lake itself), and of TiberiasNow Tabariah, or Tabarieh, a miserable village. It was built by Herod Antipas, in honour of the Emperor Tiberius. After the destruction of Jerusalem, it became the seat of the Jewish Sanhedrim. on the west, the hot springsThese hot springs are by Josephus called Emmaüs, probably a form of the Hebrew name Hammath. Dr. Robinson, in his Biblical Researches, identifies this with the town of Hammath, of the tribe of Naphthali, mentioned in Joshua xix. 35. of which are so conducive to the restoration of health.

(16.) AsphaltitesFrom the Greek a)/sfaltos. produces nothing whatever except bitu- men, to which indeed it owes its name. The bodies of animals will not sinkThis is an exaggeration, though it is the fact that many heavy substances, which in ordinary water would sink immediately, will float on the surface of this lake. It has been suggested, that the story here mentioned arose from the circumstance of the name of 'bulls,' or 'cows,' having been applied by the ancient Nabatæi to the large masses of asphaltum which floated on its surface. in its waters, and even those of bulls and camels float there. In length it exceeds 100 miles being at its greatest breadth twenty-five, and at its smallest six. Arabia of the NomadesThe country of the Arabian Scenitæ, or "tent people." faces it on the east, and Machærus on the southIt lay on the east of the Dead Sea, and not the south, as here mentioned by Pliny, being a border fortress in the south of Peræa, and on the confines of the Nabatæi. There was a tradition that it was at this place that John the Baptist was beheaded. The city now bears the name of Mascra., at one time, next to Hierosolyma, the most strongly fortified place in Judæa. On the same side lies CallirrhoëA Greek name, signifying the "Fine Stream." These were warm springs, situate on the eastern side of Jordan, to which Herod the Great resorted during his last illness, by the advice of his physicians. The valley of Callirhoë was visited by Captains Irby and Mangles in 1818, and an interesting account of it is to be found in their 'Travels,' pp. 467–469. The waters are sulphureous to the taste., a warm spring, remarkable for its medicinal qualities, and which, by its name, indicates the celebrity its waters have gained.

(17.) Lying on the west of Asphaltites, and sufficiently distant to escape its noxious exhalations, are the EsseniThe Essenes, or Hessenes. These properly formed one of the great sects into which the Jews were divided in the time of Christ. They are not mentioned by name in the New Testament, but it has been conjectured that they are alluded to in Matt. xix. 12, and Col. ii. 18, 23. As stated here by Pliny, they generally lived at a distance from large towns, in communities which bore a great resemblance to the monkish societies of later times. They sent gifts to the Temple at Jerusalem, but never offered sacrifices there. They were divided into four classes, according to the time of their initiation. Their origin is uncertain. Some writers look upon them as the same as the Assidians, or Chasidim, mentioned in 1 Maccabees, ii. 42, vii. 13. Their principal society was probably the one mentioned by Pliny, and from this other smaller ones proceeded, and spread over Palestine, Syria, and Egypt. The Essenes of Egypt were divided into two sects; the practical Essenes, whose mode of life was the same as those of Palestine; and the contemplative Essenes, who were called Therapeutœ. Both sects maintained the same doctrines; but the latter were distinguished by a more rigid mode of life. It has been suggested by Taylor, the editor of 'Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible,' that John the Baptist belonged to this sect., a people that live apart from the world, and marvellous beyond all others throughout the whole earth, for they have no women among them; to sexual desire they are strangers; money they have none; the palm-trees are their only companions. Day after day, however, their numbers are fully recruited by multitudes of strangers that resort to them, driven thither to adopt their usages by the tempests of fortune, and wearied with the miseries of life. Thus it is, that through thousands of ages, incredible to relate, this people eternally prolongs its existence, without a single birth taking place there; so fruitful a source of population to it is that weariness of life which is felt by others. Below this people was formerly the town of EngaddaOr Engedi. Its ancient name was Hazezon-Tamar, when it was inhabited by the Amorites. See Gen. xiv. 7; 2 Chron. xx. 2. According to Josephus, it gave name to one of the fifteen toparchies of Judæa. It still retains its name, Ain-Jedey, or "Fountain of the Goats," and was so called from a spring which issued out of the limestone rock at the base of a lofty cliff., second only to Hierosolyma in the fertility of its soil and its groves of palm-trees; now, like it, it is another heap of ashes. Next to it we come to MasadaIts site is now known as Sebbeh, on the south-west of the Dead Sea., a fortress on a rock, not far from Lake Asphaltites. Thus much concerning Judæa.

On the side of Syria, joining up to Judæa, is the region of DecapolisDeka\ polei=s, the "Ten Cities." He alludes to the circumstance, that the number of cities varied from time to time in this district; one being destroyed in warfare, and others suddenly rising from its foundation., so called from the number of its cities; as to which all writers are not agreed. Most of them, however, agree in speaking of DamascusThe capital city of Syria, both in ancient and modern times. It is now called Es-Sham. The only epithet given to it by the ancient poets is that of "ventosa," or "windy," found in the Pharsalia of Lucan, B. iii. 1. 215, which, it has been remarked, is anything but appropriately chosen. as one, a place fertilized by the river ChrysorroösOr the "Golden River." It is uncertain whether this was the Abana or Pharpar, mentioned in 2 Kings v. 12. Strabo remarks, that the waters of the Chrysorroös "are almost entirely consumed in irrigation, as it waters a large extent of deep soil.", which is drawn off into its meadows and eagerly imbibed; PhiladelphiaThe ancient Rabbath Ammon, a city of the Ammonites. It was afterwards called Astarte, and then Philadelphia, in honour of Ptolemy Philadelphus. According to D'Anville, the present name of its site is Amman., and RhaphanaThirty-three miles from Apamea. Its ruins are probably those mentioned by Abulfeda under the name of Rafaniat. William of Tyre says, that it was taken in the year 1125 by the Count of Tripoh., all which cities fall back towards Arabia; ScythopolisPreviously called Beth-shan. It was the next city of the Decapolis in magnitude after Damascus. It was situate in the land of the tribe of Issachar, though it belonged to the Manasites. At this place the bodies of Saul and his sons were hung up by the Philistines; see 1 Sam. xxxi. 10–12. Reland suggests that it received the name of Scythopolis, not from a Scythian colony, but from the Succoth of Gen. xxxiii. 17, which appears to have been in its vicinity. Its ruins, which still bear the name of Baisan, are very extensive. (formerly called Nysa by Father Liber, from his nurse having been buried there), its present name being derived from a Scythian colony which was established there; GadaraCalled by Josephus the capital of Peræa, and the chief place of the district of the Gadarenes of the Evangelists. Its ruins, about six miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee, are very extensive., before which the river HieromixStill called the Yarmak, evidently from its ancient name. Hippo has been mentioned in the last Chapter. flows; Hippo, which has been previously mentioned; DionOr Dium, between Pella and Gadara. In later times, this place was included in Roman Arabia., PellaAlso called Butis. It was the most southerly of the ten cities which comprised the Decapolis, standing about five miles south of Scythopolis, or Beth-shan. Its exact site seems not to have been ascertained; but it has been suggested that it is the modern El-Bujeh. From the expression used by Pliny, it would appear to have had mineral waters in its vicinity., rich with its waters; GalasaOf this place nothing is known; but it is most probable that the Gerasa of Ptolemy and Josephus is meant. According to the former writer, it was thirty-five miles from Pella. Its site is marked by extensive ruins, thirty-five miles east of the Jordan, known by the name of Gerash, and on the borders of the Great Desert of the Hauvan. According to Dr. Keith, the ruins bear extensive marks of splendour., and CanathaPtolemy mentions a city of this name in Cœlesyria.. The Tetrar- chiesSo called from having been originally groups of four principalities, held by princes who were vassals to the Roman emperors, or the kings of Syria. lie between and around these cities, equal, each of them, to a kingdom, and occupying the same rank as so many kingdoms. Their names are, TrachonitisContaining the northern district of Palestine, beyond the Jordan, between Antilibanus and the mountains of Arabia. It was bounded on the north by the territory of Damascus, on the east by Auranitis, on the south by Ituræa, and on the west by Gaulanitis. It was so called from its ranges of rocky mountains, or traxw=nes, the caves in which gave refuge to numerous bands of robbers., PaniasSo called from the mountain of that name. Cæsarea Philippi also bore the name of Panias. It was situate at the south of Mount Hermon, on the Jordan, just below its source. It was built by Philip the Tetrarch, B.C. 3. King Agrippa called it Neronias; but it soon lost that name., in which is Cæsarea, with the spring previously mentionedIn C. xiv. of the present Book, as that in which the Jordan takes its rise., AbilaA place of great strength in Cœle-Syria, now known as Nebi Abel, situate between Heliopolis and Damascus., ArcaSituate between Tripolis and Antaradus, at the north-west foot of Mount Libanus. It lay within a short distance of the sea, and was famous for the worship paid by its inhabitants to Astarte, the Syrian Aphrodite. A temple was erected here to Alexander the Great, in which Alexander Severus, the Roman Emperor, was born, his parents having resorted thither to celebrate a festival, A.D. 205. From this circumstance, its name was changed to Cæsarea. Burckhardt fixes its site at a hill called Tel-Arka., AmpeloëssaOf this place, which probably took its name from its numerous vines, nothing whatever is known., and GabeCalled by Pliny, in B. xii. c. 41, Gabba. It was situate at the foot of Mount Carmel between Cæsarea and Ptolemais, sixteen miles from the former. No remains of it are to be seen. It must not be confounded with Gabala, in Galilee, fortified by Herod the Great..

We must now return to the coast and to Phœnice. There was formerly a town here known as Crocodilon; there is still a riverThe town was situate between Cæsarea and Ptolemais. The river has been identified with the modern Nahl-el-Zerka, in which, according to Pococke, crocodiles have been found. of that name: DorumCalled Dor, before the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. See Joshua xvii. 11, and Judges i. 27. It afterwards belonged to the half-tribe of Manasseh. Its site is now called Tortura. and SycaminonIts site is now called Atlik, according to D'Anville. Parisot suggests that it is the modern Keufah; others that it is Hepha, near Mount Carmel. are the names of cities of which the remembrance only exists. We then come to the Promontory of CarmelusInsignificant in height and extent, but celebrated in Scripture history. It still bears the name of Cape Carmel., and, upon the mountain, a townIt is not improbable that he means the town of Porphyrium, now Khaifa, at the foot of the mountain. of that name, formerly called Acbatana. Next to this are GettaProbably the Gitta of Polybius. Of it and Jeba, nothing is known., Jeba, and the river Pacida, or BelusThe Nahr-Naman, or Abou, on which Ptolemais was situate., which throws up on its narrow banks a kind of sand from which glassEmployed in the extensive manufacture of that article at Tyre and Sidon, to the north of this district. is made: this river flows from the marshes of Cendebia, at the foot of Mount Carmelus. Close to this river is Ptolemais, formerly called AceA corruption of Acco, the native name; from which the English name Acre, and the French St. Jean d'Acre. The earliest mention of it is in the Book of Judges, i. 31. It is supposed that it was Ptolemy I., the son of Lagus, who enlarged it and gave it the name of Ptolemais. Its citadel, however, still retained the name of Ace. Under the Romans, Ptolemais, as mentioned by Pliny, was a colony, and belonged to Galilee. The modern city of Acre occupies its site., a colony of Claudius Cæsar; and then the town of EcdippaThe Ach-Zib of Scripture, mentioned in Joshua xix. 29, and Judges I. 31. Its ruins are to be seen near the sea-shore, about three hours' journey north of Acre. The spot is still called Es-Zib., and the promontory known as the White PromontoryStill called the Ras-el-Abiad, or White Promontory.. We next come to the city of TyreA colony of the Sidonians: its scanty ruins are still to be seen at the poor village of Sur. The wars of the Crusades completed its downfall. The island is still joined to the mainland by the mole which was erected by Alexander the Great during the siege of the place; or, according to some, by the Syrians themselves., formerly an island, separated from the mainland by a channel of the sea, of great depth, 700 paces in width, but now joined to it by the works which were thrown up by Alexander when besieging it,—the Tyre so famous in ancient times for its offspring, the cities to which it gave birth, Leptis, Utica, and CarthageCarthage is supposed to have been colonized immediately by the people of Utica.,— that rival of the Roman sway, that thirsted so eagerly for the conquest of the whole earth; Gades, too, which she founded beyond the limits of the world. At the present day, all her fame is confined to the production of the murex and the purpleFrom which was made the famous Tyrian purple.. Its circumference, including therein PalætyrusOr "ancient Tyre," which was built on the mainland., is nineteen miles, the place itself extending twenty-two stadia. The next towns are SareptaThe Zarephath of 1 Kings xvii. 9, 10, whither Elijah was sent to the widow, whose son he afterwards raised from the dead. Its site is now known as Sarfand. and OrnithonProbably meaning "City of the Birds," perhaps from the quantities of game in its vicinity. Its site now bears the name of Adlan., and then SidonIts site is now called Saïda. In the time of David and Solomon, it was probably subject to the kings of Tyre., famous for its manufacture of glass, and the parent of ThebesCadmus, the founder of Thebes, was said to have been the son of its king Agenor. in Bœotia.

(20.) In the rear of this spot begins the chain of Libanus, which extends 1500 stadia, as far as Simyra; this district has the name of Cœle Syria. Opposite to this chain, and separated from it by an intervening valley, stretches away the range of Antilibanus, which was formerly connected with LibanusThe Lebanon of Scripture. This intervening space, the ancient Cœle-Syria, is now inhabited by the Druses. by a wall. Beyond it, and lying in the interior, is the region of Decapolis, and, with it, the Tetrarchies already mentioned, and the whole expanse of Palæstina. On the coast, again, and lying beneath Libanus, is the river MagorasPerhaps the modern Nahr-el-Damur., the colony of BerytusNow Beyrout. By some it has been identified with the Berotha, or Berothai, of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its full name as a Roman colony was, "Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus." It was colonized by the veterans of the Fifth, or Macedonian, and the Eighth, or Augustan, Legions. Beyrout, or Berut, is now, in a commercial point of view, the most important place in Syria., which bears the name of Felix Julia, the town of LeontosNothing is known of this place. The name seems to mean, the "Town of the Lion.", the river LycosNow the Nahr-el-Kelb, or "Dog's River.", PalæbyblosThe site of this place seems not to be known., the river AdonisNow the Nahr-el-Ibrahim., and the towns of ByblosThe modern town which stands on its site is called Jebeil. It is situate at the foot of Lebanon. The ancient name seems to have been Gebal, and the Geblites are mentioned in Joshua, xiii. 5; 1 Kings, v. 18; and Ezek. xxvii. 9. The ruins of the ancient city are very extensive. Astarte and Isis seem to have been worshipped here., BotrysNow Batrun, a small town about twelve miles north of Byblus, said to have been founded by Ithobal, king of Tyre., GigartaNow Gazir, according to D'Anville., TrierisTwelve miles from Tripolis. Its name would seem to bear reference to a trireme, or galley. It has been said that this is the place referred to in the Book of Daniel, xi. 30., CalamosPolybius speaks of this place as being burnt by Antiochus. Its site still bears the name of Calamon, according to D'Anville., TripolisThis properly consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet apart, each with its own walls, but all connected in a common constitution; having one place of assembly, and forming in reality one city only. They were colonies, as here suggested by Pliny, of Tyre, Sidon, and Arados respectively. It is still a considerable place, called Tarabolos, or Tarablis, by the Turks., inhabited by the Tyrians, Sidonians, and Aradians; OrthosiaIts site is still known as Ortosa, or Tortosa., the river EleutherosProbably the same as the Nahr-el-Kebir, or "Great River," to the north of Tripolis. It may have derived its Greek name, which signifies "free," from its similarity to that given to it by the people of the country. the towns of Simyra and MarathosThis was an important city, near Antarados. Its ruins are spoken of as very extensive. Simyra is still called Sumira.; and opposite, AradosNow called Ruad; an island off the northern coast of Phœnicia, at a distance of twenty stadia from the mainland, Pliny falling short here in his measurement. The city of Arados was very populous, though built on a mere rock; and, contrary to Eastern custom, the houses contained many stories. It is spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel under the name of Arvad: see c. xxvii. 8, 11. In importance, it ranked next to the cities of Tyre and Sidon., a town seven stadia long, on an island, distant 200 paces from the mainland. After passing through the country in which the before-named mountains end and the plains that lie between, Mount BargylusIts modern name does not appear to be known. is seen to rise.

Here Phœnicia ends, and Syria recommences. The towns are, CarneAlso called Antarados, as lying nearly opposite to the city of Arados. According to Strabo, the port of Antarados was called Carne, or Carnos. In the time of the Crusades, it was known under the name of Tortosa. Its present name is Tartus., BalaneaNow Banias. It was situate twenty-four miles north of Antarados. Its name is supposed to have originated in the baths in its vicinity. The site is deserted; but a few ruins of the ancient town are still to be seen., PaltosEight miles from Balanea. Its ruins are known by the name of Boldo., and GabaleIts site is now known as Djebeleh, a small village in the vicinity of Laodicea, or Latakia. The sun was probably worshipped here, and hence the Emperor Heliogabalus derived his name.; then the promontory upon which is situate the free town of LaodiceaAbout fifty miles south of Antioch, now called Ladikiyeh, or Latakia, noted for the excellence of its tobacco, which has an European reputation. It was built by Seleucus I., on the site of an earlier city, called Ramitha. It was afterwards greatly favoured by Julius Cæsar. Herod the Great built an aqueduct here, the ruins of which are still in existence. It is now a poor Turkish village; but there are considerable remains of the ancient city to be seen in its vicinity.; and then DiospolisIt has been suggested, that Pliny means the city of Lydda, in the tribe of Benjamin, which of course would be very much to the south, and quite out of the order in which he is proceeding. If that is not the place meant, this Diospolis is utterly unknown., HeracleaAt some miles' distance to the north of Laodicea. Pococke found some traces of its site at a spot called Minta Baurdeleh, or the Bay of the Tower., CharadrusPliny is in error here most probably, and is speaking of a place as being in Syria which in reality was in Cilicia, between Platanus and Cragus. The name implies its situation near a mountain torrent., and PosidiumOn a small bay, some miles north of Heraclea..

(21.) We then come to the Promontory of Syria Antiochia. In the interior is the free city of AntiochiaOr Antioch, the capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and the most famous of the sixteen cities built by Seleucus Nicator, and called after the name of his father, (or son, as some say,) Antiochus. It was built on the Orontes, and formed one of the most beautiful and pleasant cities of the ancient world. The modern Antakieh is a poor town, built on the north-western part of the site of the ancient city, by the river. The walls, built by Justinian, may still be traced for a circuit of four miles. Here the followers of our Saviour first obtained the name of "Christians." itself, surnamed EpidaphnesThat is, "Near Daphne," there being a celebrated grove of that name, consecrated to Apollo, in its immediate vicinity., and divided by the river OrontesNow called the Nahr-el-Asy.. On the promontory is SeleuciaNow Seleuca, or Kepse, at the foot of Mount Pieria. It has been referred to in a previous note., called Pieria, a free city. (22.) Beyond it lies Mount CasiusNow known as Djebel-el-Akra., a different one from the mountain of the same nameIn the extreme north-east of Egypt. See pp. 422 and 424. which we have already mentioned. The height of this mountain is so vast, that, at the fourth watchThe beginning of the fourth watch was three o'clock in the morning. The height of this mountain does not in reality appear to be anything remarkable, and has been ascertained to be but 5318 feet. There is probably no foundation for the marvellous story here told by Pliny; nevertheless, we are told by Spartianus, that the Emperor Adrian passed a night upon the mountain, for the purpose of seeing this extraordinary sight; but a storm arising, it prevented the gratification of his curiosity. It lay near Nymphæum and Seleucia, and its base was washed by the waters of the Orontes. of the night, you can see from it, in the midst of the darkness, the sun rising on the east; and thus, by merely turning round, we may at one and the same time behold both day and night. The winding road which leads to its summit is nineteen miles in length, its perpendicular height four. Upon this coast there is the river Orontes, which takes its rise near HeliopolisOr Baalbec, in the interior of Syria., between the range of Libanus and Antilibanus. The towns are, RhososAccording to Ansart, it still retains that name., and, behind it, the Gates of SyriaNow called Bylan. This was the name of the narrow pass between a portion of Mount Taurus and the Rock of Rossicum. According to Ansart, the spot is called at the present day Saggal Doutan., lying in the space between the chain of the Rhosian mountains and that of Taurus. On the coast there is the town of MyriandrosThis was a Phœnician colony, on the eastern side of the Gulf of Issus; it is said by Ansart still to retain its ancient name., and Mount AmanusNow called Aima-Dagh, a branch of Mount Taurus, running from the head of the Gulf of Issus, north-east, to the principal chain, and dividing Syria from Cilicia and Cappadocia. There were two passes in it, the Syrian Gates and the Amanian Gates. It is often spoken of by Cicero, who was the Roman governor of Cilicia., upon which is the town of BomitæThe locality of this place is unknown, as Pliny is the only author who mentions it.. This mountain separates Cilicia from Syria.

We must now speak of the interior of Syria. Cœle Syria has the town of ApameaNow Kulat-el-Mudik, situate in the valley of the Orontes, and capital of the province of Apamene. It was fortified and enlarged by Seleucus Nicator, who gave it its name, after his wife Apama. It also bore the Macedonian name of Pella. It was situate on a hill, and was so far surrounded by the windings of the Orontes, as to become a peninsula, whence its name of Chersonesus. Very extensive ruins of this place still exist., divided by the river Marsyas from the Tetrarchy of the NazeriniIt is suggested, that these are the Phylarchi Arabes of Strabo, now called the Nosairis, who were situate to the east of Apamea. The river Marsyas here mentioned was a small tributary of the Orontes, into which it falls on the east side, near Apamea.; Bambyx, the other name of which is HierapolisThis was situate in Cyrrhestica, in Syria, on the high road from Antioch to Mesopotamia, twenty-four miles to the west of the Euphrates, and thirty-six to the south-west of Zeugma; two and a half days' journey from Berœa, and five from Antioch. It obtained its Greek name of the "Sacred City" from Seleucus Nicator, owing to its being the chief seat of the worship of the Syrian goddess Astarte. Its ruins were first discovered by Maundrell., but by the Syrians called MabogIn the former editions it is "Magog;" but Sillig's reading of "Mabog" is correct, and corresponds with the Oriental forms of Munbedj, Manbesja, Manbesjun, Menba, Manba, Manbegj, and the modern name, Kara Bambuche, or Buguk Munbedj., (here the monster AtargatisAstarte, the semi-fish goddess., called Derceto by the Greeks, is worshipped); and the place called ChalcisThis Chalcis is supposed to have been situate somewhere in the district of the Buckaa, probably south of Heliopolis, or Baalbec. It has been suggested, that its site may have been at, or near Zahle; in the vicinity of which, at the village of Heusn Nieba, are to be seen some remarkable remains. Or else, possibly, at Majdel Anjar, where Abulfeda speaks of great ruins of hewn stone. on the BelusAnsart suggests, that Belus is here the name of a mountain, and that it may be the same that is now called Djebel-il-Semmaq., from which the region of Chalcidene, the most fertile part of Syria, takes its name. We here find also Cyrrhestice, with CyrrhumTo the north of Chalcidene, a town of Syria, on the slopes of the Taurus, eighty miles to the north-east of Antioch. In the Roman times, it was the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion. The ruins near the modern village of Corus represent the ancient Cyrrhus. Of the Gazatæ and Gindareni, nothing is known., the Gazatæ, the Gindareni, the Gabeni, the two Tetrarchies called GranucomatæPossibly meaning the "Burghers of Granum." Nothing is known of these people., the EmeseniThe people of Emesa, a city in the district of Apamene, on the right, or eastern bank of the Orontes, to which, in C. 26 of the present Book, Pliny assigns a desert district beyond Palmyra. It was celebrated in ancient times for its magnificent temple of the sun, and the appointment of its priest, Bassianus, or Heliogabalus, to the imperial dignity, in his fourteenth year. It was made a colony, with the jus Italicum, by Caracalla, and afterwards became the capital of Phœnicia Libanesia. The present name of its site is Hems., the Hyla- tæThe Hylatæ are totally unknown. Ituræa was situate in the north-east of Palestine, and, with Trachonitis, belonged to the tetrarchy of Philip. Its boundaries cannot be precisely determined; but it may probably be traversed by a line drawn from the Lake of Tiberias to Damascus., the nation of the Ituræi, and a branch of them, the people called the Bætarreni; the MariamitaniAccording to Ptolemy, the people of Mariama, some miles to the west of Emesa., the Tetrarchy known as Marnmisea, ParadisusIn the district of Laodicea, according to Ptolemy., PagræNear the Portæ Amani, or "Passes of Amanus.", the PinaritæPinara was near Pagræ, in Pieria, last mentioned., two cities called Seleucia, besides the one already mentioned, the one Seleucia on the EuphratesProbably Seleucia, in Mesopotamia, now called Bir, on the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma, a fortress of considerable importance., and the other SeleuciaIts site is doubtful. Sebj d'Aboulgazi has been suggested. on the Belus, and the Cardytenses. The remaining part of Syria (except those parts which will be spoken of in conjunction with the Euphrates) contains the ArethusiiThe people of Arethusa, a city of Syria, not far from Apamea, situate between Epiphania and Emesa. In later times, it took the name of Restan., the BerœensesThe people of Berœa, a town of Syria, midway between Antioch and Hierapolis. Seleucus Nicator gave to it the Macedonian name of Berœa; but, in A.D. 638, it resumed its ancient name of Chaleb, or Chalybon. The modern Haleb, or Aleppo, occupies its site. Some excavations, on the eastern side of it, are the only vestiges of ancient remains in the neighbourhood., and the EpiphanæensesThe people of Epiphanæa, placed by Ptolemy in the district of Cassiotis, in which also Antioch and Larissa were situate. The Itinerary of Antoninus places it sixteen miles from Larissa, thirty-two from Emesa, and 101 from Antioch of Syria. It is supposed to have been identical with the ancient Hamath, mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings viii. 65; Isaiah x. 9, and called "Hamath the great" in Amos vi. 2, which name it also retained in the time of St. Jerome.; and on the east, the LaodiceniThe people of Laodicea ad Libanum, a city of Cœle-Syria, at the northern entrance to the narrow valley, between Libanus and Anti- Libanus. During the possession of Cœle-Syria by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was the south west border fortress of Syria. It was the chief city of a district called Laodicene., who are called the Laodiceni on the Libanus, the LeucadiiOf Leucas, or Leucadia, nothing is known. Larissa, in Syria, was a city in the district of Apamene, on the western bank of the Orontes, about half-way between Apamea and Epiphania. The site is now called Kulat-Seijar., and the Larissæi, besides seventeen other Tetrarchies, divided into kingdoms and bearing barbarous names.

This place, too, will be the most appropriate one for making some mention of the Euphrates. This river rises in CaranitisIn the western branch of the plateau of Iran, a portion of the Taurus chain. Considerable changes in the course of the lower portion of the river have taken place since the time when Pliny wrote. Caranitis is the modern Arzrum, or Erzrúm, of the Turks., a præfecture of Greater Armenia, according to the statement of those who have approached the nearest to its source. Domitius Corbulo says, that it rises in Mount Aba; Licinius Mucianus, at the foot of a mountain which he calls CapotesNow called Dujik Tagh, a mountain of Armenia., twelve miles above Zimara, and that at its source it has the name of Pyxurates. It first flows past DerxeneIt has been suggested, that the proper reading here would be Xerxene., and then AnaiticaProbably the district where the goddess Anais was worshipped, who is mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiii. c. 24., shutting outFrom the place of confluence where the two mountain streams forming the Euphrates unite. This spot is now known as Kebban Ma'den. the regions of Armenia from Cappadocia. DascusaA fortress upon the river Euphrates, in Lesser Armenia. It has been identified with the ferry and lead-mines of Kebban Ma'den, the points where the Kara Su is joined by the Myrad-Chaï, at a distance of 270 miles from its source; the two streams forming, by their confluence, the Euphrates. is distant from Zimara seventy-five miles; from this spot it is navigable as far as SartonaOther readings have "Pastona" here, said by D'Anville to be the modern Pastek., a distance of fifty miles, thence to MeliteneCalled the metropolis of Lesser Armenia by Procopius. It was situate between Anti-Taurus and the Euphrates, and celebrated for its fertility, more especially in fruit-trees, oil, and wine. The site of the city Melitene is now called Malatiyah, on a tributary of the Euphrates, and near that river itself., in Cappadocia, distant seventy-fourIt is generally supposed that "twenty-four" would be the correct reading here. miles, and thence to ElegiaThere were two places of this name. The one here spoken of was a town of Lesser Armenia, on the right bank of the Euphrates, at the first, or principal curve, which takes place before the river enters Mount Taurus. It is represented by the modern Iz Oghlu., in Armenia, distant ten miles ; receiving in its course the rivers LycusNo other writer is found to make mention of the Lycus, which flows into the Euphrates, though there is a river formerly so called, which flows into the Tigris below Larissa, the modern Nimroud. D'Anville is of opinion, that it is formed from the numerous springs, called by the people of the district Bing-gheul, or the "Thousand Springs.", ArsaniasNow called the Myrad-Chaï. Ritter considers it to be the south arm of the Euphrates. The Arsanus is mentioned by no writer except Pliny., and Arsanus. At Elegia it meets the range of Mount Taurus, but no effectual resistance is offered to its course, although the chain is here twelve miles in width. At its passageThe defile at this place is now called the Cataract of Nachour, according to Parisot. between the mountains, the river bears the name of OmmaThe more general reading here is "Omira." Hardouin is of opinion, that this is the district referred to in the Book of Judith, ii. 24. In the Vulgate, it appears to be twice called the river >Mambre; but in our version it is called Arbonaï.; but afterwards, when it has passed through, it receives that of Euphrates. Beyond this spot it is full of rocks, and runs with an impetuous tide. It then divides that part of Arabia which is called the country of the OreiBurnouf has concluded, from a cuneiform inscription which he deciphered, that the name of this people was Ayurâ, and that Hardouin is wrong in conjecturing that it was a name derived from the Greek o)/ros, "a mountain," and designating the people as a mountain tribe. If Burnouf is right, the proper reading here would seem to be Arœi, or Arrhœi., on the left, by a channel three schœniThe length of the schœnus has been mentioned by our author in C. 11 of the present Book. M. Saigey makes the Persian parasang to be very nearly the same length as the schœnus of Pliny. in width, from the territory of the CommageniCommagene was a district in the north of Syria, bounded by the Euphrates on the east, by Cilicia on the west, and by Amanus on the north. Its capital was Samosata. on the right, and it admits of a bridge being thrown across it, even where it forces a passage through the range of Taurus. At ClaudiopolisThe place here spoken of by Pliny is probably the same mentioned by Ptolemy as in Cataonia, one of the provinces of Cappadocia. According to Parisot, the site of the place is called at the present day 'Ra Claudie.', in Cappadocia, it takes an easterly direction; and here, for the first time in this contest, Taurus turns it out of its course; though conquered before, and rent asunder by its channel, the mountain-chain now gains the victory in another way, and, breaking its career, compels it to take a southerly direction. Thus is this warfare of nature equally waged,—the river proceeding onward to the destination which it intends to reach, and the mountains forbidding it to proceed by the path which it originally intended. After passing the CataractsSalmasius has confounded these cataracts with those of Nachour, or Elegia, previously mentioned. It is evident, however, that they are not the same., the river again becomes navigable; and, at a distance of forty miles from thence, is SamosataNow called Someisat. In literary history, it is celebrated as being the birth-place of the satirist Lucian. Nothing remains of it but a heap of ruins, on an artificial mound., the capital of Commagene.

Arabia, above mentioned, has the cities of EdessaIn the district of Osrhoëne, in the northern part of Mesopotamia. It was situate on the Syrtus, now the Daisan, a small tributary of the Euphrates. Pliny speaks rather loosely when he places it in Arabia. It is supposed that it bore the name of Antiochia during the reign of the Syrian king, Antiochus IV. The modern town of Orfahor Uufah is supposed to represent its site., formerly called Antiochia, and, from the name of its fountain, Callirhoë"The beautiful stream." It is generally supposed that this was another name of Edessa., and CarrhæSupposed to be the Haran, or Charan, of the Old Testament. It was here, as alluded to by Pliny, that Crassus was defeated and slain by the Parthian general, Surena. It was situate in Osroëne, in Mesopotamia, and not far from Edessa. According to Stephanus, it had its name from Carrha, a river of Syria, and was celebrated in ancient times for its temple of Luna, or Lunus., memorable for the defeat of Crassus there. Adjoining to this is the præfecture of Mesopotamia, which derives its origin from the Assyrians, and in which are the towns of AnthemusiaAccording to Strabo, the Aborras, now the Khabur, flowed round this town. By Tacitus it is called Anthemusias. According to Isidorus of Charax, it lay between Edessa and the Euphrates. and NicephoriumNow Rakkah, a fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the mouth of the river Bilecha. It was built by order of Alexander the Great, and completed probably by Seleucus. It is supposed to have been the same place as Callinicum, the fortifications of which were repaired by Justinian. Its name was changed in later times to Leontopolis by the Emperor Leo.; after which come the Arabians, known by the name of Prætavi, with SingaraNow called Sinjar, according to Brotier. Some writers imagine that this was the site of "the plain in the land of Shinar," on which the Tower of Babel was built, mentioned in the Book of Genesis, xi. 2. for their capital. Below Samosata, on the side of Syria, the river MarsyasMentioned in C. 17 of the present Book. flows into the Euphrates. At Cingilla ends the territory of Commagene, and the state of the Immei begins. The cities which are here washed by the river are those of EpiphaniaProbably not that in the district of Cassiotis, and on the western bank of the Orontes, mentioned in C. 19 of the present Book. Of this locality nothing seems to be known, except that Dupinet states that it is now called Adelphe by the Turks. and AntiochiaProbably the "Antiochia ad Taurum" mentioned by the geographer Stephanus, and by Ptolemy. Some writers place it at the modern Aintab, seventy-five miles north-east of Aleppo., generally known as Epiphania and Antiochia on the Euphrates; also Zeugma, seventy-two miles distant from Samosata, famous for the passage there across the Euphrates. Opposite to it is ApamiaNow called Roum-Cala, or the "Roman Castle." For Zeugma see p. 424., which Seleucus, the founder of both cities, united by a bridge. The people who join up to Mesopotamia are called the Rhoali. Other towns in Syria are those of EuropusIn the north-east of the district of Astropatene, originally called Rhaga. It was rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator, and by him called Europus. Colonel Rawlinson has identified it with the present Veramin, at no great distance from the ancient Rhages., and what was formerly Thapsa- cusIts ruins are to be seen at the ford of El Hamman, near the modern Rakkah. It stood on the banks of the Euphrates; and here was the usual, and, for a long time, the only ford of the Euphrates. It is supposed to have derived its name from the Aramean word "Thiphsach," signifying "a ford.", now Amphipolis. We then come to the Arabian ScenitæOr "Dwellers in Tents." See p. 422.. The Euphrates then proceeds in its course till it reaches the place called UraAccording to Ortelius and Hardouin, this is the place called Sura by Pliny, in C. 26 of the present Book; but Parisot differs from that opinion. Bochart suggests, that "Ur, of the Chaldees," is the place referred to under this name; but, as Hardouin observes, that place lay at a considerable distance to the south., at which, taking a turn to the east, it leaves the Syrian Deserts of PalmyraSo called from the circumstance that Palmyra stood in the midst of them. It was built by King Solomon, in an oasis of the Desert, in the midst of palm groves, from which it received its Greek name, which was a translation also of the Hebrew "Tadmor," "the city of palm-trees." It lay at a considerable distance from the Euphrates. Its site presents considerable ruins; but they are all of the Roman period, and greatly inferior to those of Baalbec or Heliopolis., which extend as far as the city of PetraThe rock fortress of the Idumæans in Arabia Petræa, now called Wady-Musa, half-way between the head of the Gulf of Akabah and the Dead Sea. and the regions of Arabia Felix.

(25.) Palmyra is a city famous for the beauty of its site, the riches of its soil, and the delicious quality and abundance of its water. Its fields are surrounded by sands on every side, and are thus separated, as it were, by nature from the rest of the world. Though placed between the two great empires of Rome and Parthia, it still maintainsWhich it continued to do until it was conquered under its queen, Zenobia, by the Emperor Aurelian, in A.D. 270. It was partially destroyed by him, but was afterwards fortified by Justinian; though it never recovered its former greatness. its independence; never failing, at the very first moment that a rupture between them is threatened, to attract the careful attention of both. It is distant 337 miles from SeleuciaSee B. vi. c. 30. of the Parthians, generally known as Seleucia on the Tigris, 203 from the nearest part of the Syrian coast, and twenty-seven less from Damascus.

(26.) Below the deserts of Palmyra is the region of StelendenePliny is the only author that makes mention of Stelendene., and Hierapolis, Berœa, and Chalcis, already mentionedIn C. 19 of the present Book.. Beyond Palmyra, EmesaPreviously mentioned by Pliny. See p. 439. Of Elatium nothing is known. takes to itself a portion of these deserts; also Elatium, nearer to Petra by one-half than Damascus. At no great distance from SuraThe same place that is also mentioned in history as Flavia Firms Sura. The site of Philiscum is totally unknown. is Philiscum, a town of the Parthians, on the Euphrates. From this place it is ten days' sail to Seleucia, and nearly as many to Babylon. At a distance of 594 miles beyond Zeugma, near the village of Massice, the Euphrates divides into two channels, the left one of which runs through Mesopotamia, past Seleucia, and falls into the Tigris as it flows around that city. Its channel on the right runs towards Babylon, the former capital of Chaldæa, and flows through the middle of it; and then through another city, the name of which is OtrisNothing is known of this place., after which it becomes lost in the marshes. Like the Nile, this river increases at stated times, and at much about the same period. When the sun has reached the twentieth degree of Cancer, it inundatesParisot remarks, that it is true that the Euphrates increases periodically, much in the same manner as the Nile; but that its increase does not arise from similar causes, nor are the same results produced by it, seeing that the river does not convey the same volume of water as the Nile, and that the country in the vicinity of its bed does not, like Egypt, form a valley pent up between two ranges of hills. Mesopotamia; and, after he has passed through Leo and entered Virgo, its waters begin to subside. By the time the sun has entered the twenty-ninth degree of Virgo, the river has fully regained its usual height.

But let us now return to the coast of Syria, joining up to which is Cilicia. We here find the river DiaphanesSo called probably from the Greek diafanh\s, "transparent." It has not been identified, but it was no doubt a small stream falling into the Gulf of Issus., Mount Crocodilus, the GatesOr "Passes." As to Mount Amanus, see C. 18 of the present Book. of Mount Amanus, the rivers AndrocusParisot suggests that this is the Chersos of Xenophon, the modern Kermes., PinarusThe Deli-Su of modern times according to D'Anville, the Maher-Su according to Pococke., and LycusPliny is the only writer that mentions this river Lycus., the Gulf of IssosThe Gulf of Issos is now called the Gulf of Scanderoon or Iskenderun, from the town of that name, the former Alexandria ad Issum, mentioned here by Pliny. In the vicinity of Issus, Alexander defeated the army of Darius. The exact site of the town appears not to have been ascertained., and the town of that name; then AlexandriaWhich still preserves its name in Iskenderun, on the east side of the Gulf. It probably received its name in honour of Alexander the Great., the river ChlorusOr the "Green" River. Its identity is unknown., the free town of ÆgæNow called Ayas Kala or Kalassy. It was a place, in the Roman period, of some importance., the river PyramusThe modern river Jihan., the GatesOr "Passes" of Cilicia, through the range of Taurus. of Cilicia, the towns of MallosCalled Mallo in modern times, according to Hardouin and Dupinet. and MagarsosAt the mouth of the Pyramus, according to Tzetzes., and, in the interior, TarsusFamous as the birth-place of St. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles. Its ruins still bear the name of Tersus. During the civil war it took part with Julius Cæsar, and from him received the name of Juliopolis.. We then come to the Aleian PlainsThey lie between the rivers Djihoun and Syhoun, according to Ansart., the town of Cassipolis, MopsosNow called Messis, according to D'Anville and Mannert. The site of Cassipolis, or Cassiopolis according to some readings, is unknown., a free town on the river Pyramus, Thynos, Zephyrium, and AnchialeThe sites of Thynos and Zephyrium appear to be unknown. Anchiale was situate on the coast, upon the river Anchialcus, according to the geographer Stephanus. Aristobulus, quoted by Strabo, says that at this place was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and on it a relief in stone representing a man snapping the fingers of the right hand. He adds, "It is said that there is an Assyrian inscription also, recording that Sardanapalus built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day, and exhorting the reader to eat, drink, &c., as everything else is not worth That, the meaning of which was shown by the attitude of the figure." Athenæus however cites Amyntas as his authority for stating that the tomb of Sardanapalus was at Nineveh. Leake is of opinion that a mound on the banks of the river beyond the modern villages of Kazalu and Karaduar forms the remains of Anchiale.. Next to these are the rivers SarosThe modern Syhou, according to Ansart. and CydnusNow called the Tersoos Chai. It is remarkable for the coldness of its waters, and it was here that Alexander the Great nearly met with his death from bathing when heated, in the stream., the latter of which, at some distance from the sea, runs through the free city of Tarsus, the region of Celenderitis with a townNow Chelendreh. It was a strong place on the coast, situate on a high rock nearly surrounded by the sea. None of its ruins seem older than the early period of the Roman empire. The Turks call it Gulnare. of similar name, the place where NymphæumProbably so called from a temple to the Sea Nymphs there. stood, Soli of CiliciaTo distinguish it from Solæ or Soli of Cyprus. It was situate between the rivers Cydnus and Lamus, and was said to have been colonized by Argives and Lydians from Rhodes. Alexander mulcted its inhabitants of 200 talents, for their adhesion to the Persians. It was celebrated as the birth-place of the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, the comic poet Philemon, and the poet and astronomer Aratus. Its name is perpetuated in the word Solecism, which is said to have been first applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken by the inhabitants of this city, or as some say, of Soli in Cyprus., now called Pompeiopolis, AdanaIt still retains its ancient name, and is situate on the western side of the Sarus, now the Syhoun or Syhan. Pompey settled here some of the Cilician pirates whom he had conquered., CibyraLeake, in his 'Asia Minor,' p. 196, says, "The vestiges of Cibyra are probably those observed by Captain Beaufort upon a height which rises from the right bank of a considerable river about eight miles to the eastward of the Melas, about four miles to the west of Cape Karáburnu, and nearly two miles from the shore." Ptolemy mentions Cibyra as an inland town of Cilicia Trachea, but Scylax places it on the coast., PinareIts ruins are still called Pinara or Minara. It was an inland city of Lycia, some distance west of the river Xanthus, and at the foot of Mount Cragus., PedalieOr perhaps 'Podalie.' Of it nothing seems to be known., Ale, SelinusOr Selinuntum, now Selenti, on the coast of Cilicia. In consequence of the death here of the Emperor Trajan, it received the name of Trajanopolis. Of Ale, if that is the correct reading, nothing whatever is known., ArsinoëOn the coast of Cilicia; mentioned by Strabo as having a port. Leake places it at or near the ruined castle called Sokhta Kalesi, below which is a port, and a peninsula on the east side of the harbour covered with ruins., IotapeIn the district of Selenitis. It has been identified with the site of the modern fortress of Lambardo. It is also suggested that it may have been the same place as Laerte, the native city of Diogenes Laertius. Of Doron nothing seems to be known., Doron, and, near the sea, Corycos, there being a townIts ruins are supposed to be those seen by Leake near the island of Crambusa. Here the walls of an ancient city may still be traced, and a mole of unhewn rocks projects from one angle of the fortress about 100 yards across the bay., port, and caveStrabo describes this cave as a vast hollow of circular form, surrounded by a margin of rock on all sides of considerable height; on descending it, the ground was found full of shrubs, both evergreens and cultivated, and in some parts the best saffron was grown. He also says that there was a cave which contained a large spring, from which arose a river of clear water which immediately afterwards sank into the earth and flowed underground into the sea. It was called the Bitter Water. This cave, so famed in ancient times, does not appear to have been examined by any modem traveller. It was said to have been the bed of the giant Typhon or Typhœus. all of the same name. Passing these, we come to the river CalycadnusNow known as the Ghiuk-Su., the Promontory of SarpedonSupposed to be the same as the modern Lessan-el-Kahpeh., the towns of HolmœOr Holmi, on the coast of Cilicia Tracheia, a little to the south-west of Seleucia. Leake thinks that the modern town of Aghaliman occupies the site of Holmœ. and Myle, and the Promontory and town of VenusProbably the same place as the Aphrodisias mentioned by Livy, Diodorus Siculus, and Ptolemy., at a short distance from the island of Cyprus. On the mainland there are the towns of Myanda, AnemuriumOn the headland now called Cape Anemour, the most southerly part of Asia Minor. Beaufort discovered on the point indications of a considerable ancient town., and CoracesiumIts site is now called Alaya or Alanieh. This spot was Strabo's boundary-line between Pamphylia and Cilicia. Some slight remains of the ancient town were seen here by Beaufort, but no inscriptions were found., and the river MelasIdentified by Beaufort with the modern Manaugat-Su., the ancient boundary of Cilicia. In the interior the places more especially worthy of mention are AnazarbusSo called, either from an adjacent mountain of that name, or its founder, Anazarbus. Its later name was Cæsarea ad Anazarbum. Its site is called Anawasy or Amnasy, and is said to display considerable remains of the ancient town. Of Augusta nothing is known: Ptolemy places it in a district called Bryelice., now called Cæsarea, Augusta, CastabalaIdentified by Ainsworth with the ruins seen at Kara Kaya in Cilicia., EpiphaniaPompey settled some of the Cilician pirates here after his defeat of them. It was thirty miles east of Anazarbus, but its site does not appear to have been identified., formerly called Œniandos, EleusaAn island off the shore of Cilicia, also called Sebaste., IconiumSome of the MSS. read "Riconium" here., SeleuciaIts ruins are called Selefkeh. This was an important city of Seleucia Aspera, built by Seleucus I. on the western bank of the river Calycadnus. It had an oracle of Apollo, and annual games in honour of Zeus Olympius. It was a free city under the Romans. It was here that Frederick Barbarossa, the emperor of Germany, died. Its ruins are picturesque and extensive. upon the river Calycadnus, surnamed Tracheotis, a city removedMeaning that the inhabitants of Holmia were removed by Seleucus to his new city of Seleucia. from the sea-shore, where it had the name of Holmia. Besides those already mentioned, there are in the interior the rivers LiparisSaid by Vitruvius to have had the property of anointing those who bathed in its waters. If so, it probably had its name from the Greek word liparo\s, "fat." It flowed past the town of Soloë. Bombos and Paradisus are rivers which do not appear to have been identified., Bombos, Paradisus, and Mount ImbarusA branch of the Taurus range..

All the geographers have mentioned Pamphylia as joining up to Cilicia, without taking any notice of the people of IsauriaIt bordered in the east on Lycaonia, in the north on Phrygia, in the west on Pisidia, and in the south on Cilicia and Pamphylia.. Its cities are, in the interior, IsauraA well-fortified city at the foot of Mount Taurus. It was twice destroyed, first by its inhabitants when besieged by Perdiccas, and again by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Strabo says that Amyntas of Galatea built a new city in its vicinity out of the ruins of the old one. D'Anville and others have identified the site of Old Isauria with the modern Bei Sheher, and they are of opinion that Seidi Sheher occupies the site of. New Isaura, but Hamilton thinks that the ruins on a hill near the village of Olou Bounar mark the site of New Isaura. Of the two next places nothing seems to be known at the present day., Clibanus, and Lalasis; it runs down towards the sea by the side of AnemuriumIn the last Chapter. already mentioned. In a similar manner also, all who have treated of this subject have been ignorant of the existence of the nation of the Homonades bordering upon Isauria, and their town of HomonaIn Pisidia, at the southern extremity of Lake Caralitis. Tacitus, Annals, iii. 48, says that this people possessed forty-four fortresses: whereas Strabo speaks of them as the most barbarous of all the Pisidian tribes, dwelling only in caves. They were conquered by the consul Quirinius in the time of Augustus. in the interior. There are forty-four other fortresses, which lie concealed amid rugged crags and valleys.

The PisidæPisidia was a mountainous region formed by that part of the main chain of Mount Taurus which sweeps round in a semicircle parallel to the shore of the Pamphylian Gulf; the shore itself at the foot of the mountains forming the district of Pamphylia. On the south-east it was bounded by Cilicia, on the east and north-east by Lycaonia and Isauria, and by Phrygia Parorios on the north, where its boundaries greatly varied at different times., formerly called the Solymi, occupy the higher parts of the mountains. In their country there is the colony of Cæsarea, also called AntiochiaGenerally called "Antioch of Pisidia," was situate on the south side of the mountain boundary between Phrygia and Pisidia. The modern Yalobatch is supposed to occupy its site. The remains of the ancient town are numerous. Its title of Cæsarea was probably given to it on its becoming a Roman colony early in the imperial period., and the towns of OroandaD'Anville suggests that the modern Haviran occupies its site, and that Sadjakla stands on that of Sagalessos. and Sagalessos.

These people are bounded by LycaoniaThis country was bounded on the north by Galatia, on the east by Cappadocia, on the south by Cilicia Aspera, on the south-west by Isauria and Phrygia Parorios, and on the north-west by Great Phrygia. It was assigned under the Persian empire to the satrapy of Cappadocia, but considered by the Greek and Roman geographers the south-east part of Phrygia., which belongs to the jurisdiction of the province of AsiaPhrygia, or the western part of Asia, the first part of the Asiatic continent that received the name of Asia. See Chapters 28 & 29 of the present Book., to which also resort the people of PhilomeliumD'Anville thinks that the place called II-Goun occupies the site of Philomela., TymbriumHardouin suggests that the reading here is "Tibriani," the people of Tibrias. Ansart is of opinion that Thymbrium is meant, the place at which Cyrus defeated the army of Crœsus., LeucolithiumIts site is unknown. It was probably so called from the quarries of white stone or marble in its vicinity. Pelta and Tyrium are also equally unknown., Pelta, and Tyrium. To this jurisdiction is also added a Tetrarchy of Lycaonia in that part which joins up to Galatia, containing fourteen states, with the famous city of IconiumIconium was regarded in the time of Xenophon as the easternmost town of Phrygia, while all the later authorities described it as the principal city of Lycaonia. In the Acts of the Apostles it is described as a very populous city, inhabited by Greeks and Jews. Its site is now called Kunjah or Koniych.. In Lycaonia itself the most noted places are ThebasaIt has been suggested that this may be the Tarbassus of Artemidorus, quoted by Strabo. Hyde was in later times one of the episcopal cities of Lycaonia. on Taurus, and Hyde, on the confines of Galatia and Cappadocia. On the [western] side of Lycaonia, and above Pamphylia, come the MilyæTheir district is called Melyas by Herodotus, B. i. c. 173. The city of Arycanda is unknown., a people descended from the Thracians; their city is Arycanda.

The former name of PamphyliaUnited with Cilicia it now forms the province of Caramania or Kermanieh. It was a narrow strip of the southern coast of Asia Minor, extending in an arch along the Pamphylian Gulf between Lycia on the west, Cilicia on the east, and on the north bordering on Pisidia. was MopsopiaTradition ascribed the first Greek settlements in this country to Mopsus, son of Apollo (or of Rhacius), after the Trojan war.. The Pamphylian SeaNow called the Gulf of Adalia, lying between Cape Khelidonia and Cape Anemour. joins up to that of Cilicia. The towns of Pamphylia are SideNow called Candeloro, according to D'Anville and Beaufort., AspendumOr Aspendus, an Argeian colony on the river Eurymedon. The "mountain" of Pliny is nothing but a hill or piece of elevated ground. It is supposed that it still retains its ancient name. In B. xxxi. c. 7, Pliny mentions a salt lake in its vicinity., situate on the side of a mountain, PletenissumHardouin suggests that the correct reading is 'Petnelessum.', and PergaA city of remarkable splendour, between the rivers Catarrhactes and Cestrus, sixty stadia from the mouth of the former. It was a celebrated seat of the worship of Artemis or Diana. In the later Roman empire it was the capital of Pamphylia Secunda. It was the first place visited by St. Paul in Asia Minor. See Acts, xiii. 13 and xiv. 25. Its splendid ruins are still to be seen at Murtana, sixteen miles north-east of Adalia.. There is also the Promontory of Leucolla, the mountain of Sardemisus, and the rivers EurymedonNow known as the Kapri-Su., which flows past Aspendus, and CatarractesNow called Duden-Su. It descends the mountains of Taurus in a great broken waterfall, whence its name., near to which is Lyrnesus: also the towns of OlbiaProbably occupying the site of the modern Atalieh or Satalieh., and PhaselisOn the borders of Lycia and Pamphylia, at the foot of Mount Solyma. Its ruins now bear the name of Tekrova., the last on this coast.

Adjoining to Pamphylia is the Sea of Lycia and the country of LyciaIt was inclosed by Caria and Pamphylia on the west and east, and on the north by the district of Cibyrates in Phrygia. itself, where the chain of Taurus, coming from the eastern shores, terminates the vast GulfThe Gulf of Satalieh or Adalia. by the Promontory of ChelidoniumStill known as Cape Khelidonia or Cameroso.. Of immense extent, and separating nations innumerable, after taking its first rise at the Indian SeaParisot remarks here, "Pliny describes on this occasion, with an exactness very remarkable for his time, the chain of mountains which runs through the part of Asia known to the ancients, although it is evident that he confines the extent of them within much too small a compass.", it branches off to the north on the right-hand side, and on the left towards the south. Then taking a direction towards the west, it would cut through the middle of Asia, were it not that the seas check it in its triumphant career along the land. It accordingly strikes off in a northerly direction, and forming an arc, occupies an immense tract of country, nature, designedly as it were, every now and then throwing seas in the way to oppose its career; here the Sea of Phœnicia, there the Sea of Pontus, in this direction the Caspian and HyrcanianThe Caspian and the Hyrcanian Seas are generally looked upon as identical, but we find them again distinguished by Pliny in B. vi. c. 13, where he says that this inland sea commences to be called the Caspian after you have passed the river Cyrus (or Kúr), and that the Caspii live near it; and in C. 16, that it is called the Hyrcanian Sea, from the Hyrcani who live along its shores. The western side would therefore in strictness be called the Caspian, and the eastern the Hyrcanian Sea., and then, opposite to them, the Lake Mæotis. Although somewhat curtailed by these obstacles, it still winds along between them, and makes its way even amidst these barriers; and victorious after all, it then escapes with its sinuous course to the kindred chain of the Riphæan mountains. Numerous are the names which it bears, as it is continuously designated by new ones throughout the whole of its course. In the first part of its career it has the name of ImaüsThe name of Imaüs was, in the first instance, applied by the Greek geographers to the Hindú-Kúsh and to the chain parallel to the equator, to which the name of Himâlaya is usually given at the present day. The name was gradually extended to the intersection running north and south, the meridian axis of Central Asia, or the Bolor range. The divisions of Asia into 'intra et extra Imaum,' were unknown to Strabo and Pliny, though the latter describes the knot of mountains formed by the intersections of the Himalaya, the Hindú-Kúsh, and Bolor, by the expression 'quorum (Montes Emodi) promontorium Imaüs vocatur.' The Bolor chain has been for ages, with one or two exceptions, the boundary between the empires of China and Turkestan."—Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Ancient Geography., after which it is known successively by the names of Emodus, Paropanisus, Circius, Cambades, Paryadres, Choatras, Oreges, Oroandes, Niphates, Taurus, and, where it even out-tops itself, Caucasus. Where it throws forth its arms as though every now and then it would attempt to invade the sea, it bears the names of Sarpedon, Coracesius, Cragus, and then again Taurus. Where also it opens and makes a passage to admit mankind, it still claims the credit of an unbroken continuity by giving the name of "Gates" to these passes, which in one place are called the "Gates of ArmeniaThe Gates of Armenia are spoken of in B. vi. c. 12, the Gates of the Caspian in C. 16 of the same Book, and the Gates of Cilicia in C. 22 of the present Book.," in another the "Gates of the Caspian," and in another the "Gates of Cilicia." In addition to this, when it has been cut short in its onward career, it retires to a distance from the seas, and covers itself on the one side and the other with the names of numerous nations, being called, on the right-hand side the Hyrcanian and the Caspian, and on the left the ParvadrianSee C. ix. of the next Book., the Moschian, the Amazonian, the Coraxican, and the Scythian chain. Among the Greeks it bears the one general name of CeraunianStrabo gives this name to only the eastern portion of the Caucasian chain which overhangs the Caspian Sea and forms the northern boundary of Albania, and in which he places the Amazons. Mela seems to apply the name to the whole chain which other writers call Caucasus, confining the latter term to a part of it. Pliny (B. v. c. 27 & B. vi. c. 11) gives precisely the same representation, with the additional error of making the Ceraunii (i. e. the Caucasus of others) part of the Great Taurus Chain. He seems to apply the name of Caucasus to the spurs which spread out both to the north-east and the south-east from the main chain near its eastern extremity, and which he regarded as a continuous range, bordering the western shores of the Caspian. See B. vi. c. 10."—Dr. Smith's Dictionary of Ancient Geography..

In Lycia, after leaving its promontoryOf Chelidonium, now Kheidonia, formed by the range of Taurus., we come to the town of Simena, Mount ChimæraSee B. ii. c. 116. The flame which continually burned on this mountain has been examined by Beaufort, the modern traveller. The name of the mountain is now Yanar: it is formed of a mass of scaglia with serpentine. Spratt says that the flame is nothing more than a stream of inflammable gas issuing from a crevice, such as is seen in several places in the Apennines. By Homer it is represented as a fabulous monster, which is explained by Servius, the commentator of Virgil, in the following manner. He says that flames issue from the top of the mountain, and that there are lions in the vicinity; the middle part abounds in goats, and the lower part with serpents. Simena appears to be unknown., which sends forth flames by night, and the city of HephæstiumSo called from (/Hfaists, the Greek name of Vulcan. Pliny mentions this spot also in B. ii. c. 110. The flame probably proceeded from an inflammable gas, or else was ignited by a stream of naphtha., the heights above which are also frequently on fire. Here too formerly stood the city of OlympusMore generally known as Phœnicus, a flourishing city on Mount Olympus; now Yanar Dagh, a volcano on the eastern coast of Lycia, with which it often exchanged names. Having become the head-quarters of the pirates, it was destroyed by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Its ruins are to be seen at a spot called Deliktash.; now we find the mountain places known as GagæMentioned again in B. xxxvi. c. 34, as the spot whence the gagates lapis or 'agate' took its name. The ruins at Aladja are regarded by Leake as marking the site of Gagæ; but Sir Charles Fellowes identifies the place with the modern village of Hascooe, the vicinity of which is covered with ruins., CorydallaOn the road from Phaselis in Lycia to Patara. Its site is a village called Hadgivella, about sixteen miles south-west of Phaselis. The remains are very considerable., and RhodiopolisThe remains of Rhodiopolis were found by Spratt and Forbes in the vicinity of Corydalla.. Near the sea is LimyraOn the Limyrus, probably the modern Phineka; the ruins to the north of which are supposed to be those of Limyra. with a river of like name, into which the Arycandus flows, Mount MasycitesThe modern Akhtar Dagh., the state of AndriacaNow Andraki. This was the port of Myra, next mentioned. It stood at the mouth of the river now known as the Andraki. Cramer observes that it was here St. Paul was put on board the ship of Alexandria, Acts xxvii. 5, 6., MyraStill called Myra by the Greeks, but Dembre by the Turks. It was built on a rock twenty stadia from the sea. St. Paul touched here on his voyage as a prisoner to Rome, and from the mention made of it in Acts xxvii. 5, 6, it would appear to have been an important sea-port. There are magnificent ruins of this city still to be seen, in part hewn out of the solid rock., the towns of AperræFrom an inscription found by Cockerell at the head of the Hassac Bay, it is thought that Aperlœ is the proper name of this place, though again there are coins of Gordian which give the name as Aperrœ. It is fixed by the Stadismus as sixty stadia west of Somena, which Leake supposes to be the same as the Simena mentioned above by Pliny. and AntiphellosNow called Antephelo or Andifilo, on the south coast of Lycia, at the head of a bay. Its theatre is still complete, with the exception of the proscenium. There are also other interesting remains of antiquity., formerly called Habessus, and in a corner PhellosFellowes places the site of Phellos near a village called Saaret, west-north-west of Antiphellos, where he found the remains of a town; but Spratt considers this to mark the site of the Pyrra of Pliny, mentioned above—judging from Pliny's words. Modern geographers deem it more consistent with his meaning to look for Phellos north of Antiphellos than in any other direction, and the ruins at Tchookoorbye, north of Antiphellos, on the spur of a mountain called Fellerdagh, are thought to be those of Phellos., after which comes Pyrra, and then the city of XanthusThe most famous city of Lycia. It stood on the western bank of the river of that name, now called the Echen Chai. It was twice besieged, and on both occasions the inhabitants destroyed themselves with their property, first by the Persians under Harpagus, and afterwards by the Romans under Brutus. Among its most famous temples were those of Sarpedon and of the Lycian Apollo. The ruins now known by the name of Gunik, have been explored by Sir C. Fellows and other travellers, and a portion of its remains are now to be seen in the British Museun, under the name of the Xanthian marbles., fifteen miles from the sea, as also a river known by the same name. We then come to PataraIts ruins still bear the same name. It was a flourishing seaport, on a promontory of the same name, sixty stadia east of the mouth of the Xanthus. It was early colonized by the Dorians from Crete, and became a chief seat of the worship of Apollo, from whose son Patarus it was said to have received its name. Ptolemy Philadelphus enlarged it, and called it Arsinoë, but it still remained better known by its old name. This place was visited by St. Paul, who thence took ship for Phœnicia. See Acts xxi. 1., formerly Pataros, and Sidyma, situate on a moun- tain. Next comes the Promontory of CragusThis was more properly the name of a mountain district of Lycia. Strabo speaks of Cragus, a mountain with eight summits, and a city of the same name. Beaufort thinks that Yedy-Booroon, the Seven Capes, a group of high and rugged mountains, appear to have been the ancient Mount Cragus of Lycia., and beyond it a gulfProbably the Gulf of Macri, equal in size to the Gulf of Satalia, which is next to it., equal to the one that comes before it; upon it are PinaraThis place lay in the interior at the base of Cragus, and its ruins are still to be seen on the east side of the range, about half-way between Telmessus and the termination of the range on the south coast., and TelmessusIts ruins are to be seen at Mei, or the modern port of Macri., the frontier town of Lycia.

Lycia formerly contained seventy towns, now it has but thirty-six. Of these, the most celebrated, besides those already mentioned, are CanasIts site is unknown. That of Candyba has been ascertained to be a place called Gendevar, east of the Xanthus, and a few miles from the coast. Its rock-tombs are said to be beautifully executed. The Œnian grove or forest, it has been suggested, may still be recognized in the extensive pine forest that now covers the mountain above the city. The sites of Podalia and Choma seem to be unknown., Candyba, so celebrated for the Œnian Grove, Podalia, Choma, past which the river Ædesa flows, CyaneæIn some editions "Cyane." Leake says that this place was discovered to the west of Andriaca by Cockerell. It appears from Scott and Forbes's account of Lycia, that three sites have been found between port Tristorus and the inland valley of Kassabar, which from the inscriptions appeared anciently to have borne this name, Yarvoo, Ghiouristan, and Toussa. The former is the chief place and is covered with ruins of the Roman and middle-age construction. At Ghiouristan there are Lycian rock-tombs., Ascandalis, Amelas, Noscopium, TlosIts ruins are to be seen near the modern Doover, in the interior of Lycia, about two miles and a half east of the river Xanthus. Of the three places previously mentioned the sites appear to be unknown., and TelandrusMentioned by the geographer Stephanus as being in Caria.. It includes also in the interior the district of Cabalia, the three cities of which are Œnianda, BalburaIts site is fixed at Katara, on both sides of the Katara Su, the most northern branch of the Xanthus. The ruins are very considerable, lying on both sides of the stream. Balbura is a neuter plural., and BubonIt lay to the west of Balbura, near a place now called Ebajik, on a small stream that flows into the Horzoom Tchy. In B. xxxv. c. 17, Pliny mentions a kind of chalk found in the vicinity of this place. Its ruins are still to be seen, but they are not striking..

On passing Telmessus we come to the Asiatic or Carpathian Sea, and the district which is properly called Asia. Agrippa has divided this region into two parts; one of which he has bounded on the east by Phrygia and Lycaonia, on the west by the Ægean Sea, on the south by the Egyptian Sea, and on the north by Paphlagonia, making its length to be 473 miles and its breadth 320. The other part he has bounded by the Lesser Armenia on the east, Phrygia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia on the west, the province of Pontus on the north, and the Sea of Pamphylia on the south, making it 575 miles in length and 325 in breadth.

Upon the adjoining coast is CariaIn the south-west corner of Asia Minor, bounded on the north and north-east by the mountains Messagis and Cadmus, dividing it from Lydia and Phrygia, and adjoining to Phrygia and Lycia on the south-east., then Ionia, and beyond it Æolis. Caria surrounds Doris, which lies in the middle, and runs down on both sides of it to the sea. In itCaria. is the Promontory of PedaliumNow Cape Ghinazi. It was also called Artemisium, from the temple of Artemis or Diana situate upon it., the river GlaucusDischarging itself into the bay of Telmissus, now Makri., into which the Telmedium"Telmissus" is the reading here in some editions. discharges itself, the towns of DædalaSituate in the district of Caria called Peræa. It was also the name given to a mountainous district. In Hoskyn's map the ruins of Dædala are placed near the head of the Gulf of Glaucus, on the west of a small river called Inegi Chai, probably the ancient Ninus, where Dædalus was bitten by a water-snake, in consequence of which he died., CryaOn the Gulf of Glaucus: Stephanus however places it in Lycia. Mela speaks only of a promontory of this name., peopled by fugitives, the river AxonLeake places this river immediately west of the Gulf of Glaucus., and the town of CalyndaPlaced by Strabo sixty stadia from the sea, west of the Gulf of Glaucus, and east of Carinus. Its site is uncertain, but it may possibly be the place discovered by Fellows, which is proved by inscriptions to have been called Cadyanda, a name otherwise unknown to us. This lies N.N.E. of Makri, on the Gulf of Glaucus or Makri, at a place called Hoozoomlee, situate on an elevated plain..

(28.) The river IndusThe same as the river Calbis of Strabo and Mela, at present the Dalamon Tchy, Quingi or Taas, having its sources in Mount Cadmus above Cibyra. It was said to have derived its name from an Indian, who had been thrown into it from an elephant., which rises in the mountains of the CibyratæTheir district was Cibyratis, of which the chief city was Cibyra. This place, uniting with the towns of Balbura, Bubon, and Œnianda, had the name of Tetrapolis; of which league Cibyra was the head, mustering 30,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. The iron found in this district was easily cut with a chisel or other sharp tool. The site of this powerful city has been ascertained to be at Horzoom, on the Horzoom Tchy, a branch of the Dalamon Tchy or Indus. The ruins are very extensive, and the theatre in fine preservation., receives sixty-five rivers which are constantly flowing, besides upwards of 100 mountain torrents. Here is the free town of CaunosPlaced by Strabo west of Calynda. The ancient descriptions of its locality vary, but the place now known as Kaiguez is said to denote its site. The Caunii are frequently mentioned in the Persian, Grecian, and Roman histories. It was noted for its dried figs, mentioned by Pliny in B. xv. c. 19., then the town of PyrnosSupposed by Mannert to be the Physcus of Strabo and the Phuscæ of Ptolemy., the port of CressaLeake says that this harbour is now called Aplothíka by the Greeks, and Porto Cavaliere by the Italians. He also says that on its western shore are the ruins of an Hellenic fortress and town, which are undoubtedly those of Loryma., from which the island of Rhodes is distant twenty miles; the place where Loryma formerly stood, the towns of TisanusaIt had a port of the same name., ParidionCalled Pandion by Mela, according to Parisot., and LarymnaParisot suggests that it is the same as Loryma previously mentioned., the Gulf of ThymniasLike the Gulf of Schœnus, a portion probably of the Dorian Gulf, now the Gulf of Syme., the Promontory of AphrodisiasThe modern name of this promontory is not given by Hamilton, who sailed round it. It has been confounded with the Cynos Sema of Strabo, now Cape Velo. The site of Hyda or Hyde is unknown., the town of Hyda, the Gulf of Schœnus, and the district of BubasusThere was a town of this name as well. Stephen of Byzantium tells us that it received its name from a shepherd who saved the life of Podalirius, when shipwrecked on the coast of Caria.. There was formerly the town of Acanthus here, another name of which was Dulopolis. We then come to CnidosPart of it was situate on an island now called Cape Krio, connected by a causeway with the mainland. Its site is covered with ruins of a most interesting character in every direction. The Triopian promontory, evidently alluded to by Pliny, is the modern Cape Krio., a free town, situate on a promontory, TriopiaIt has been remarked that in his description here Pliny is very brief and confused, and that he may intend to give the name of Triopia either to the small peninsula or island, or may include in this term the western part of the whole of the larger peninsula., and after that the towns of Pegusa and Stadia.

At this last town Doris begins; but, first, it may be as well to describe the districts that lie to the back of Caria and the several jurisdictions in the interior. The first of theseOf these conventus. For an account of Cibyra see last page. is called Cibyratica; Cibyra being a town of Phrygia. Twenty-five states resort to it for legal purposes, together with the most famous city of LaodiceaOn the Lycus, now known as the Choruk-Su. By different writers it has been assigned to Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, but in the ultimate division of the Roman provinces it was assigned to the Greater Phrygia. It was founded by Antiochus II. on the site of a previous town, and named in honour of his wife Laodice. Its site is occupied by ruins of great magnificence. In the Apostolic age it was the seat of a flourishing Christian Church, which however very soon gave signs of degeneracy, as we learn from St. John's Epistle to it, Revel. ii. 14–22. St. Paul also addresses it in common with the neighbouring church of Colossæ. Its site is now called Eski-Hissar, or the Old Castle..

(29.) This place at first bore the name of Diospolis, and after that of Rhoas, and is situate on the river Lycus, the Asopus and the CaprusA tributary of the Phrygian Mæander. washing its sides. The other people belonging to the same jurisdiction, whom it may be not amiss to mention, are the HydrelitæThe people of Hydrela, a town of Caria, said to have been founded by one of three brothers who emigrated from Sparta., the ThemisonesThe people of Themisonium, now called Tseni., and the HierapolitæThe people of Hierapolis, a town of Phrygia, situate on a height between the rivers Lycus and Mæander, about five miles north of Laodicea, on the road from Apamea to Sardis. It was celebrated for its warm springs, and its Plutonium, or cave of Pluto, from which issued a mephitic vapour of a poisonous nature; see B. ii. c. 95. The Christian Church here is alluded to by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Colossians, iv. 13. Its ruins are situate at an uninhabited place called Pambuk-Kalessi.. The second jurisdiction receives its title from SynnasSituate in the north of Phrygia Salutaris; its ruins being probably those to be seen at Afiour-Kara-Hisar. From the time of Constantine this place became the capital of Phrygia Salutaris. It stood in a fiuitful plain, near a mountain quarry of the celebrated Synnadic marble, which was white with red veins and spots. This marble was also called "Docimiticus," from Docimia, a nearer place.; to it resort the LycaonesAs already mentioned in C. 25 of the present Book., the AppianiThe site of Appia does not appear to be known. Cicero speaks of an application made to him by the Appiani, when he was governor of Cilicia, respecting the taxes with which they were burdened, and the buildings of their town., the EucarpeniEucarpia was a town of Phrygia, not far from the sources of the Mæander, on the road from Dorylæum to Apamea Cibotus. The vine grew there in great luxuriance, and to its fruitfulness the town probably owed its name. Kiepert places it in the vicinity of Segielar, but its exact site is unknown., the DorylæiThe site of Dorylæum is now called Eski-Shehr. The hot-baths here are mentioned by Athenæus, and its waters were pleasant to the taste. Sheep-feeding appears to have been carried on here to a great extent, and under the Greek empire it was a flourishing place. The site of Midæum does not seem to be known., the Midæi, the JuliensesThe people of Julia, Juliopolis, or Julianopolis, a town of Lydia, probably to the south of Mount Tmolus., and fifteen other peoples of no note. The third jurisdiction has its seat at ApameaThis place was built near Celænæ by Antiochus Soter, and named after his mother Apama. Strabo says that it lay at the mouth of the river Marsyas. Its site has been fixed at the modern Denair. Some ancient ruins are to be seen., formerly called CelænæPliny commits an error here; Celænæ was a different place from Apamea, though close to it., and after that Cibotos. This place is situate at the foot of Mount Signia, the Marsyas, the Obrima, and the Orga, rivers which fall into the Mæander, flowing past it. Here the Marsyas, rising from the earth, again makes its appearance, but soon after buries itself once more at AulocreneæMeaning the "Fountains of the Pipe," and probably deriving its name from the legend here mentioned by Pliny, and in B. xvi. c. 44. Strabo describes the Marsyas and Mæander as rising, according to report, in one lake above Celænæ, which produced reeds adapted for making the mouth-pieces of musical instruments, but he gives no name to the lake. Hamilton found near Denair or Apamea, a lake nearly two miles in circumference, full of reeds and rushes, which he looks upon as the lake on the mountain Aulocrene, described by Pliny in the 31st Chapter of the present Book. His account however is very confused, as he mentions on different occasions a region of Aulocrene, a valley of Aulocrene, and a mountain of Aulocrene., the spot where Marsyas had the musical contest with Apollo as to superiority of skill in playing on the flute. Aulocrenæ is the name given to a valley which lies ten miles on the road towards Phrygia from Apamea. As belonging to this jurisdiction, it may be as well to mention the MetropolitæPeople of "the Mother City," said by Stephen of Byzantium to have received that name from Cybele, the Mother of the Gods., the DionysopolitæNothing is known of the site of Dionysopolis. It is mentioned in a letter of Cicero's to his brother Quintus, in which he speaks of the people of this place as being very hostile to the latter., th>e EuphorbeniThe site of Euphorbium is denoted, according to Leake, by the modern Sandukli. It lay between Synnas and Apamea, and not improbably, like Eucarpia, received its name from the fertility of its territory., the AemonensesThe site of Acmona has been fixed at Ahatkoi, but it seems doubtful., the PelteniThe site of Pelta is by D'Anville called Ris-Chak or Hou-Chak., and the SilbianiThe people of Silbium or Silbia, near Metropolis., besides nine other nations of no note.

Upon the Gulf of DorisThe Dorian settlements on the coast of Caria were so called. The Dorian Gulf was probably the Sinus Ceramicus mentioned below. we have Leucopolis, Hamaxitos, Eleus, and EutheneOf these places nothing whatever seems to be known.. We then come to Pitaium, EutanePitaium and Eutane seem to be unknown., and HalicarnassusA member of the Dorian Hexapolis, or League of the Six Cities. The site of this famous city is occupied by the modern Boodroum, and its ruins are very extensive. It was famous as being the birth-place of the two historians Herodotus and Dionysius. It was the largest and best fortified city of Caria., towns of Caria. To the jurisdiction of this last place six towns were appended by Alexander the Great, TheangelaAccording to Parisot the site of this place is now called Angeli and Karabaglas., Sibde, Medmasa, Euralium, Pedasus, and TelmissusThis place must not be confounded with Tehnessus or Telmissus in Lycia, which has been previously mentioned. It was situate six miles from Halicarnassus. Of the other places here mentioned nothing seems to be known.. Halicarnassus lies between two gulfs, those of CeramusNow the Gulf of Staneo, Kos, or Boodroum. It took its name from the port of Ceramus, now Keramo, according to D'Anville. and IasusNow the Gulf of Mandeliyeh. It took its name from the city of lasus, the site of which is now called Askem or Asyn-Kalessi.. We then come to Myn- dosIts ruins are to be seen at the port called Gumshlu. This was a Dorian colony on the coast of Caria, founded probably on the site of the old town of the Leleges., and the former site of Palæomyndos; also Nariandos, NeapolisIt has been suggested that this was only another name for the new town of Myndos, in contradistinction to Palæomyndos, or "old Myndos.", CaryandaScylax the geographer is supposed to have been a native of this place. The town is supposed to have been built partly on the mainland and partly on an island. Pastra Linani is supposed to have been the harbour of Caryanda., the free town of TermeraA Dorian city on the Promontory of Termerium., BargylaSituate near lasus and Myndos. Leake conjectures that it may have been on the bay between Pastra Limâne and Asyn Kalesi. There was a statue here of Artemis Cindyas, under the bare sky, of which the incredible story was told that neither rain nor snow ever fell on it., and the town of IasusSee note14 on the last page., from which the Iasian Gulf takes its name.

Caria is especially distinguished for the fame of its places in the interior; for here are MylasaIts ruins are to be seen at the spot still called Melasso. It was a very flourishing city, eight miles from the coast of the Gulf of Iasus, and situate at the foot of a rock of fine white marble. It was partly destroyed in the Roman civil wars by Labienus. Its ruins are very extensive., a free town, and that of AntiochiaHamilton has fixed the site of this place between four and five miles south-east of Kuyuja, near the mouth of the valley of the Kara-Su. The surrounding district was famous for the excellence of its figs. The city was built by Antiochus, the son of Seleucus., on the site of the former towns of Symmæthos and Cranaos: it is now surrounded by the rivers MæanderNow called the Mendereh or Meinder. and OrsinusPococke thinks that the present Jenjer is the Orsinus, while Mannert takes it to be the Hadchizik, a little winding river that falls into the Mæander.. In this district also was formerly MæandropolisNow called Guzel-Hissar, according to Ansart.; we find also EumeniaOn the road from Dorylæum to Apamea. It is said to have received its name from Attalus II., who named the town after his brother and predecessor EumenesII. Its site is known as Ishekle, and it is still marked by numerous ruins and sculptures., situate on the river Cludros, the river GlaucusA tributary of the Mæander. Its modern name is not mentioned., the town of Lysias and OrthosaMannert takes the ruins to be seen at Jegni-Chehr to be those of ancient Orthosia. The town of Lysias does not appear to have been identified., the district of BerecynthusThe situation of this district is not known. See B. xvi. c. 16, where it appears that this region was famous for its boxwood., NysaOne of the numerous places of that name devoted to the worship of Bacchus. It was built on both sides of the ravine of the brook Eudon, which fell into the Meæander. Its ruins are to be seen at Sultan-Hissar, a little to the west of Hazeli., and TrallesIts ruins are to be seen at Ghiuzel-Hissar, near Aidin. This was a flourishing commercial city, included sometimes in Ionia, sometimes in Caria. It stood on the banks of the Eudon, a tributary of the river Mæander. Under the Seleucidæ it was called Antiochia and Seleucia., also called EuanthiaFrom the beauty and fertility of the surrounding country., Seleucia, and Antiochia: it is washed by the river Eudon, while the Thebais runs through it. Some authors say that a nation of Pygmies formerly dwelt here. Besides the preceding towns, there are Thydonos, PyrrhaAn Ionic town of Caria, on the north side of the Sinus Latmicus, fifty stadia from the mouth of the Mæander., EuromeOr Euromus, a town of Caria, at the foot of Mount Grion, which runs parallel with Latmos. Ruins of a temple to the north-west of Alabanda are considered to belong to Euromus., HeracleaA town of uncertain site. It must not be confounded with the place of the same name, mentioned in c. 31 of the present Book., AmyzonThe ruins of its citadel and walls still exist on the east side of Mount Latmos, on the road from Bafi to Tchisme., the free town of AlabandaSituate about twenty miles south of Tralles. The modern site is doubtful, but Arab Hissa, on a branch of the Mæander, now called the Tchina, is supposed to represent Alabanda. It was notorious for the luxuriousness of its inhabitants. A stone found in the vicinity was used for making glass and glazing vessels. See B. xxxvi. c. 13., which has given name to that jurisdiction, the free town of StratoniceaBuilt by Antiochus I. Soter, and named, in honour of his wife, Stratonice. It stood south of Alabanda, near the river Marsyas. It is supposed that it stood on the site of a former city called Idrias, and still earlier, Chrysaoris., Hynidos, CeramusD'Anville identifies it with a place called Keramo, but no such place appears to be known. Strabo places it near the sea between Cnidus and Halicarnassus, and Ceramus comes next after Cnidus. Ptolemy seems to place it on the south side of the bay. Of Hynidos nothing appears to be known., TrœzeneIts situation is unknown; but there can be little doubt that it was founded by the Dorians who emigrated to the coast of Asia Minor from Argolis and Trœzene in the Peloponnesus. Phorontis appears to be unknown., and Phorontis. At a greater distanceParisot observes that many of the towns here mentioned belonged to the northern part of Phrygia., but resorting to the same place of jurisdiction, are the Orthronienses, the AlindiensesThe people of Alinda in Caria, which was surrendered to Alexander the Great by Alinda, queen of Caria. It was one of the strongest places in Caria. Its position has been fixed by Fellowes at Demmeergee-derasy, between Arab-Hissa and Karpuslee, on a steep rock. or Hippini, the XystianiOf Xystis, as also of Hydissa, nothing appears to be known., the Hydissenses, the ApolloniataæInhabitants of Apollonia in Caria, of which place nothing appears to be known., the TrapezopolitæPococke says that the modern site of Trapezopolis is called Karadche., and the AphrodisiensesThe people of Aphrodisias, an ancient city of Caria, situate at the modern Ghera or Geyra, south of Antiochia on the Mæander. Aphrodite or Venus seems to have been principally worshipped at this place. Strabo places it in Phrygia., a free people. Besides the above, there are the towns of CoscinusOr Coscinia, a place in Caria, which, as we may gather from Strabo, ranked below a town. Leake thinks that Tshina, where Pococke found considerable remains, is the site of this place., and HarpasaOn the eastern bank of the Harpasus, a tributary of the Mæander. Its ruins are supposed to be those seen at a place called Harpas Kalessi. In B. ii. c. 98, Pliny speaks of a wonderful rock at this place., situate on the river HarpasusNow known as the Harpa., which also passed the town of Trallicon when it was in existence.

Lydia, bathed by the sinuous and ever-recurring windings of the river Mæander, lies extended above Ionia; it is joined by Phrygia on the east and Mysia on the north, while on the south it runs up to Caria: it formerly had the name of MæoniaBy this name alone it is known to Homer.. Its place of the greatest celebrity is SardesIts ruins, now called Sart, are very extensive, though presenting nothing of importance. Its citadel, situated on a rock, was considered to be almost impregnable., which lies on the side of Mount TmolusNow called Kisilja Musa Dagh. It was famous for its wine, saffron, and gold., formerly called Timolus. From this mountain, which is covered with vineyards, flows the river PactolusNow called the Sarabat. It was famous for its gold-producing sands., also called the Chrysorroas, and the sources of the Tarnus: this famous city, which is situate upon the Gygæan LakeOn the road between Thyatira and Sardes: near it was situate the necropolis of Sardes., used to be called HydeStrabo says that some persons called the citadel only by that name. by the people of Mæonia. This jurisdiction is now called that of Sardes, and besides the people of the places already mentioned, the following now resort to it—the Macedonian CadueniThere was a city of Mysia or Phrygia of the name of Cadus or Cadi; but nothing is known of the place here alluded to, whose people would appear to have been a colony from Macedonia., the Loreni, the PhiladelpheniThe people of Philadelphia, now Ala-Cher, or the "Fine City," twelve leagues south-east of Sardes, and nine leagues south of Attalia., the Mæonii, situate on the river Cogamus at the foot of Mount Tmolus, the Tripolitani, who are also called the Antoniopolitæ, situate on the banks of the Mæander, the ApollonihieritæSo called from the Greek )Apo/llwnos i(ero\n, "the temple of Apollo," in the vicinity of which, south-east of Pergamus, their town was probably situate. Nothing is known of these localities., the MesotimolitæDwellers in Mesotmolus, a town which, from its name, would appear to have been situate on the middle of Mount Tmolus., and some others of no note.

Ionia begins at the Gulf of Iasos, and has a long winding coast with numerous bays. First comes the Gulf of BasilicumNow called the Gulf of Melasso., then the PromontoryNow the Cape of Melasso. and town of Posideum, and the oracle once called the oracle of the BranchidæThe remains of the Temple of Didymæan Apollo at Branchidæ are still visible to those sailing along the coast. It was in the Milesian territory, and above the harbour Panormus. The name of the site was probably Didyma or Didymi, but the place was also called Branchidæ, from that being the name of a body of priests who had the care of the temple. We learn from Herodotus that Crœsus, king of Lydia, consulted this oracle, and made rich presents to the temple. The temple, of which only two columns are left, was of white marble., but now of Didymæan Apollo, a distance of twenty stadia from the seashore. One hundred and eighty stadia thence is MiletusThe ruins of this important city are difficult to discover on account of the great changes made on the coast by the river Meander. They are usually supposed to be those at the poor village of Palatia on the south bank of the Mendereh; but Forbiger has shown that these are more probably the remains of Myus, and that those of Miletus are buried in a lake formed by the Mendereh at the foot of Mount Latmus., the capital of Ionia, which formerly had the names of Lelegëis, Pityusa, and Anactoria, the mother of more than ninety cities, founded upon all seas; nor must she be deprived of the honour of having CadmusSee B. vii. c. 57. Josephus says that he lived very shortly before the Persian invasion of Greece. for her citizen, who was the first to write in prose. The river Mæander, rising from a lake in Mount Aulocrene, waters many cities and receives numerous tributary streams. It is so serpentine in its course, that it is often thought to turn back to the very spot from which it came. It first runs through the district of Apamea, then that of Eumenia, and then the plains of Bargyla; after which, with a placid stream it passes through Caria, watering all that territory with a slime of a most fertilizing quality, and then at a distance of ten stadia from Miletus with a gentle current enters the sea. We then come to Mount LatmusNow called the Monte di Palatia., the towns of HeracleaGenerally called "Heraclea upon Latmus," from its situation at the western foot of Mount Latmus. Ruins of this town still exist at the foot of that mountain on the borders of Lake Baffi., also called by the same name as the mountain, Carice, MyusIts ruins are now to be seen at Palatia. It was the smallest city of the Ionian Confederacy, and' was situate at the mouth of the Mæander, thirty stadia from its mouth., said to have been first built by Ionians who came from Athens, NaulochumMannert says that its ruins are to be seen at a spot called by the Turks Sarasun-Kalesi., and PrieneOne of the twelve Ionian cities, situate at the foot of Mount Mycale. It stood originally on the shore, but the change in the coast by the alluvial deposits of the Mæander left it some distance from the land. It was celebrated as being the birth-place of the philosopher Bias. Its ruins are to be seen at the spot called Samsun.. Upon that part of the coast which bears the name of TrogiliaNow called Cape Santa Maria, or Samsun. is the river Gessus. This district is held sacred by all the Ionians, and thence receives the name of Panionia. Near to it was formerly the town of Phygela, built by fugitives, as its name impliesHe implies that it is derived from fulh\ "C flight.", and that of MarathesiumBetween Ephesus and Neapolis. It belonged to the Samians who exchanged with the Ephesians for Neapolis, which lay nearer to their island. The modern Scala Nova occupies the site of one of them, it is uncertain which.. Above these places is MagnesiaIts ruins are to be seen at the modern Inek-Bazar. It was situate on the river Lethæus, a tributary of the Mæander. It was famous for its temple of Artemis Leucophryene, the ruins of which still exist., distinguished by the surname of the "Mæandrian," and sprung from Magnesia in Thessaly: it is distant from Ephesus fifteen miles, and three more from Tralles. It formerly had the names of Thessaloche and Androlitia, and, lying on the sea-shore, it has withdrawn from the sea the islands known as the DerasidæSee B. ii. c. 91. and joined them to the mainland. In the interior also is ThyatiraNow known as Ak-Hissar or the "White Castle." Strabo informs us that it was founded by Seleucus Nicator., washed by the Lycus; for some time it was also called Pelopia and EuhippiaFrom the excellence of its horses..

Upon the coast again is Mantium, and EphesusIts ruins are to be seen near the modern Ayazaluk. It was the chief of the twelve Ionian cities on the coast of Asia Minor, and devoted to the worship of Artemis, whose temple here was deemed one of the wonders of the world. Nothing, except some traces of its foundations, is now to be seen of this stupendous building., which was founded by the AmazonsIt was more generally said to have been founded by the Carians and the Leleges., and formerly called by so many names: Alopes at the time of the Trojan war, after that Ortygia and Morges, and then Smyrna, with the surname of Trachia, as also Samornion and Ptelea. This city is built on Mount Pion, and is washed by the CaÿsterNow called the Kara-Su, or Black River, or Kuchuk-Meinder, or Little Mæander., a river which rises in the Cilbian range and brings down the waters of many streamsIt has been observed that though Pliny seems to say that the Caÿster receives many streams, they must have had but a short course, and could only be so many channels by which the rivers descend from the mountain slopes that shut in the contracted basin of the river., as also of Lake PegasæusThis lake or marsh seems to be the morass situate on the road from Smyrna to Ephesus, into which the Phyrites flows, and out of which it comes a considerable stream., which receives those discharged by the river PhyritesThe Phyrites is a small river that is crossed on the road from Ephesus to Smyrna, and joins the Caÿster on the right bank ten or twelve miles above Ayazaluk, near the site of Ephesus.. From these streams there accumulates a large quantity of slime, which vastly increases the soil, and has added to the mainland the island of SyrieSee B. ii. c. 91. for further mention of this island., which now lies in the midst of its plains. In this city is the fountain of CalippiaSaid to be derived from the Greek, meaning "The beautiful (stream) from Pion." and the temple of Diana, which last is surrounded by two streams, each known by the name of Selenus, and flowing from opposite directions.

After leaving Ephesus there is another Mantium, belonging to the Colophonians, and in the interior ColophonOne of the twelve Ionian cities of Asia, founded by Andræmon. Notium was its port. There do not seem to be any remains of either of these places. itself, past which the river HalesusCalled also the Hales or Ales, and noted for the coolness of its waters. flows. After this we come to the templeAt Clarus, near Colophon. When Germanicus was on his way to the East, this oracle foretold to him his speedy death. Chandler is of opinion that he discovered the site of this place at Zillé, where he found a spring of water with marble steps to it, which he considers to have been the sacred fountain. Others again suggest that these ruins may be those of Notium. of the Clarian Apollo, and LebedosIts site was probably near the modern Ekklesia, but no traces of the city itself are to be found.: the city of NotiumImplying that in his time Notium was not in existence, whereas in reality Notium superseded Old Colophon, of which it was the port, and was sometimes known as New Colophon. once stood here. Next comes the Promontory of CoryceiumNow known as Cape Curco., and then Mount Mimas, which projects 150 miles into the sea, and as it approaches the mainland sinks down into extensive plains. It was at this place that Alexander the Great gave orders for the plain to be cut through, a distance of seven miles and a half, for the purpose of joining the two gulfs and making an island of ErythræThe site of this place is now known as Ritri, on the south side of a small peninsula, which projects into the bay of Erythræ. The ruins are considerable. and Mimas. Near Erythræ formerly stood the towns of Pteleon, Helos, and Dorion; we now find the river Aleon, Corynæum, a Promontory of Mount Mimas, ClazomenæOn the south side of the bay of Smyrna. In Strabo's time this city appears to have been removed from Chytrium, its original site. Chandler found traces of the city near Vourla, from which he came to the conclusion that the place was very small and inconsiderable., ParthenieAccording to Nicander, this was a mountain of the territory of Clazomenæ, almost surrounded by sea., and HippiOr "the Horses," originally four islands close to the mainland, off Clazomenæ., known by the name of Chytrophoria, when it formed a group of islands; these were united to the continent by the same Alexander, by means of a causewayThis was probably the same causeway that was observed by Chandler in the neighbourhood of Vourla, the site of ancient Clazomenæ. two stadia in length. In the interior, the cities of Daphnus, Hermesia, and SipylumSee B. ii. c. 91, where he speaks of this place as being swallowed up in the earth., formerly called Tantalis, and the capital of Mæonia, where Lake Sale now stands, are now no longer in existence: Archæopolis too, which succeeded Sipylum, has perished, and in their turns Colpe and Libade, which succeeded it.

On returning thenceFrom Clazomenæ. towards the coast, at a distance of twelve miles we find SmyrnaNow called Izmir by the Turks, Smyrna by the western nations of Europe; the only one of the great cities on the western coast of Asia Minor that has survived to the present day. This place stood at the head of the cities that claimed to be the birth-place of Homer; and the poet was worshipped here for a hero or demi-god in a magnificent building called the Homereum. There are but few remains of the ancient city: the modern one is the greatest commercial city of the Levant., originally founded by an Amazon [of that name], and rebuilt by Alexander; it is refreshed by the river Meles, which rises not far off. Through this district run what may almost be called the most famous mountains of Asia, Mastusia in the rear of Smyrna, and TermetisHardouin takes this to be the name of a town, but Ortelius and Pinetus seem to be more correct in thinking it to be the name of a mountain., joining the foot of Olympus. Termetis is joined by Draco, Draco running into Tmolus, Tmolus into CadmusIt does not appear that all these mountains have been identified. Cadmus is the Baba Dagh of the Turks., and Cadmus into Taurus. Leaving Smyrna, the river Hermus forms a tract of plains, and gives them its own name. It rises near DorylæumMentioned in C. 29 of the present Book., a city of Phrygia, and in its course receives several rivers, among them the one called the Phryx, which divides Caria from the nation to which it gives name; also the HyllusIn the time of Strabo this tributary of the Hermus seems to have been known as the Phrygius. and the Cryos, themselves swollen by the rivers of Phrygia, Mysia, and Lydia. At the mouth of the Hermus formerly stood the town of TemnosIts site is now called Menemen, according to D'Anville. The Cryus was so called from the Greek kru/os, "cold.": we now see at the extremity of the gulfThe present Gulf of Smyrna. the rocks called MyrmecesOr the "Ants.", the town of LeuceProbably so called from the whiteness of the promontory on which it was situate. It was built by Tachos, the Persian general, in B.C. 352, and remarkable as the scene of the battle between the Consul Licinius Crassus and Aristonicus in B.C. 131. The modern name of its site is Lefke. on a promontory which was once an island, and PhocæaIts ruins are to be seen at Karaja-Fokia or Old Fokia, south-west of Fouges or New Fokia. It was said to have been founded by Phocian colonists under Philogenes and Damon., the frontier town of Ionia.

A great part also of Æolia, of which we shall have presently to speak, has recourse to the jurisdiction of Smyrna; as well as the Macedones, surnamed HyrcaniThe people of Hyrcania, one of the twelve cities which were prostrated by an earthquake in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar; see B. ii. c. 86., and the MagnetesThe people of Magnesia "ad Sipylum," or the city of Magnesia on the Sipylus. It was situate on the south bank of the Hermus, and is famous in history as the scene of the victory gained by the two Scipios over Antiochus the Great, which secured to the Romans the empire of the East, B.C. 190. This place also suffered from the great earthquake in the reign of Tiberius, but was still a place of importance in the fifth century. from Sipylus. But to Ephesus, that other great luminary of Asia, resort the more distant peoples known as the CæsariensesThe people, it is supposed, of a place called Hierocæsarea., the MetropolitæThe people probably of Metropolis in Lydia, now Turbali, a city on the plain of the Caÿster, between Ephesus and Smyrna. Cilbis, perhaps the present Durgut, was their chief place., the CilbianiA people dwelling in the upper valley of Caÿster., both the Lower and Upper, the MysomacedonesOr Mysian Macedonians., the MastaurensesThe people of Mastaura in Lydia. Its site is still known as Mastaura-Kalesi., the BriulitæThe people of Briula, the site of which is unknown., the HypæpeniThe people of Hypæpæ, a small town of Lydia, on the southern slope of Mount Tmolus, forty-two miles from Ephesus. Under the Persian supremacy, the worship of Fire was introduced at this place. Arachne, the spinner, and competitor with Minerva, is represented by Ovid as dwelling at this place; he calls it on two occasions "the little Hypæpæ." Leake is of opinion that the ruins seen at Bereki belong to this place., and the DioshïeritæThe people of Dios Hieron, or the "Temple of Jupiter." This was a small place in Ionia between Lebedus and Colophon. It has been suggested that it was on the banks of the Caÿster, but its site is uncertain..

ÆolisAEolis, properly so called, extended as far north as the promontory of Lectum, at the northern entrance of the bay of Adramyttium. comes next, formerly known as Mysia, and Troas which is adjacent to the Hellespont. Here, after passing Phocæa, we come to the Ascanian Port, then the spot where LarissaNear Cyme, a place of Pelasgian origin. It was called Egyptian Larissa, because Cyrus the Great settled here a body of his Egyptian soldiers. According to D'Anville its site is still known as Larusar. stood, and then CymeSaid to have been so called from Cyme an Amazon. It was on the northern, side of the Hermus: Herodotus gives it the surname of Phriconis. Its site is supposed to be at the modern Sanderli or Sandarlio. The father of the poet Hesiod was a native of this place., Myrina, also called SebastopolisIt was probably so called in honour of the Emperor Augustus., and in the interior, ÆgæSituate at a short distance from the coast. We learn from Tacitus that it suffered from the great earthquake in the time of Tiberius. Its site is called Guzel-Hissar, according to D'Anville., AttaliaOriginally named Agroeira or Alloeira. There is a place still called Aala, on the river Hermus, but Hamilton found no remains of antiquity there., Posidea, Neon- tichosOr the "New Walls." Strabo speaks of it as distant thirty stadia from Larissa., and TemnosIts site is unknown; but it must not be confounded with the place of that name mentioned in the last Chapter, which stood on the sea-coast. It suffered from the great earthquake in the reign of Tiberius Cæsar.. Upon the shore we come to the river Titanus, and the city which from it derives its name. GryniaOr Grynium, forty stadia from Myrina, and seventy from Elæa. It contained a sanctuary of Apollo with an ancient oracle and a splendid temple of white marble. Parmenio, the general of Alexander, took the place by assault and sold the inhabitants as slaves. It is again mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 21. also stood here on an island reclaimed from the sea and joined to the land: now only its harbours are leftThis passage seems to be in a corrupt state, and it is difficult to arrive at Pliny's exact meaning.. We then come to the town of ElæaThe port of the Pergameni. Strabo places it south of the river Caïcus, twelve stadia from that river, and 120 from Pergamum. Its site is uncertain, but Leake fixes it at a place called Kliseli, on the road from the south to Pergamum., the river CaïcusIts modern name is said to be Ak-Su or Bakir., which flows from Mysia, the town of PitaneOn the coast of the Elaitic gulf. It was almost destroyed by an earthquake in the reign of the Emperor Titus. Its site is by some thought to have been at Sanderli., and the river Canaïus. The following towns no longer exist—CanæSupposed to have been situate near the modern Cape Coloni. It was here that in the war with Antiochus, B.C. 191–190, the Roman fleet was hauled up for the winter and protected by a ditch or rampart., LysimachiaSo called from Lysimachus, the son of Agathocles., AtarneaA strong place opposite to Lesbos. It was on the road from Adramyttium to the plain of the Caïcus. Its site is generally fixed at Dikeli Koi., CareneOr Carine. The army of Xerxes, on its route to the Hellespont, marched through this place. Its site is unknown., CistheneIt lay outside of the bay of Adramyttium and the promontory of Pyrrha., CillaMentioned in the Iliad with Chryse and Tenedos., CocyliumA place called Kutchulan, or, as some write it, Cotschiolan-Kuni, is supposed to occupy its site., ThebaOr Thebes, in the vicinity of Troy., AstyreIn the plain of Thebes between Antandros and Adramyttium. It had a temple of Artemis, of which the Antandrii had the superintendence, Its site does not appear to have been ascertained., ChrysaNot improbably the Chryse, mentioned by Homer in the Iliad, B. i. II. 37, 390, 431; but there were several places of this name., PalæscepsisSee the note to Scepsis in the present Chapter., GergithaOr Gergis, Gergithus, or Gergithes, a town in the Troad, north of Scamander. It was a place with an acropolis and strong walls. Attalus, king of Pergamus, transplanted the people of Gergis to another spot near the sources of the Caïcus, whence we afterwards find a place called Gergetha or Gergithion, in the vicinity of Larissa. The old town of Gergis was by some said to have been the birth-place of the Sibyl, and its coins have her image impressed on them., and NeandrosAlso called Neandria, upon the Hellespont.. We then come to the city of PerpereneSouth of Adramyttium; in its vicinity were copper-mines and celebrated vineyards. It was here that Thucydides is said to have died., which still survives, the district of Heracleotes, the town of CoryphasIn the district of Coryphantes, opposite to Lesbos, and north of Atarneus. Pliny speaks of the oysters of Coryphas, B. xxxii. c. 6., the rivers Grylios and Ollius, the region of AphrodisiasThis Aphrodisias does not appear to have been identified., which formerly had the name of Politice Orgas, the district of ScepsisAgain mentioned by Pliny in B. xi. c. 80. Scepsis was an ancient city in the interior of the Troad, south-east of Alexandria, in the mountains of Ida. Its inhabitants were removed by Antigonus to Alexandria; but being permitted by Lysimachus to return to their homes, they built a new city, and the remains of the old town were then called Palæscepsis. This place is famous in literary history for being the spot where certain MSS. of Aristotle and Theophrastus were buried to prevent their transfer to Pergamus. When dug up they were found nearly destroyed by mould, and in this condition were removed by Sylla to Athens., and the river EvenusSometimes called the Lycormas, now known as the Fidhari or Fidharo., on whose banks the towns of LyrnesosFrequently mentioned by Homer. and Miletos have fallen to decay. In this district also is Mount IdaStill known as Ida or Kas-Dagh., and on the coast AdramytteosMore generally known as Adramyttium or Adramyteum, now Adramiti or Edremit. According to tradition it was founded by Adramys, the brother of Crœsus, king of Lydia. It is mentioned as a sea-port in the Acts, xxvii. 2. There are no traces of ancient remains on its site., formerly called Pedasus, which gives its name to the gulf and the jurisdiction so called. The other rivers are the Astron, Cormalos, Crianos, Alabastros, and Hieros, flowing from Mount Ida: in the interior is Mount GargaraOne of the heights of Mount Ida in the Troad, now called Kaz-Dag. The territory in this vicinity, as we learn from Virgil and Seneca, was famous for its fertility. The modern village of Iné is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient town of Gargara., with a town of the same name. Again, on the coast we meet with AntandrosNow Antandro, at the head of the Gulf of Adramyttium. Aristotle also says that its former name was Edonis, and that it was inhabited by a Thracian tribe of Edoni. Herodotus as well as Aristotle also speak of the seizure of the place by the Cimmerii in their incursion into Asia., formerly called Edonis, and after that Cimmeris and Assos, also called Apollonia. The town of Palamedium also formerly stood here. The Promontory of LectonNow Cape Baba or Santa Maria, the south-west promontory of the Troad. separates Æolis from Troas. In Æolis there was formerly the city of Polymedia, as also Chrysa, and a second Larissa. The temple of SmintheusOr Sminthian Apollo. This appears to have been situate at the Chrysa last mentioned by Pliny as no longer in existence. Strabo places Chrysa on a hill, and he mentions the temple of Smintheus and speaks of a symbol which recorded the etymon of that name, the mouse which lay at the foot of the wooden figure, the work of Scopas. According to an ancient tradition, Apollo had his name of Smintheus given him as being the mouse-destroyer, for, according to Apion, the meaning of Smintheus was a "mouse." is still standing; ColoneAccording to tradition this place was in early times the residence of Cycnus, a Thracian prince, who possessed the adjoining country, and the island of Tenedos, opposite to which Colone was situate on the mainland. Pliny however here places it in the interior. in the interior has perished. To Adramyttium resort upon matters of legal business the ApolloniatæThe site of this Apollonia is at Abullionte, on a lake of the same name, the Apolloniatis of Strabo. Its remains are very inconsiderable., whose town is on the river RhyndacusOr Lycus, now known as the Edrenos., the EriziiOf this people nothing whatever is known., the MiletopolitæD'Anville thinks that the modern Bali-Kesri occupies the site of Miletopolis., the PœmaneniStephanus Byzantinus mentions a place called Pœmaninum near Cyzicus., the Macedonian Asculacæ, the PolichnæiThe inhabitants of Polichna, a town of the Troad., the PionitæThe people of Pionia, near Scepsis and Gargara., the Cilician Mandacadeni, and, in Mysia, the AbrettiniThey occupied the greater part of Mysia Proper. They had a native divinity to which they paid peculiar honours, by the Greeks cailed Zeu/s )Abpetthno\s., the people known as the HellespontiiThe same as the Olympeni or Olympieni, in the district of Olympene at the foot of Mount Olympus; next to whom, on the south and west, were the Abretteni., and others of less note.

The first place in Troas is HamaxitusOn the south-western coast of the Troad, fifty stadia south of Larissa. In the time of Strabo it had ceased to exist. No ruins of this place have been known to be discovered, but Prokesch is induced to think that the architectural remains to be seen near Cape Baba are those of Hamaxitus., then CebreniaOr Cebrene or Cebren. It was separated from the territory of Scepsis by the river Menander. Leake supposes it to have occupied the higher region of Ida on the west, and that its site may have been at a place called Kushunlu Tepe, not far from Baramitsh., and then TroasMentioned in Acts xvi. 8. It is now called Eski Stambul or Old Stambul. It was situate on the coast of Troas, opposite to the south-eastern point of the island of Tenedos, and north of Assus. It was founded by Antigonus, under the name of Antigonia Troas, and peopled with settlers from Scepsis and other neighbouring towns. The ruins of this city are very extensive. itself, formerly called Antigonia, and now Alexandria, a Roman colony. We then come to the town of NeeOr Nea, mentioned in B. ii. c. 97., the ScamanderNow called the Mendereh-Chai., a navigable river, and the spot where in former times the town of SigeumOn the north-west promontory of Troas. Here Homer places the Grecian fleet and camp during the Trojan war. The promontory is now called Yenisheri. stood, upon a promontory. We next come to the Port of the AchæansNow called Jeni-Scher, according to Ansart. It was at this spot that the Greeks landed in their expedition against Troy., into which the XanthusUsually identified with the Mendereh-Chai or Scamander. flows after its union with the SimoisThe modern Gumbrek., and forms the PalæscamanderOr "ancient Scamander.", which was formerly a lake. The other rivers, rendered famous by Homer, namely, the Rhesus, the Heptaporus, the Caresus, and the Rhodius, have left no vestiges of their existence. The GranicusNow known as the Koja-Chai; memorable as the scene of the three great victories by which Alexander the Great overthrew the Persian empire, B.C. 334. Here also a victory was gained by Lucullus over Mithridates, B.C. 78., taking a different route, flows into the PropontisOr Sea of Marmora.. The small city of Scamandria, however, still exists, and, at a distance of a mile and a half from its harbour, IliumIt is not exactly known whether New Ilium was built on the same site as the Ilium or Troy which had been destroyed by the Greeks; but it has been considered improbable that the exploits mentioned in the Iliad should have happened in so short a space as that lying between the later Ilium and the coast. The site of New Ilium is generally considered to be the spot covered with ruins, now called Kissarlik, between the villages called Kum-kioi, Kalli-fath, and Tchiblak., a place exempt from tributeThe Dictator Sylla showed especial favour to Ilium., the fountain-head of universal fame. Beyond the gulf are the shores of RhœteumNow called Cape Intepeh or Barbieri., peopled by the towns of RhœteumThe modern Paleo Castro probably occupies its site., DardaniumMore generally called Dardanus, or Dardanum, said to have been built by Dardanus. It was situate about a mile south of the promontory Dardanis or Dardanium. Its exact site does not appear to be known: from it the modern Dardanelles are supposed to have derived their name., and ArisbeSituate between Percote and Abydus, and founded by Scamandrius and Ascanius the son of Æneas. The village of Moussa is supposed to occupy its site. The army of Alexander mustered here after crossing the Hellespont.. There was also in former times a town of AchilleonAlexander the Great visited this place on his Asiatic expedition in B.C. 334, and placed chaplets on the tomb of Achilles., founded near the tomb of Achilles by the people of Mitylene, and afterwards rebuilt by the Athenians, close to the spot where his fleet had been stationed near Sigeum. There was also the town of ÆantionSo called from Æas, the Greek name of Ajax., founded by the Rhodians upon the opposite point, near the tomb of Ajax, at a distance of thirty stadia from Sigeum, near the spot where his fleet was stationed. Above Æolis and part of Troas, in the interior, is the place called TeuthraniaTeuthrania was in the south-western corner of Mysia, between Temnus and the borders of Lydia, where in very early times Teuthras was said to have founded a Mysian kingdom, which was early subdued by the kings of Lydia: this part was also called Pergamene., inhabited in ancient times by the Mysians. Here rises the river Caicus already mentioned. Teuthrania was a powerful nation in itself, even when the whole of Æolis was held by the Mysians. In it are the PioniæCalled Pionitæ in the preceding Chapter., AnderaA town in the Troad, the site of which is unknown., Cale, Stabulum, Conisium, Teium, BalceaA town on the Propontis, according to Stephanus. The sites of most of the places here mentioned are utterly unknown., Tiare, Teuthranie, Sarnaca, Haliserne, Lycide, Parthenium, Thymbre, Oxyopum, Lygdamum, Apollonia, and PergamumAlso called Pergama or Pergamus. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Pergamo or Bergamo. It was the capital of the kingdom of Pergamus, and situate in the Tcuthranian district of Mysia, on the northern bank of the river Caïcus. Under its kings, its library almost equalled that of Alexandria, and the formation of it gave rise to the invention of parchment, as a writing material, which was thence called Charta Pergamena. This city was an early seat of Christianity, and is one of the seven churches of Asia to whom the Apocalyptic Epistles are addressed. Its ruins are still to be seen., by far the most famous city in Asia, and through which the river Selinus runs; the Cetius, which rises in Mount Pindasus, flowing before it. Not far from it is Elæa, which we have mentionedAt the beginning of the preceding Chapter. as situate on the sea-shore. The jurisdiction of this district is called that of Pergamus; to it resort the ThyatireniThe people of Thyatira, mentioned in B. v. c. 31., the Mosyni, the MygdonesThe people of Mygdonia, a district between Mount Olympus and the coast, in the east of Mysia and the west of Bithynia., the Bregmeni, the HierocometæThe people of the Holy Village." Hierocome is mentioned by Livy as situate beyond the river Mæander., the Perpereni, the Tiareni, the Hierolophienses, the Hermocapelitæ, the AttalensesThe people of Attalia, mentioned in C. 32., the Panteenses, the Apollonidienses, and some other states unknown to fame. The little town of DardanumPreviously mentioned in the present Chapter. is distant from Rhœteum seventy stadia. Eighteen miles thence is the Promontory of TrapezaOr "the Table." Now known as Capo de Janisseri., from which spot the Hellespont first commences its course.

Eratosthenes tells us that in Asia there have perished the nations of the SolymiAlso called the Milyæ, probably of the Syro-Arabian race; they were said to have been the earliest inhabitants of Lycia., the LelegesThe Leleges are now considered to have been a branch of the great Indo-Germanic race, who gradually became incorporated with the Hellenic race, and thus ceased to exist as an independent people., the BebrycesA nation belonging probably more to mythology than history. Strabo supposes them to have been of Thracian origin, and that their first place of settlement was Mysia., the Colycantii, and the Tripsedri. Isidorus adds to these the ArimiBy some supposed to have been a people of Phrygia., as also the Capretæ, settled on the spot where ApameaMentioned in C. 29 of the present Book. stands, which was founded by King Seleucus, between Cilicia, Cappadocia, Cataonia, and Armenia, and was at first called DameaFrom the Greek dama/w "to subdue." Hardouin thinks that this appellation is intended to be given by Pliny to Asia in general, and not to the city of Apamea in particular, as imagined by Ortelius and others., from the fact that it had conquered nations most remarkable for their fierceness.

Of the islands which lie before Asia the first is the one situate in the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, and which received its name, it is said, from Canopus, the pilot of Menelaüs. A second, called Pharos, is joined by a bridge to Alexandria, and was made a colony by the Dictator Cæsar. In former times it was one day's sailIt is so described by Homer. from the mainland of Egypt; at the present day it directs ships in their course by means of the fires which are lighted at night on the towerThis was the light-house built upon it by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, whence the name of pharus came to be applied to similar structures. It was here also that, according to the common story, the seventy Translators of the Greek version of the Old Testament, hence called the Septuagint, were confined while completing their work. there; for in consequence of the insidious nature of the shoals, there are only three channels by which Alexandria can be approached, those of SteganusThe narrow or fortified channel., PosideumThe Neptunian channel. and Taurus.

In the Phœnician Sea, before Joppe there is the island of PariaMentioned also in C. 14 of the present Book., the whole of it forming a town. Here, they say, Andromeda was exposed to the monster: the island also of Arados, already mentionedIn C. 17 of the present Book., between which and the continent, as we learn from Mucianus, at a depth of fifty cubits in the sea, fresh water is brought up from a spring at the very bottom by means of leather pipesThe boatmen of Ruad, the ancient Aradus, still draw fresh water from the spring Ain Ibrahim, in the sea, a few rods from the shore of the opposite coast..

The Pamphylian Sea contains some islands of little note. The Cilician, besides four others of very considerable size, has CyprusNow called Kibris., which lies opposite to the shores of Cilicia and Syria, running east and west; in former times it was the seat of nine kingdoms. Timosthenes states that the circumference of this island is 427 miles, IsidorusStrabo makes it 425. Hardouin remarks that Isidorus has not made allowance for the margin of the creeks and bays. 375; its length, between the two Promontories of DinæThe north-eastern extremity of Cyprus. It is now called Capo Sant Andreas. It is more generally known in the editions of Pliny by the name of Dinaretum. and AcamasNow called Capo Sant Epifanio, or Pifano, after the celebrated metropolitan of Cyprus. It is the western extremity of the island. lying on the west, is, according to Artemidorus, 160 1/2 miles, according to Timosthenes, 200. Philonides says that it was formerly called Acamantis, Xenagoras that it had the names of CerastisFrom the Greek ke/ras"a horn." It was not improbably so called from the numerous horns or promontories on its coast., Aspelia, Amathusia, and MacariaFrom the Greek maka/rios "blessed," in compliment to its fertile soil and delightful temperature., while Astynomus gives it the names of CryptosApparently from the Greek krupto\s "concealed." Stephanus Byzantinus says that it was so called because it was frequently hidden beneath the surface of the sea. and Colinia. Its towns are fifteen in number, NeapaphosOr New Paphos. The spot is still called Bafa or Bafo., PalæpaphosOr Old Paphos, now Kukala or Konuklia. Old Paphos was situate near the promontory Zephyrium on the river Bocarno, where it had a good harbour; while New Paphos lay more inland, in the midst of a fertile plain, sixty stadia from the former. Old Paphos was the chief seat of worship of Aphrodite or Venus, who was said to have landed at that place after her ascent from the sea., CuriasSituate on the most southerly point in the island; now Capo Gavatta or delle Gatte., CitiumA town situate on the south coast of Cyprus. Its ruins are to be seen between Larnika and the port now known as Salines; they are very extensive. In B. xxx. c. 9, Pliny speaks of the salt lakes near this place, which are worked at the present day., Corineum, SalamisIn the middle of the east coast. It was said to have been founded by Teucer the son of Telamon, who gave it the name of his native land from which he had been banished by his father., Ama- thusNow called Old Limasol, a town on the south coast, celebrated for its worship of Aphrodite or Venus. It was a Phœnician settlement, and Stephanus calls it the most ancient city in the island. It long preserved its oriental customs, and here the Tyrian Hercules was worshipped under his name of Melkart., LapethosIts site is now called Lapitho or Lapta., Solœ, TamasosProbably the same as the Temncse of Homer. It was situate in a fertile district in the middle of Cyprus, and in the neighbourhood of extensive copper mines. Near it was a celebrated plain, sacred to Venus, mentioned by Ovid., Epidarum, ChytriNow called Chytria, a town of Cyprus on the road from Cerinea to Salamis., ArsinoëIn the east of Cyprus, near the Promontory of Acamas, formerly called Marion. Ptolemy Soter destroyed this town, and removed the inhabitants to Paphos. The modern name of its site is Polikrusoko or Crisophou, from the gold mines in the neighbourhood. There was more than one city of this name in Cyprus, which was probably bestowed on them during its subjection to the princes of the line of Lagus. Another Arsinoë is placed near Ammochostus to the north of the island, and a third of the same name appears in Strabo with a harbour, temple and grove, between Old and New Paphos., CarpasimnOr Carpasia, to the north-east of the island, facing the Promontory of Sarpedon on the Cilician coast. It was said to have been founded by Pygmalion, king of Tyre. Pococke speaks of remains at Carpas, the site of this place, especially a long wall and a pier., and GolgiOr Golgos, famous for the worship of Aphrodite or Venus, which had existed here even before its introduction at Paphos by Agapenor. Its position is unknown.. The towns of Cinyria, Marium, and IdaliumOr Idalia, adjoining to which was a forest sacred to Aphrodite. The poets, who connect this place with her worship, give us no indications whatever of its precise locality. Engel identifies it with the modern Dalin, situate to the south of Leucosia, at the foot of Mount Olympus. are no longer in existence. It is distant from AnemuriumNow Cape Anamur. in Cilicia fifty miles; the sea which runs between the two shores being called the Channel of Cilicia"Aulon Cilicium," now the Sea of Caramania or Cyprus.. In the same localityThe Cilician Sea, namely. is the island of EleusaThere were several islands of this name. It is not improbable that Pliny alludes to the one lying off the coast of Caria between the isle of Rhodes and the mainland, and which seems to be the island marked Alessa in the maps. There was another of the same name close to the shore of Cilicia, afterwards known by the name of Sebaste., and the four islands known as the ClidesOr Cleides, meaning the "Keys." This was a group of small islands lying to the north-east of Cyprus. The name of the islands was after- wards transferred by some geographer to the Cape which Pliny above calls Dinæ, and others Dinaretum., lying before the promontory which faces Syria; and again at the end of the other capeCape Acamas, now Pifano. is Stiria: over against Neapaphos is HierocepiaOr the "Sacred Garden." The names of this and the Salaminiæ do not appear to be known to the modern geographers., and opposite to Salamis are the Salaininiæ.

In the Lycian Sea are the islands of Illyris, Telendos, and AttelebussaThis is identified by Beaufort with the islet called Bœshat, which is separated by a narrow channel from the Lycian shore. The others do not seem to have been identified. Attelebussa is supposed to take its name from a kind of destructive grasshopper without wings, called by the Greeks a)tte/lebos., the three barren isles called Cypriæ, and Dionysia, formerly called Caretha. Opposite to the Promontory of Taurus are the ChelidoniæSituate off the commencement of the sea-coast of Pamphylia, on the borders of Lycia. Beaufort speaks of them as five in number; he did not meet with any of the dangers of the navigation here mentioned by Pliny. The Greeks still call them Chelidoniæ, and the Italian sailors Celidoni, which the Turks have corrupted into Shelidan., as many in number, and extremely dangerous to mariners. Further on we find Leucolla with its town, the PactyæHardouin supposes these four islands to be the names of the group forming the Pactyæ. The names given appear to signify, the "Wild" or "Rough Islands," the "Isle of the Nymphs," the "Long Island," and the "Greatest Island." They were off the coast of Lycia, and seem to have belonged to the Rhodians. The modern name of Megista is Kastelorizo, according to Ansart., Lasia, Nymphäis, Macris, and Megista, the city on which last no longer exists. After these there are many that are not worthy of notice. Opposite, however, to Cape Chimæra is DolichisteOr Doliche, the "Long Island," in the Lycian Sea, west of the ruins of Myra. Its modern name is Kakava. It is now uninhabited., Chœrogylion, CrambussaStill known as Grambousa, a small island off the east coast of Lycia. There seems to have been another of the same name off the Lycian coast., RhogeAn island off the coast of Lycia., Enagora, eight miles in circumference, the two islands of DædalaHardouin thinks that they were opposite to the city of Dædala on the coast of Caria., the three of CryaOff the city of Crya, probably, in Caria., Strongyle, and over against SidymaOn the coast of Lycia. the isle of Antiochus. Towards the mouth of the river GlaucusIn Lycia. See C. 29 of the present Book., there are LagussaProbably so called from the number of hares found there., Macris, Didymæ Helbo, Scope, Aspis, Telandria, the town of which no longer exists, and, in the vicinity of CaunusOn the coast of Caria., Rhodussa.

But the fairest of them all is the free island of Rhodes, 125, or, if we would rather believe Isidorus, 103 miles in circumference. It contains the inhabited cities of Lindos, CamirusStill known as Lindo and Camiro, according to D'Anville., and IalysusOne of the three ancient Doric cities of Rhodes. It lay three-quarters of a mile to the south-west of the city of Rhodes, with which Pliny seems here to confound it. Its site is occupied by a village which still bears the name of Ialiso, and where a few ancient remains are to be found., now called Rhodos. It is distant from Alexandria in Egypt, according to Isidorus, 583 miles; but, according to Eratosthenes, 469. Mucianus says, that its distance from Cyprus is 166. This island was formerly called OphiussaFrom its productiveness of serpents., AsteriaEither from Asterius, its former king, or from its being a "constellation" of the sea., ÆthriaProbably because of the clearness and serenity of its atmosphere. See B. ii. c. 62., TrinacrieFrom its three-cornered shape., CorymbiaPerhaps so called from its fruitfulness in ivy, in Greek korumbh/qra, or else from ko/rumbos, "a summit," from its elevated position., PœeëssaFrom its verdant and grassy soil., AtabyriaEither from King Atabyrius, or the mountain Atabyrion; or else from the temple of Jupiter Tabyrius, which Appian speaks of as situate in this island., from the name of one of its kings; and, in later times, MacariaThe "fortunate," or "blessed" island. and Oloessa"Venomous," or "deadly." This name it most probably had in early times (and not more recently, as Pliny says), when it was covered with dense forests, the retreats of serpents and noxious reptiles.. The islands of the Rhodians are CarpathusNow known as Skarpanto., which has given its name to the surrounding sea; CasosMentioned by Homer, II. ii. 676. See also B. iv. c. 23 of the present work. It is described by Ross as a single ridge of mountains, of considerable height., formerly known as AchneSignifying "sea-foam."; NisyrosStill known as Nicero., twelve miles distant from Cnidos, and formerly called PorphyrisFrom its production of the 'murex,' or 'purple.'; and, in the same vicinity, midway between Rhodes and Cnidos, SymeNow called Symi, a small island off the south-west coast of Caria, at the mouth of the Gulf of Doris, to the west of the Promontory of Cynossema.. This island is thirty-seven miles and a half in circumference, and welcomes us with eight fine harbours. Besides these islands, there are, in the vicinity of Rhodes, those of Cyclopis, Teganon, CordylussaNow called the Island of St. Catherine, according to Ansart., the four islands called DiabetæStephlanus Byzantinus mentions these islands as lying in the vicinity at Syme. Perhaps they are the group lying to the south of it, now called Siskle., Hymos, ChalceDistant about fifty miles from Carpathus, or Skarpanto. It was probably subject to Rhodes, in the vicinity of which it was situate. Its present name is Chalki., with its city of that name, SentlussaAn island, according to Hardouin, not far from Halicarnassus, on the cost of Ionia., NarthecussaSo called from its productiveness of the na/rqhc, or ferula., Dimastos, Progne; and, off Cnidos, Cisserussa, Therionarce, and CalydneMore probably Calydnæ, because there were several islands forming the group, of which Calymna was the chief. See B. iv. c. 23, where Pliny mentions only one town, that of Coös. There are some remains of the ancient towns still to be seen., with the three towns of Notium, Nisyros, and Mendeterus. In ArconnesusA small island of Caria, south of Halicarnassus. It is now called Orak-Ada. there is the town of Ceramus. Off the coast of Caria, there are the islands known as the Argiæ, twenty in number; also HyetussaProbably so called from the almost continual rains there., Lepsia, and Leros.

The most noted island, however, in this gulf is that of CosNow called Stanko, or Stanclio, a corruption of e)s ta\n *kw=., fifteen miles distant from Halicarnassus, and 100 in circumference, according to the opinion of many writers. It was formerly called Merope; according to Staphylus, Cea; Meropis, as Dionysius tells us; and, after that, Nymphæa. In this island there is Mount Prion. NisyrosWhich has been previously mentioned in this Chapter., formerly called Porphyris, is supposed to have been severed from the island of Cos. We next come to the island of CaryandaIn C. 29, Pliny has mentioned a Caryanda on the mainland. It is probable that there was a town on the mainland and another in the island of the same name. Leake says, that there can be little doubt that the large peninsula, towards the west end of which is the fine harbour called by the Turks Pasha Limani, is the ancient island of Caryanda, now joined to the mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus., with a city of that name, and that of PidosusThe island of Hyali, near the harbour of Meffi, on the coast of Caria, according to Dupinet., not far from Halicarnassus. In the Gulf of Ceramicus we also find PriaponnesosProbably so called from the worship of the god Priapus there., Hipponnesos, Psyra, Mya, Lampsa. Æmyndus, Passala, Crusa, Pinnicussa, SepiussaFew, if any, of these islets can now be recognized. Sepiussa was probably so called from the abundance of the sepia, or cuttle-fish, there., and Melano. At a short distance from the mainland is an island which bears the name of Cinædopolis, from the circumstance that King Alexander left behind there certain persons of a most disgraceful character.

The coast of Ionia has the islands of Trageæ, CorseæOver against the isle of Samos., and Icaros, which has been previouslyB. iv. c. 23. mentioned; LadeNear the city of Miletus., formerly called Late; and, among others of no note, the two CamelidæSo called from their resemblance to camels., in the vicinity of Miletus; and the three TrogiliæLying before the Promontory of Trogilium, mentioned in C. 31., near Mycale, consisting of Philion, Argennon, and Sandalion. There is Samos also, a freeAugustus gave their liberty to the Samians. The island is still called by the Greeks Samo, and by the Turks Susam Adassi. island, eighty-seven miles in circumference, or, according to Isidorus, 100. Aristotle tells us, that it was at first called PartheniaThe "Virgin's Island," if so called after Juno, as some say; but according to Strabo, it received its name from the river Parthenius., after that DryussaFrom its numerous oaks., and then AnthemussaFrom the abundance of its flowers.. To these names Aristocritus has added Melamphllus"Of dark," or "black foliage;" in allusion probably to its cypresses. and Cyparissia"Cypress-bearing.": other writers, again, call it ParthenoarussaThis is note improbably a compound, formed by a mistake of the copyists, of the two names, Parthenia and Aryusa, mentioned by Heraclides. and Stephane"The Crown." This island was the birth-place of Pythagoras.. The rivers of tis island are the Imbrasus, the Chesius, and the Ibettes. There are also the fountains of Gigartho and Leucothea; and Mount Cercetius. In the vicinity of Samos are the islands of Rhypara, Nymphæa, and Achillea.

At a distance of ninety-four miles from Samos is the free island of ChiosNow known as Khio, Scio, Saka Adassi, or Saksadasi. Chios was declared free by the Dictator Sulla., its equal in fame, with a town of the same name. Ephorus says, that the ancient name of this island was Æthalia: Metrodorus and Cleobulus tell us, that it had the name of Chia from the nymph Chione; others again say, that it was so called from the word signifying snow*xiw\n gen. *xio/nos.; it was also called Macris and PityusaMacris, from its length, and Pityusa, from its pine-trees.. It has a mountain called Pelennæus; and the Chian Marble is well known. It is 125Dalechamps says 112 is the correct measurement. miles in circumference, according to the ancient writers; Isidorus however makes it nine more. It is situate between Samos and Lesbos, and, for the most part, lies opposite to ErythræMentioned in C. 31 of the present Book..

The adjacent islands are ThallusaMeaning "green and flourishing.", by some writers called Daphnusa"Productive of laurels." None of these islets appear to have been recognized by their modern names., Œnussa, Elaphitis, Euryanassa, and Arginusa, with a town of that name. All these islands are in the vicinity of Ephesus, as also those called the Islands of Pisistratus, Anthinæ, Myonnesos, Diarreusa,—in both of these last there were cities, now no longer in existence,—PoroseleneBy Strabo called Pordoselene. He says that the islands in its vicinity were forty in number; of which Pliny here gives the names of two-and-twenty., with a city of that name, Cerciæ, HaloneSouth of Proconncsus; now called Aloni., Commone, Illetia, Lepria and Rhesperia, Procusæ, Bolbulæ, Phanæ, Priapos, Syce, Melane, Ænare, Sidusa, Pele, DrymusaNear the city of Clazomenæ. It is now called Vourla, according to Ansart., Anhydros, ScopelosNow Koutali, according to Ansart., Sycussa, Marathussa, Psile, Perirreusa, and many others of no note. In the main sea lies the celebrated island of Teos, with a cityWe learn from Strabo and other writers, that this city was on a peninsula, and that it stood on the southern side of the isthmus, connecting Mount Mimas with the mainland of Lydia. It was the birth-place of Anacreon and Hecatæus. of that name, seventy-one miles and a half distant from Chios, and the same from the Erythræ.

In the vicinity of Smyrna are the PeristeridesOr the "Dove Islands;" probably from the multitude of those birds found on those islands., Carteria, Alopece, Elæussa, Bachina, Pystira, Crommyonnesos, and MegaleNow called Antigona, according to Ansart.. Facing Troas there are the Ascaniæ, and the three islands called Plateæ. We find also the Lamiæ, the two islands called Plitaniæ, Plate, Scopelos, Getone, Arthedon, Cœlæ, Lagussæ, and Didymæ.

But LesbosNow Mitylene, or Metelin., distant from Chios sixty-five miles, is the most celebrated of them all. It was formerly called Himerte, Lasia, Pelasgia, Ægira, Æthiope, and Macaria, and is famous for its nine cities. Of these, however, that of Pyrrha has been swallowed up by the sea, ArisbeWe find it also stated by Herodotus, that this island was destroyed by the Methymnæans. The cities of Mitylene, Methymna, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe, originally formed the Æolian Hexapolis, or Confederation of Six Cities. has perished by an earthquake, and Methymna is now united to AntissaThe ruins found by Pococke at Calas Limneonas, north-east of Cape Sigri, may be those of Antissa. This place was the birth-place of Terpander, the inventor of the seven-stringed lyre.; these lie in the vicinity of nine cities of Asia, along a coast of thirty-seven miles. The towns of Agamede and Hiera have also perished. EresosOr Eressus, according to Strabo. It stood on a hill, reaching down to the sea. Its ruins are said to be near a place still called Eresso. It was the birth-place of the philosopher Theophrastus, the disciple of Aristotle., Pyrrha, and the free city of MityleneStill called Mitylene, or Metelin., still survive, the last of which was a powerful city for a space of 1500 years. The circumference of the whole island is, according to Isidorus, 168 milesStrabo makes it about only 137 miles., but the older writers say 195. Its mountains are, Lepethymnus, Ordymnus, Maicistus, Creon, and Olympus. It is distant seven miles and a half from the nearest point of the mainland. The islands in its vicinity are, Sandaleon, and the five called LeucæOr the White Islands.; CydoneaSo called from its fruitfulness in quinces, or "Mala Cydonia.", which is one of them, contains a warm spring. The ArginussæThese were three small islands, near the mainland of Æolis. It was off these islands that the ten generals of the Athenians gained a victory over the Spartans, B.C. 406. The modern name of these islands is said to be Janot. are four miles distant from ÆgeOne of the Leucæ, previously mentioned.; after them come PhellusaSo called from the fello\s, or "cork," which it produced. and Pedna. Beyond the Hellespont, and opposite the shore of Sigeum, lies TenedosStill known as Tenedos, near the mouth of the Hellespont. Here the Greeks were said to have concealed their fleet, to induce the Trojans to think that they had departed, and then introduce the wooden horse within their walls., also known by the names of Leucophrys"Having white eye-brows;" probably from the whiteness of its cliffs., Phœnice, and Lyrnesos. It is distant from Lesbos fifty-six miles, and twelve and a half from Sigeum.

The tide of the Hellespont now begins to run with greater violence, and the sea beats against the shore, undermining with its eddies the barriers that stand in its way, until it has succeeded in separating Asia from Europe. At this spot is the promontory which we have already mentioned as TrapezaIn C. 33 of the present Book.; ten miles distant from which is the city of AbydosOpposite to Sestos, made famous by the loves of Hero and Leander. Aidos, or Avido, a village on the Hellespont, is thought to occupy its site., where the straits are only seven stadia wide; then the town of PercoteNow called Bergase, according to D'Anville.; LampsacusIts ruins are still known as Lapsaki. This important city was celebrated for its wine, and was the chief seat of the worship of the god Priapus., at first called Pityusa; the colony of PariumIts site is now called Camanar, according to D'Anville., which Homer calls by the name of Adrastia; the town of PriaposAccording to Ansart, the modern Caraboa marks its site.; the river ÆsepusNow called the Satal-dere, according to Ansart.; ZeliaIts locality was not far from the modern Biga, according to Ansart.; and then the PropontisNow the Sea of Marmora., that being the name given to the tract of sea where it enlarges. We then come to the river GranicusMentioned in C. 33 of the present Book., and the harbour of ArtaceNow called Artaki, or Erdek, a town of Mysia, and a Milesian colony. A poor town now occupies its site., where a town formerly stood. Beyond this is an island which Alexander joined to the continent, and upon which is CyzicusIts ruins are called by the Turks Bal Kiz, probably meaning "Old Cyzicus." There are many subterraneous passages, and the ruins are of considerable extent. Its temples and storehouses appear to have been built on a scale of great magnificence. See Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 15., a city of the Milesians, which was formerly called ArctonnesosThe "Island of the Bears," which animals frequented the mountain in its vicinity., Dolionis, and Dindymis; above it are the heights of Mount DindymusCalled Dindymum by Herodotus; probably the modern Morad Dagh, in which the river Hermus rises.. We then come to the towns of Placia, AriaceNow called Saki, according to Ansart., and Scylace; in the rear of which places is Mount Olympus, known as the "Mysian Olympus," and the city of Olympena. There are also the rivers HorisiusNow called the Lartaeho, according to Ansart. and RhyndacusPreviously mentioned in C. 32 of the present Book., formerly called the Lycus; this last river rises in Lake Artynias, near Miletopolis, and receives the Macestos, and many other streams, dividing in its course AsiaIn its limited sense; considered as a portion only of Asia Minor. from BithyniaOn the west it bordered on Mysia, and on the south on Phrygia and Galatia, while the eastern boundary seems to have been less definite..

This country was at first called by the name of Cronia, after that, Thessalis, and then Malianda and Strymonis. The people of it are by Homer called HalizonesEphorus, as quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus, says, that the Halizones inhabited the district lying between Caria, Mysia, and Lydia. Hesyehius incorrectly places them in Paphlagonia., from the fact that it was a nation begirt by the sea. There was formerly a vast city here, Attussa by name; at present there are twelve cities in existence; among which is GordiucomeMeaning the "Village of Gordius," one of its ancient kings. It was also called Gordium. After falling to decay, it was rebuilt by Augustus, and called Juliopolis. It is celebrated in history as the place where Alexander the Great cut the Gordian knot; the scene of the adventure being the Acropolis of the town, the former palace of King Gordius., otherwise Juliopolis; and, on the coast, DascylosThere were several Asiatic cities of the similar name of Dascylium. The site of the one here mentioned does not appear to have been ascertained.. We then come to the river GelbesMore generally read "Gebes."; and, in the interior, the town of Helgas, or Germanicopolis, which has also the other name of BooseœteThe "Bull's Bed," or "Den." It probably took its second name from the Roman general Germanicus. ApameaNow called Medania, or Mutania. It received its name of Apamea from Prusias, king of Bithynia, in compliment to his wife. In the time of the first Cæsars, it was made a Roman colony., now more generally known as Myrlea of the Colophonians: the river Etheleus also. the ancient boundary of Troas, and the commencement of Mysia. Next to this comes the gulfThe Bay of Cios. The river runs into a lake, formerly known as Lake Ascanius; probably that mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxi. c. 10. into which the river Ascanius flows, the town of BryllionStephanus Byzantinus says that it was the same as the town of Cios, or Cius, here mentioned as near to it. It was on the shores of the Propontis., and the rivers Hylas and Cios, with a town of the same name as the last- mentioned river; it was founded by the Milesians at a place which was called Aseania of Phrygia, as an entrepôt for the trade of the Phrygians who dwelt in the vicinity. We may therefore look upon this as a not ineligible opportunity for making further mention of Phrygia.

Phrygia lies above Troas, and the peoples already men- tioned as extending from the Promontory of LectumCape Baba, or Santa Maria; the south-western promontory of the Troad. to the river Etheleus. On its northern side it borders upon Galatia, on the south it joins Lyeaonia, Pisidia, and Mygdonia, and, on the east, it touches upon Cappadocia. The more celebrated towns there, besides those already mentioned, are AncyraIn Phrygia Epictetus, or "Conquered Phrygia," so called from its conquest by certain of the kings of Bithynia. Strabo calls this place a "small city, or hill-fortress, towards Lydia." It was probably situate near the source of the Macestus, now the Susugherli Su, or the Simaul Su, as it is called in its upper course., Andria, CelænæThe place from which the citizens were removed to Apamea, as mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book. Hamilton (Researches, &c., p. 499) supposes its acropolis to have been situate about half a mile from the sources of the river Marsyas., ColossæFirst mentioned by Herodotus, and situate on the Lycus, a branch of the Mæander. It had greatly declined in Strabo's time, and in the middle ages there rose near it a town of the name of Chonæ, and Colossæ disappeared. Hamilton found extensive ruins of an ancient city about three miles north of the modern Khonos. It was one of the early Christian churches of Asia, and the Apostle Paul addressed one of his Epistles to the people of this place. It does not appear from it that he had ever visited the place; indeed, from Chap. ii. 1 we may conclude that he had not., CarinaThis does not appear to be the same as the Carine mentioned in C. 32 of this Book, as having gone to decay. Its site is unknown. , CotyaionOr Cotiæum, or Cotyæum. It was on the Roman road from Dorylæum to Philadelphia, and in Phrygia Epictetus, according to Strabo. The modern Kutahiyah is supposed to denote its site; but there are no remains of antiquity., Ceraine, Conium, and Midaium. There are authors who say that the Mœsi, the Brygi, and the Thyni crossed over from Europe, and that from them are descended the peoples called the Mysi, Phryges, and Bithyni.

On this occasion also it seems that we ought to speak of Galatia7 It was bounded on the west, south, and south-east by those countries; and on the north-east, north, and north-west by Pontus, Paphlagouia, and Bithynia., which lies above Phrygia, and includes the greater part of the territory taken from that province, as also its former capital, GordiumMentioned in C. 40, under the name of Gordiucome.. The GaulsWho invaded and settled in Asia Minor, at various periods during the third century B.C. who have settled in these parts, are called the Tolistobogi, the Voturi, and the Ambitouti; those who dwell in Mæonia and Paphlagonia are called the Trocmi. Cappadocia stretches along to the north-east of Galatia, its most fertile parts being possessed by the Tectosages and the Teutobodiaci. These are the nations by which those parts are occupied; and they are divided into peoples and tetrarchies, 195 in number. Its towns are, among the Tectosages, AncyraNear a small stream, which seems to enter the Sangarius. It originally belonged to Phrygia, and its mythical founder was Midas, the son of Gordius, who was said to have found an anchor on the spot, and accordingly given the name to the town; which story would, however, as it has been observed, imply that the name for anchor (a)/gkura) was the same in the Greek and the Phrygian languages. The Tectosages, who settled here about B.C. 277, are supposed to have been from the neighbourhood of Toulouse. It is now called Angora, or Engareh; and the fine hair of the Angora goat may have formed one of the staple commodities of the place, which had a very considerable trade. The chief monument of antiquity here is the marble temple of the Emperor Augustus, built in his honour during his lifetime. In the inside is the Latin inscription known as the monumentum, or marmor Ancyranum, containing a record of the memorable actions of Augustus. The ruins here are otherwise interesting in a high degree.; among the Troemi, TaviumNow Tchoroum, according to Ansart.; and, among the Tolistobogi, PessinusIts ruins are called Bala-Hisar, in the south-west of Galatia, on the southern slope of Mount Didymus. This place was celebrated as a chief seat of the worship of the goddess Cybele, under the surname of Agdistis, whose temple, filled with riches, stood on a hill outside of the city.. Besides the above, the best known among the peoples of this region are the Actalenses, the Arasenses, the ComensesHardouin suggests that these are the Chomenses, the people of the city of Choma, in the interior of Lycia, mentioned in C. 28 of the present Book., the Didienses, the Hierorenses, the LystreniThe people of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of Isauria, celebrated as one of the chief scenes of the preaching of Paul and Barnabas. See Acts xiv., the Neapolitani, the Œandenses, the SeleucensesThe people of Seleucia, in Pisidia., the Sebas- teniThe people of Sebaste, a town of the Tectosages., the TimoniacensesThe people of Timonium, a town of Paphlagonia, according to Stephanus Byzantinus., and the ThebaseniThebasa, a town of Lycaonia, has been mentioned in C. 25 of the present Book.. Galatia also touches upon Carbalia in Pamphylia, and the MilyæSee C. 25 of the present Book., about Baris; also upon Cyllanticum and OroandicumThe town of Oroanda, giving name to this district, is mentioned at the end of C. 24 of the present Book., a district of Pisidia, and Obizene, a part of Lvcaonia. Besides those already mentionedThe Caÿster, the Rhyndacus, and the Cios., its rivers are the SangariusNow called the Sakariyeh, the largest river of Asia Minor after the ancient Halys. and the GallusNow called the Lefke, which discharges itself into the Tangarius, or Sakariyeh., from which last the priestsCalled "Galli." They were said to become mad from drinking of the waters of this river, and to mutilate themselves when in a frantic state. See Ovid's Fasti, B. iv. 1. 364 et seq. of the Mother of the gods have taken their name.

And now as to the remaining places on this coast. On the road from Cios into the interior is PrusaNow called Brusa. It stood on the north side of Mount Olympus, fifteen Roman miles from Cius. According to most accounts, it was built by Prusias, king of Bithynia. It is most probable that Hannibal superintended the works, while staying as a refugee at the court of Prusias., in Bithynia, founded by Hannibal at the foot of Olympus, at a distance of twenty-five miles from Nicæa, Lake AscaniusNow Lake Iznik. lying between them. We then come to NicæaIts ruins are to be seen at Iznik, on the east side of the lake of that name. Its site is supposed to have been originally occupied by the town of Attæa, and afterwards by a settlement of the Bottiæans, called Ancore, or Helicore, which was destroyed by the Mysians. On this spot, shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, Antigonus built a city which he named after himself, Antigonea; but Lysimachus soon afterwards changed the name into Nicæa, in honour of his wife. Under the kings of Bithynia, it was often the royal residence, and it long disputed with Nicomedia the rank of capital of Bithynia. The modern Iznik is only a poor village, with about 100 houses. Considerable ruins of the ancient city are still in existence. Littré seems to think that there are two Nicæas meant in these passages; but it would seem that the same place is alluded to in both lines. The only thing that seems to give countenance to Littré's supposition (in which he is supported by Hardouin) is, the expression "Et Prusa item altera.", formerly called Olbia, and situate at the bottom of the Ascanian Gulf; as also a second place called PrusaIt has been suggested, that this is only another name for the town of Cios, previously mentioned; but it is most probable that they were distinct places, and that this was originally called Cierus, and belonged to the territory of Heraclea, but was conquered by King Prusias, who named it after himself. It stood to the north-west of the other Prusa., at the foot of Mount Hypius. Pythopolis, Parthenopolis, and Coryphanta are no longer in existence. Along the coast we find the rivers Æsius, Bryazon, Plataneus, Areus, Æsyros, Geodos, also called ChrysorroasOr the "Golden Stream.", and the promontorySuggested by Parisot to be the modern Cape Fagma. upon which once stood the town of Megarice. The gulf that here runs inland received the name of Craspedites from the circumstance of that town lying, as it were, upon its skirtFrom the Greek kra/spedon, a "skirt." . AstacumOr Astacus, a colony originally from Megara and Athens. From Scylax it would appear that this city was also called Olbia. Its site is placed by some of the modern geographers at a spot called Ovaschik, and also Bashkele., also, formerly stood here, from which the same gulf has received the name of the 'Astacenian': the town of LibyssaCalled Gebiseh, according to Busbequis,—at least in his day. The modern Hereket, on the coast, has been suggested. formerly stood at the spot where we now see nothing but the tomb of Hannibal. At the bottom of the gulf lies NicomediaIts ruins now bear the name of Izmid, or Iznikmid, at the northeastern corner of the Sinus Astacenus, or Gulf of Izmid. It was the chief residence of the kings of Bithynia, and one of the most splendid cities in the world. Under the Romans it was made a colony, and was a favourite residence of Diocletian and Constantine the Great. Arrian the historian was born here., a famous city of Bithynia; then comes the Promontory of LeucatasNow Akrita. It is also called Akritas by Ptolemy., by which the Astacenian Gulf is bounded, and thirty-seven miles distant from Nicomedia; and then, the land again approaching the other side, the straitsThe Straits, or Channel of Constantinople. which extend as far as the Thracian Bosporus. Upon these are situate ChalcedonIts site is supposed to have been about two miles south of the modern Scutari, and it is said that the modern Greeks call it Chalkedon, and the Turks Kadi-Kioi. Its destruction was completed by the Turks, who used its materials for the construction of the mosques and other buildings of Constantinople., a free town, sixty-two miles from Nicomedia, formerly called ProcerastisSo called, Hardouin thinks, from its being opposite to the Golden Horn, or promontory on which Byzantium was built., then Colpusa, and after that the "City of the Blind," from the circumstance that its founders did not know where to build their city, Byzantium being only seven stadia distant, a site which is preferable in every respect.

In the interior of Bithynia are the colony of ApameaOr Myrlea, mentioned above in C. 40. See p. 490., the Agrippenses, the Juliopolitæ, and BithynionOr Bithynium, lying above Tius. Its vicinity was a good feeding country for cattle, and noted for the excellence of its cheese, as mentioned by Pliny, B. xi. c. 42. Antinoüs, the favourite of the Emperor Adrian, was born here, as Pausanias informs us. Its site does not appear to be known.; the rivers Syrium, Laphias, Pharnacias, Alces, Serinis, Lilæus, Scopius, and HierasThese rivers do not appear to have been identified by the modern geographers., which separates Bithynia from Galatia. Beyond Chalcedon formerly stood ChrysopolisThe modern Scutari occupies its site. Dionysius of Byzantimn states, that it was called Chrysopolis, either because the Persians made it the place of deposit for the gold which they levied from the cities, or else from Chryses, a son of Agamemnon and Chryseis., and then Nicopolis, of which the gulf, upon which stands the Port of AmycusA king of the Bebrycians. For some further particulars relative to this place, see B. xvi. c. 89 of the present Book., still retains the name; then the Promontory of Naulochum, and EstiæSituate on a promontory, which is represented by the modern Algiro, according to Hardouin and Parisot., a temple of NeptuneOther writers say that it was erected in honour of the Twelve Greater Divinities.. We then come to the Bosporus, which again separates Asia from Europe, the distance across being half a mile; it is distant twelve miles and a half from Chalcedon. The first entrance of this strait is eight miles and three-quarters wide, at the place where the town of SpiropolisCalled Phinopolis in most of the editions. It is very doubtful whether this passage ought not to be translated, "At a distance thence of eight miles and three-quarters is the first entrance to this strait, at the spot," &c. We have, however, adopted the rendering of Holland, Ajasson, and Littré. formerly stood. The Thyni occupy the whole of the coast, the Bithyni the interior. This is the termination of Asia, and of the 282 peoples, that are to be found between the Gulf of LyciaMentioned in C. 28 of the present Book. and this spot. We have alreadyIn B. iv. c. 24. mentioned the length of the Hellespont and Propontis to the Thracian Bosporus as being 239 miles; from Chalcedon to Sigeum, Isidorus makes the distance 322 1/2.

The islands of the Propontis are, before Cyzicus, ElaphonnesusOr "Deer Island.", from whence comes the Cyzican marble; it is also known by the names of Neuris and Proconnesus. Next come OphiussaNow Afzia, according to D'Anville., Acanthus, Phœbe, Scopelos, Porphyrione, HaloneThere is still an island in the Sea of Marmora known by the name Alon, which is separated from the north-western extremity of the Peninsula of Cyzicus by a narrow channel., with a city of that name, Delphacia, Polydora, and Artaceon, with its city. There is also, opposite to Nicomedia, DemonnesosHesychius says, that there were two islands near Byzantium called by the common name of Demonnesi, but severally having the names of Chalcitis and Pityusa. Pliny, on the other hand, places Demonnesus opposite to Nicomedia, and at the same time mentions Chalcitis and Pityodes probably the same as Pityusa) as distinct places. D'Anville calls Demonnesus "The Isle of Princes."; and, beyond Heraclea, and opposite to Bithynia, the island of Thynias, by the barbarians called Bithynia; the island of Antiochia: and, at the mouth of the Rhyndacus, BesbicosThe position assigned to this island by Pliny and Strabo corresponds with that of Kalolimno, a small island ten miles north of the mouth of the Rhyndacus., eighteen miles in circumference; the islands also of Elæa, the two called Rhodussæ, and those of ErebinthusNow called Prota, according to Parisot., Megale, ChalcitisSo called from its copper-mines; now called Khalki, or Karki., and PityodesNow called Prinkipo, east of Khalki..

Summary.—Towns and nations spoken of * * * *, Noted rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands, 118 in number. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * * *.

Roman Authors Quoted.—AgrippaSee end of B. iii., Suetonius PaulinusA celebrated Roman general, who was successively governor of Numidia and Britain, where he defeated Queen Boadicea. He was a supporter of the Emperor Otho, but afterwards obtained a pardon from Vitellius on the plea that he had betrayed Otho at the battle of Bedriacum, and so contributed to his defeat; which, however, was not the case., M. VarroSee end of B. ii., Varro AtacinusSee end of B. iii., Cornelius NeposSee end of B. ii., HyginusSee end of B. iii.. L. VetusSee end of B. iii., MelaSee end of B. iii., Domitius CorbuloBrother of Cæsonia, the wife of Caligula, and father of Domitia Longina, the wife of Domitian. He was the greatest general of his day, and conquered Tiridates, the powerful king of Parthia. He slew himself at Cenchreæ, A.D. 67, upon hearing that Nero had given orders for his execution., Licinius MucianusSee end of B. ii., Claudius CæsarThe Roman emperor, grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. As an author, the character in which he is here referred to, he occupied himself chiefly with history, and was encouraged in the pursuit by Livy the historian. At an early age he began to write a history from the death of the Dictator Cæsar, a plan which he afterwards abandoned, and began his work with the restoration of peace, after the battle of Actium. Of the earlier period he had written only four books, but the latter work he extended to forty-four. He also wrote memoirs of his own life, which Suetonius describes as written with more silliness than inelegance. A fourth work was a defence of Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Pollio. He also wrote histories of Carthage and of Etruria in Greek. All of his literary works have perished., ArruntiusSee end of B. iii., Livius the SonNothing whatever is known of this son of T. Livius, the great Roman historian. It is not improbable that the transcribers have committed an error in inserting the word filio, and that the historian himself is the person meant., SebosusSee end of B. ii., the Register of the TriumphsActa Triumphorum" probably mean the registers kept in the Capitol, in which were inscribed the names of those who were honoured with triumphs, and the decrees of the senate or the people in their favour. This register must not be confounded with the "Tabulæ Consulares.".

foreign authors quoted.—King JubaJuba II., king of Mauritania. After the defeat of his father at Thapsus, he was carried a prisoner to Rome, though quite a child, and compelled to grace the conqueror's triumph. Augustus Cæsar afterwards restored to him his kingdom, and gave him in marriage Cleopatra, or Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra. To his literary pursuits he is chiefly indebted for his reputation. His works are continually quoted by Pliny, who regards his authority with the utmost deference. Among his numerous works he seems to have written a History of Africa, Assyria, Arabia, and Rome; as also Treatises on the Stage, Music, Grammar, and Painting. HecatæusOf Miletus. See end of B. iv. HellanicusSee end of B. iv., DamastesSee end of B. iv., DicæarchusSee end of B. ii., BætonHe was employed by Alexander the Great in measuring distances in his marches. He wrote a work upon this subject, entitled, "Distances of the Marches of Alexander.", TimosthenesSee end of B. iv., PhilonidesSee end of B. iv., ZenagorasSee end of B. iv., AstynomusSee end of B. iv., StaphylusSee end of B. iv., AristotelesSee end of B. ii., AristocritusSee end of B. iv., DionysiusOf Chalcis. See end of B. iv., EphorusSee end of B. iv., EratosthenesSee end of B. ii., HipparchusSee end of B. ii., PanætiusOf Rhodes, the friend of P. Scipio Æmilianus and Lælius. He was the head of the Stoic School at Athens, where he died. His principal work was a Treatise on Moral Duties, which served as a model for Cicero in the composition of his work, "De Officiis." He also wrote a work on the philosophical sects., SerapionSee end of B. ii. of Antioch, CallimachusSee end of B. iv., AgathoclesSee end of B. iv., PolybiusSee end of B. iv., TimæusSee end of B. ii. the mathematician, HerodotusSee end of B. ii., MyrsilusSee end of B. iv., Alexander PolyhistorSee end of B. iii., MetrodorusSee end of B. iii., PosidoniusSee end of B. ii., who wrote the Periplus and the Periegesis, SotadesThere are four literary persons mentioned of this name. 1. An Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. 2. A native of Maronæa, in Thrace, or else of Crete, who wrote lascivious and abusive verses, and was at last put to death by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was the inventor of the Sotadean verse, or Ionic a Majore, Tetrameter Brachycatalectic. 3. An Athenian Philosopher, who wrote a book on mysteries. 4. A Byzantine philosopher, of whom nothing whatever is known., PerianderThere were two writers of this name, before the time of Pliny. 1. Periander of Corinth, one of the Seven Wise Men, who wrote a didactic poem, containing moral and political precepts, in 2000 lines; and, 2. a physician and bad poet, contemporary with Archidamas, the son of Agesilaüs. It is uncertain to which Pliny here refers., Aristar- chusProbably a writer on geography. Nothing appears to be known of him. of Sicyon, EudoxusOf Cyzicus, see end of B. ii.; of Cnidos, see end of B. iv., AntigenesA Greek historian, who appears, from Plutarch, to have written a history of the expeditions of Alexander the Great., CallicratesSee end of B. iii., XenophonSee end of B. iii. of Lampsacus, DiodorusSee end of B. iii. of Syracuse, HannoThe author of the Periplus, or voyage which he performed round a part of Libya, of which we have a Greek translation from the Punic original. His age is not known, but Pliny states (B. ii. c. 67, and B. v. c. 1) that the voyage was undertaken in the most flourishing days of Carthage. It has been considered on the whole, that he may be probably identified with Hanno, the son or the father of Hamilcar, who was slain at Himera, B.C. 480., HimilcoMentioned also by Pliny, B. ii. c. 67, as having conducted a voyage of discovery from Gades towards the north, along the western shores of Europe, at the same time that Hanno proceeded on his voyage along the western coast of Africa. He is repeatedly quoted by Festus Avienus, in his geographical poem called Ora Maritima. His voyage is said to have lasted four months, but it is impossible to judge how far it extended., NymphodorusSee end of B. iii., CalliphanesSee end of B. iii., ArtemidorusSee end of B. ii., MegasthenesA Greek geographer, and friend of Seleucus Nicator, by whom he was sent on an embassy to Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, whose capital was Palibothra, a town probably in the vicinity of the present Patna. Whether he had accompanied Alexander on his invasion of India is quite uncertain. He wrote a work on India in four books, to which the subsequent Greek writers were chiefly indebted for their accounts of India. Arrian speaks highly of him as a writer, but Strabo impeaches his veracity; and we find Pliny hinting the same in B. vi. c. 21. Of his work only a few fragments survive., IsidorusSee end of B. ii., CleobulusSee end of B. iv., and AristocreonThere was a philosopher of this name, a nephew of Chrysippus, and his pupil; but it is not known whether he is the person referred to, in C. 10, either as having written a work on universal geography, or on that of Egypt..

APPENDIX OF CORRECTIONS.

Page 1, line 9, The allusion, otherwise obscure, is to the fact that some friends of Catullus had filched a set of table napkins, which had been given to him by Veranius and Fabius, and substituted others in their place.

Page 13, line 2, for Roman figures, read other figures.

Page 20, line 7, for the God of nature; he also tends, down to and most excellent. read the God of nature. He supplies light to the universe, and dispels all darkness; He both conceals and reveals the other stars. It is He that regulates the seasons, and, in the course of nature, governs the year as it ever springs anew into birth; it is He that dispels the gloom of the heavens, and sheds his light upon the clouds of the human mind. He, too, lends his brightness to the other stars. He is most brilliant and most excellent.

Page 21, line 13, for elected, read erected.

Page 21, line 13, for good fortune, read evil fortune.

Page 23, line 18, for our scepticism concerning God is still increased, read our conjectures concerning God become more vague still.

Page 23, line 31, for and the existence of God becomes doubtful, read whereby the very existence of a God is shewn to be uncertain.

Page 33, line 4, for as she receives, read as receives.

Page 54, line 15, for the seventh of the circumference, read the seventh of the third of the circumference.

Page 59, line 36, for transeuntia, read trascurrentia.

Page 67, line 26, for circumstances, read influences.

Page 78, line 9, for higher winds, read higher waves.

Page 78, line 17, for the male winds are therefore regulated by the odd numbers, read hence it is that the odd numbers are generally looked upon as males.

Page 79, line 15, for of the cloud, read of the icy cloud.

Page 79, line 21, for sprinkling it with vinegar, read throwing vinegar against it.

Page 79, line 22, for this substance, read that liquid.

Page 80, line 13, for but not until, read and not after.

Page 80, line 14, for the former is diffused, down to impulse, read the the latter is diffused in the blast, the former is condensed by the violent impulse.

Page 80, line 17. for dash, read crash.

Page 81, line 21, for thunder-storms, read thunder-bolts.

Page 81, line 27, for their operation, read its operation.

Page 82, line 8, for thunder-storms, read thunder-bolts.

Page 85, line 2, for blown up, read blasted.

Page 88, line 15, for the east, read the west.

Page 89, line 11, for even a stone, read ever a stone.

Page 92, line 9, for how many things do we compel her to produce spontaneously, read how many things do we compel her to produce! How many things does she pour forth spontaneously!

Page 92, line 10, for odours and flowers read odours and flavours.

Page 93, line 16, for luxuries, read caprices.

THE EuxineOr the "Hospitable" Sea, now the Black Sea. Sea, which in former times had the name of Axenus,Or the "Inhospitable." from the savage and inhospitable character of the nations living on its borders, by a peculiar whim of nature, which is continually giving way before the greedy inroads of the sea, lies between Europe and Asia. It was not enough for the ocean to have surrounded the earth, and then deprived us of a considerable portion of it, thus rendering still greater its uninhabitable proportion; it was not enough for it to have forced a passage through the mountains, to have torn away Calpe from Africa, and to have swallowed up a much larger space than it left untouched; it was not enough for it to have poured its tide into the Propontis through the Hellespont, after swallowing up still more of the dry land —for beyond the Bosporus, as well, it opens with its insatiate appetite upon another space of immense extent, until the Mæotian lakesThe streams which discharge their waters into the Palus Mæotis, or Sea of Azof. unite their ravening waters with it as it ranges far and wide.

That all this has taken place in spite, as it were, of the earth, is manifested by the existence of so many straits and such numbers of narrow passages formed against the will of Nature—that of the Hellespont,Straits of the Dardanelles or of Gallipoli, spoken of in B. iv. c. 18, as seven stadia in width. being only eight hundred and seventy-five paces in width, while at the two BosporiThe Thracian Bosporus, now the Channel or Straits of Constantinople, and the Cimmerian Bosporus or Straits of Kaffa, or Yeni Kale. the passage across may be effected by oxenFrom bou=s, an ox, andporo/s, "a passage." According to the legend, it was at the Thracian Bosporus that the cow Io made her passage from one continent to the other, and hence the name, in all probability, celebrated alike in the fables and the history of antiquity. The Cimmerian Bosporus not improbably borrowed its name from the Thracian. See Æsch. Prom. Vine. 1. 733. swimming, a fact from which they have both derived their name. And then besides,This sentence seems to bear reference to the one that follows, and not, as punctuated in the Latin, to the one immediately preceding it. although they are thus severed, there are certain points on which these coasts stand in the relation of brotherhood towards each other—the singing of birds and the barking of dogs on the one side can be heard on the other, and an intercourse can be maintained between these two worlds by the medium even of the human voice,It is not probable that this is the case at the Straits of Kaffa, which are nearly four miles in width at the narrowest part. if the winds should not happen to carry away the sound thereof.

The length of the borders of the Euxine from the Bosporus to the Lake Mæotis has been reckoned by some writers at fourteen hundred and thirty-eight miles; Eratosthenes, however, says that it is one hundred less. According to Agrippa, the distance from Chalcedon to the Phasis is one thousand miles, and from that river to the Cimmerian Bosporus three hundred and sixty. We will here give in a general form the distances as they have been ascertained in our own times; for our arms have even penetrated to the very mouth of the Cimmerian Straits.

After passing the mouth of the Bosporus we come to the river Rhebas,Now the Riva, a river of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, falling into the Euxine north-east of Chalcedon. by some writers called the Rhesus. We next come to Psillis,Probably an obscure town. the port of Calpas,On the river Calpas or Calpe, in Bithynia. Xenophon, in the Anabasis, describes it as about half way between Byzantium and Heraclea. The spot is identified in some of the maps as Kirpeh Limán, and the promontory as Cape Kirpeh. and the Sagaris,Still known as the Sakaria. a famous river, which rises in Phrygia and receives the waters of other rivers of vast magnitude, among which are the TembrogiusNow called the Sursak, according to Parisot. and the Gallus,Now the Lef-ke. See the end of c. 42 of the last Book. the last of which is by many called the Sangarius. After leaving the Sagaris the Gulf of the MariandyniThe modern Gulf of Sakaria. Of the Mariandyni, who gave the ancient name to it, little or nothing is known. begins, and we come to the town of Heraclea,Its site is now known as Harakli or Eregli. By Strabo it is erroneously called a colony of Miletus. It was situate a few miles to the north of the river Lycus. on the river Lycus;Now called the Kilij. this place is distant from the mouth of the Euxine two hundred miles. The sea-port of AconeStephanus Byzantinus speaks of this place as producing whetstones, or a)konai\, as well as the plant aconite. comes next, which has a fearful notoriety for its aconite or wolf's-bane, a deadly poison, and then the cavern of Acherusia,This name was given to the cavern in common with several other lakes or caverns in various parts of the world, which, like the various rivers of the name of Acheron, were at some time supposed to be connected with the lower world. the rivers Pædopides, Callichorus, and Sonautes, the town of Tium,Now called Falios (or more properly Filiyos), according to D'Anville, from the river of that name in its vicinity, supposed by him and other geographers to be the same as the ancient Billis, here mentioned by Pliny. By others of the ancient writers it is called Billæus. distant from Heraclea thirty-eight miles, and the river Billis.

Beyond this river begins the nation of Paphlagonia,Paphlagonia was bounded by Bithynia on the west, and by Pontus on the east, being separated from the last by the river Halys; on the south it was divided by the chain of Mount Olympus from Phrygia in the earlier times, from Galatia at a later period; and on the north it bordered on the Euxine. by some writers called Pylæmenia;In the Homeric catalogue we find Pylæmenes leading the Paphlagonians as allies of the Trojans; from this Pylæmenes the later princes of Paphlagonia claimed their descent, and the country was sometimes from them called Pylæmenia. it is closed in behind by the country of Galatia. In it are Mastya,Suspected by Hardouin to have been the same as the Moson or Moston mentioned by Ptolemy as in Galatia. a town founded by the Milesians, and then Cromna,It is mentioned by Homer, Il. ii. 855, as situate on the coast of Paphlagonia. at which spot Cornelius Nepos also places the Heneti,Strabo also, in B. xii., says that these people afterwards established themselves in Thrace, and that gradually moving to the west, they finally settled in the Italian Venetia, which from them took its name. But in his Fourth Book he says that the Veneti of Italy owe their origin to the Gallic Veneti, who came from the neighbourhood known as the modern Vannes. from whom he would have us believe that the Veneti of Italy, who have a similar name, are descended. The city also of Sesamon, now called Amastris,This city, ninety stadia east of the river Parthenius, occupied a peninsula, and on each side of the isthmus was a harbour. The original city, as here mentioned, seems to have had the name of Sesamus or Sesamum, and it is spoken of by that name in Homer, Il. ii. 853, in conjunction with Cytorus. The territory of Amastris was famous for its growth of the best box-wood, which grew on Mount Cytorus. The present Amasra or Hanasserall occupies its site. Mount Cytorus,See the last Note. distant sixty-three miles from Tium, the towns of CimolisOtherwise called "Cinolis." There is a place called Kinla or Kinoglu in the maps, about half-way between Kerempeh and Sinope, which is the Kinuli of Abulfeda, and probably the Cirolis or Cimolis of the Greek geographers. and Stephane,The modern Estefan or Stefanos. and the river Parthenius.Now known by the name of Bartin, a corruption of its ancient appellation. The promontory of Carambis,It still retains its ancient appellation in its name of Cape Kerempeh: of the ancient town nothing is known. which extends a great distance into the sea, is distant from the mouth of the Euxine three hundred and twenty-five miles, or, according to some writers, three hundred and fifty, being the same distance from the Cimmerian Bosporus, or, as some persons think, only three hundred and twelve miles. There was formerly also a town of the same name, and another near it called Armene; we now find there the colony of Sinope,Now called Sinope, or Sinoub. Some ruins of it are still to be seen. The modern town is but a poor place, and has probably greatly declined since the recent attack upon it by the Russian fleet. Diogenes, the Cynic philosopher, was a native of ancient Sinope. distant from Mount Cytorus one hundred and sixty-four miles. We then come to the river Evarchus,The boundary, according to Stephanus Byzantinus, also of the nations of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. As Parisot remarks, this is an error, arising from the circumstance of a small tribe bearing the name of Cappadocians, having settled on its banks, between whom and the Paphlagonians it served as a limit. and after that a people of the Cappadocians, the towns of GaziuraOn the river Iris. It was the ancient residence of the kings of Pontus, but in Strabo's time it was deserted. It has been suggested that the modern Azurnis occupies its site. and Gazelum,In the north-west of Pontus, in a fertile plain between the rivers Halys and Amisus. It is also called Gadilon by Strabo. D'Anville makes it the modern Aladgiam; while he calls Gaziura by the name of Guedes. the river Halys,Now called the Kisil Irmak, or Red River. It has been remarked that Pliny, in making this river to come down from Mount Taurus and flow at once from south to north, appears to confound the Halys with one of its tributaries, now known as the Izchel Irmak. which runs from the foot of Mount Taurus through Cataonia and Cappadocia, the towns of GangreIts site is now called Kiengareh, Kangreh, or Changeri. This was a town of Paphlagonia, to the south of Mount Olgasys, at a distance of thirty-five miles from Pompeiopolis. and Carusa,A commercial place to the south of Sinope. Its site is the modern Gherseh on the coast. the free town of Amisus,Now called Eski Samsun; on the west side of the bay or gulf, anciently called Sinus Amisenus. According to Strabo, it was only 900 stadia from Sinope, or 112 1/2 Roman miles. The walls of the ancient city are to be seen on a promontory about a mile and a half from the modern town. distant from Sinope one hundred and thirty miles, and a gulf of the same name, of such vast extentHe means the numerous indentations which run southward into the coast, from the headland of Sinope to a distance of about one degree to the south. as to make Asia assume the form of a peninsula, the isthmus of which is only some two hundredOn examining the map, we shall find that the distance is at least 300 miles across to the gulf of Issus or Iskenderoon. miles in breadth, or a little more, across to the gulf of Issus in Cilicia. In all this district there are, it is said, only three races that can rightly be termed Greeks, the Dorians, the Ionians, and the Æolians, all the rest being of barbarian origin.Not speaking the Greek language. To Amisus was joined the town of Eupatoria,A part of it only was added to Eupatoria; and it was separated from the rest by a wall, and probably contained a different population from that of Amisus. This new quarter contained the residence of the king, Mithridates Eupator, who built Eupatoria. founded by Mithridates: after his defeat they were both included under the name of Pompeiopolis.

CappadociaThe boundaries of Cappadocia varied under the dominion of the Persians, after the Macedonian conquest, and as a Roman province under the emperors. has in the interior Archelais,Founded by Archelaüs, the last king of Cappadocia. In Hamilton's Researches, the site has been assumed to be the modern Ak-serai, but that place is not on the river Halys, as Leake supposes. It is, however, considered that Ak-serai agrees very well with the position of Archelais as laid down in the Itineraries, and that Pliny may have been misled in supposing that the stream on which it stood was the Halys. a colony founded by Claudius Cæsar, and past which the river Halys flows; also the towns of Comana,Also called by the name of Chryse, or "Golden," to distinguish it from another place of the same name in Pontus. It is generally supposed that the town of Al-Bostan, on the Sihoon or Sarus, is on or near the site of this Comana. watered by the Sarus, Neocæsarea,Now called Niksar, according to D'Anville, though Hardouin says that it is Tocat. Parisot remarks, that this place belonged rather to Pontus than to Cappadocia. by the Lycus,A small tributary of the Iris, or Yeshil-Irmak, mentioned in the next Chapter. and Amasia,Both to the west of Neo-Cæsarea. According to Tavernier, as quoted by Hardouin, the modern name of Sebastia is Sivas. in the region of Gazacene, washed by the Iris. In Colopene it has Sebastia and Sebastopolis;Still called Amasia, or Amasiyeh, and situate on the river Iris, or Yeshil Ermak. It was at one time the residence of the princes of Pontus, and the birth-place of the geographer Strabo. The remains of antiquity here are very considerable, and extremely interesting. these are insignificant places, but still equal in importance to those just mentioned. In its remaining districts there is Melita,Which gave name to the district of Melitene, mentioned in c. 20 of the last Book. founded by Semiramis, and not far from the Euphrates, Diocæsarea,Near Nazianzus, in Cappadocia, the birth-place of Gregory Nazianzen. The traveller Ainsworth, on his road from Ak Serai to Kara Hissar, came to a place called Kaisar Koi, and he has remarked that by its name and position it might be identified with Diocæsarea. Some geographers, indeed, look upon Diocæsarea and Nazianzus as the same place. Tyana,Its ruins are still to be seen at Kiz Hisar. It stood in the south of Cappadocia, at the northern foot of Mount Taurus. Tyana was the native place of Apollonius, the supposed worker of miracles, whom the enemies of Christianity have not scrupled to place on a par with Jesus Christ. Castabala,Some ruins, nineteen geographical miles from Ayas, are supposed to denote the site of ancient Castabala or Castabulum. Magnopolis,This place was first called Eupatoria, but not the same which Mithridates united with a part of Amisus. D'Anville supposes that the modern town of Tchenikeb occupies its site. Zela,Or Ziela, now known as Zillah, not far south of Amasia. It was here that Julius Cæsar conquered Pharnaces, on the occasion on which he wrote his dispatch to Rome, "Veni, vidi, vici." and at the foot of Mount ArgæusStill known by the name of Ardgeh-Dagh. Mazaca, now called Cæsarea.Its site is still called Kaisiriyeh. It was a city of the district Cilicia, in Cappadocia, at the base of the mountain Argæus. It was first called Mazaca, and after that, Eusebeia. There are considerable remains of the ancient city. That part of Cappadocia which lies stretched out before the Greater Armenia is called Melitene, before Commagene Cataonia, before Phrygia Garsauritis, Sargarausene,Hardouin remarks, that the district of Sargarausene was not situate in front of Phrygia, but lay between Morimene and Colopenene, in the vicinity of Pontus. and Cammanene, before Galatia Morimene, where their territories are divided by the river Cappadox,Now known as the Konax, a tributary of the Halys, rising in Mount Littarus, in the chain of Paryadres. from which this people have taken their name; they were formerly known as the Leucosyri.Or "White Syrians." Strabo says that in his time both the Cappadocian peoples, those situate above the Taurus and those on the Euxine, were called Leucosyri, or White Syrians, as there were some Syrians who were black, and who dwelt to the east of the Amanus. From Neocæsarea above mentioned, the lesser Armenia is separated by the river Lycus. In the interior also there is the famous river Ceraunus,It is doubtful whether this is the name of a river or a town. Notwithstanding its alleged celebrity, nothing is known of it. and on the coast beyond the town of Amisus, the town and river of Chadisia,Hecatæus, as quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus, speaks of Chadisia as a city of the Leucosyri, or Cappadocians. Neither the river nor the town appears to have been identified. and the town of Lycastum,Probably on the river of that name, which has been identified with the Mers Imak, a river two or three miles east of the Acropolis of Amisus. after which the region of ThemiseyraThe extensive plain on the coast of Pontus, extending east of the river Iris, beyond the Thermodon, and celebrated as the country of the Amazons. At the mouth of the Thermodon was a city of the same name, which had been destroyed by the time of Augustus. It is doubtful whether the modern Thermeh occupies its site. begins.

The river Iris brings down to the sea the waters of the Lycus. In the interior is the city of Ziela,The same place apparently as is mentioned in the last Chapter under the name of Zela. famous for the defeat of TriariusValerius Triarius, one of the legates of Lucullus, in the war against Mithridates. Plutarch tells us that Lucullus was obliged to conceal Triarius from the fury of his troops. and the victory of C. Cæsar.Over Pharnaces, the son of Mithridates. Upon the coast there is the river Thermodon, which rises at the fortified place called Phanarœa,Now called the Thermea. and flows past the foot of Mount Amazonius.Still called Mason-Dagh. There was formerly a town of the same name as the river, and five others in all, Amazonium, Themiseyra, Sotira, Amasia, and Comana,He alludes to Comana, in Pontus, the site of which is now called Gumenek, near to which, on the Tocat-su, the modern name of the Iris, Hamilton found some remains of a Roman town, and part of a bridge apparently of Roman construction. The language of Pliny seems to imply that it had become in his day nothing beyond a manteium or seat of an oracle. now only a Manteium. (4.) We find here the nations of the Genetæ,Strabo speaks of a promontory called Genetes; and Stephanus Byzantinus mentions a river and port of the same name. the Chalybes,Strabo places the Chaldei, who, he says, were originally called Chalybes, in that part of the country which lies above Pharnacia (the modern Kerasunt). the town of Cotyorum,Or Cotyora. According to Xenophon, this was a colony of Sinope, which furnished supplies for the Ten Thousand in their retreat. The place was on a bay called after the town. Hamilton, in his Researches, &c., Vol. i., is of opinion that Cotyorum may have stood on the site of Ordou, where some remains of an ancient port, cut out of the solid rock, are still visible. He remarks, however, that some writers suppose that Cotvora was the modern bay of Pershembah, which is more sheltered than Ordou. Cotyora was the place of embarkation of the Ten Thousand. the nations of the Tibareni and the Mossyni, who make marks upon their bodies,Similar to what we call tatooing. Parisot suggests that these people may have been the ancestors of the Mongol tribes who still dwell in tents similar to those mentioned by Mela as used by the Mossyni. the people called Macro- cephali,Or the "long-headed people." the town of Cerasus,Its site is not improbably that of the modern Kheresoun, on the coast of Asia Minor, and west of Trebizond. Lucullus is said to have brought thence the first cherry-trees planted in Europe. the port of Chordule, the nations called the BechiresIt has been remarked, that Pliny's enumeration of names often rather confuses than helps, and that it is difficult to say where he intends to place the Bechires. We may perhaps infer from Mela that they were west of Trapezus and east of the Thermodon. and the Buzeri, the river Melas,Now the Kara Su, or Black River, still retaining its ancient appellation. It rises in Cappadocia, in the chain of Mount Argæus. the people called the Macrones, and Sidene with its river Sidenus,Still called by the same name, according to Parisot, though sometimes it is called the river of Vatisa. More recent authorities, however, call it Poleman Chai. by which the town of PolemoniumOn the coast of Pontus, built by king Polémon, perhaps the Second, is washed, at a distance from Amisus of one hundred and twenty miles. We next come to the rivers IasoniusProbably near the promontory of Jasonium, 130 stadia to the northeast of Polemonium. It was believed to have received its name from Jason the Argonaut having landed there. It still bears the name of Jasoon, though more commonly called Bona or Vona. on the site of the older city of Side, at the mouth of the Sidenus and Melanthius,Sixty stadia, according to arrian, from the town of cotyora and at a distance of eighty miles from Amisus, the town of Pharnacea,Supposed to have stood on almost the same site as the modern Kheresoun or Kerasunda. It was built near, or, as some think, on the site of Cerasus. the fortress and river of Tripolis;Still known by the name of Tireboli, on a river of the same name, the Tireboli Su. the fortress and river of Philocalia, the fortress of Liviopolis, but not upon a river, and at a distance of one hundred miles from Pharnacea, the free city of Trapezus,Now called Tarabosan, Trabezun, or Trebizond. This place was originally a colony of Sinope, after the loss of whose independence Trapezus belonged, first to Lesser Armenia, and afterwards to the kingdom of Pontus. In the middle ages it was the seat of the so-called empire of Trebizond. It is now the second commercial port of the Black Sea, ranking next after Odessa. shut in by a mountain of vast size. Beyond this town is the nation of the ArmenochalybesThe "Chalybes of Armenia." See p. 21. and the Greater Armenia, at a distance of thirty miles. On the coast, before Trapezus, flows the river Pyxites, and beyond it is the nation of the SanniTheodoret says that the Sanni, and the Lazi, subsequently mentioned, although subdued by the Roman arms, were never obedient to the Roman laws. The Heniochi were probably of Grecian origin, as they were said to have been descended from the charioteers of the Argonauts, who had been wrecked upon these coasts. Heniochi. Next comes the river Absarus,Or Apsarus, or Absarum. Several geographers have placed the site of this town near the modern one known as Gonieh. Its name was connected with the myth of Medea and her brother Absyrtus. It is not improbable that the names Acampsis and Absarus have been given to the same river by different writers, and that they both apply to the modern Joruk. with a fortress of the same name at its mouth, distant from Trapezus one hundred and forty miles.

At the back of the mountains of this district is Iberia, while on the coast are the Heniochi, the Ampreutæ,It is suggested by Hardouin that these are the same as the Zydretæ mentioned in the Periplus of Arrian, and by him placed between the Heniochi and the Lazi. the Lazi, the rivers Acampsis,See note 91. Isis,Supposed to be the same as the modem Tshorok. Mogrus, and Bathys,Or "Deep" River. This stream may possibly be identified by observing that Pliny places only one river between it and the Phasis. the nations of the Colchi, the town of Matium,Probably the Madia of Ptolemy, who places it in the interior. the river Heracleum and the promontory of the same name,At the present day called Eraklia, according to Parisot. and the Phasis,Now called the Faz or Poti. the most celebrated river of Pontus. This river rises among the Moschi, and is navigable for the largest vessels a distance of thirty-eight miles and a half, and for small ones very much higher up; it is crossed by one hundred and twenty bridges. It formerly had many cities of note on its banks, the more famous of which were Tyndaris, Circæum, Cygnus, and PhasisStill called El Faz or Poti. at its mouth. But the most celebrated of them all was Æa, fifteen milesThis place was in reality thirty-seven miles and a half from the sea. It was said to have been the native place of the enchantresses Circe and Medea. distant from the sea, where the Hippos and the Cyaneos,The rivers Hippos and Cyaneos do not appear to have been identified. rivers of vast size, flow into it from opposite directions. At the present day its only place of note is Surium, which derives its name from the river which flows at that spot into the Phasis, and up to which place the Phasis is navigable for large vessels, as we have alreadyIn the previous page. mentioned. It receives also some other rivers, wonderful for their number and magnitude, and among them the Glaucus.Now called the Tehorocsu. At the mouth of the Phasis, at a distance of seventy miles from Absarus, are some islands, which, however, have no name. After passing this, we come to another river, the Charieis,It is doubtful whether this is the same river as that mentioned by Strabo under the name of Chares. D'Anville says that its modern name is Enguri. and the nation of the Salæ, by the ancients called Phthirophagi,Or "Feeders on Lice;" so called, according to Strabo, from the extreme filthiness of their habits. as also Suani.There is a nation in this vicinity still called by a similar name. Professor Pallas, who visited them, says that nothing can equal their dishonesty, rapacity, and voracity. Parisot suggests that they are probably the descendants of the Phthirophagi of Pliny. The river ChobusNow called the Khalira, according to D'Anville. flows from the Caucasus through the country of the Suani. The river Rhoas comes next, then the region of Ecrectice, the rivers Singames,Now called the Hati-Scari, according to D'Anville. Tarsuras,Now the Okhum, according to D'Anville. Astelephus,Now the Mosti-Skari, according to D'Anville. Chrysorrhoas, the nation of the Absilæ, the castle of Sebastopolis,Still called Savastopoli, according to Hardouin. one hundred miles distant from Phasis, the nation of the Sannigæ, the town of Cygnus,This must not be confounded with the other place of the same name mentioned in the present Chapter. See p. 10. and the river and town of Penius.Hermoläus suggests Pityus as the correct reading. We then come to the tribes of the Heniochi,The Sanni Heniochi; one of these nations has been already mentioned in the last page. who are distinguished by numerous names.

Below this lies the region of Pontus known as Colica,16 Inhabited anciently by the Coli, and constituting the northern portion of ancient Colchis. in which the mountain chain of Caucasus bends away towards the Riphæan mountains, as we have previouslyIn B. v. c. 27. mentioned; one side running down towards the Euxine and the Lake Mæotis, the other towards the Caspian and the Hyrcanian sea. The remaining portion of these shores is peopled by savage nations, the Melanchlæni,Or nation "with the black cloaks," from some peculiarity in their dress. and the Coraxi, who formerly dwelt in Dios- curias,This was the great trading-place of the wild tribes in the interior; and so numerous were they, that the Greeks asserted that there were seventy different languages spoken in the market of Dioscurias. near the river Anthemus, now deserted, but once a famous city; so much so, indeed, that we learn from Timos- thenes, that three hundred nations, all of different languages, were in the habit of resorting to it, and in later times we had there one hundred and thirty interpreters for the purpose of transacting business. There are some authors who are of opinion that this place was built by Amphitus and Telchius, the charioteersWhence the appellation Heniochi, from the Greek h(nioxo\s. of Castor and Pollux, from whom it is generally understood that the nation of the Heniochi sprang. After passing Dioscurias we come to the town of Heracleium,There were two places called Heracleium on this coast, one north and the other south of the river Achæus: probably the latter is here meant. seventy miles distant from Sebastopolis, and then the Achæi,Probably meaning the "martial people," or the "people of Mars." the Mardi,Said to have been descended from the Achæns or Greeks who accompanied Jason in the Argonautic Expedition, or, according to Ammianus, who resorted thither after the conclusion of the Trojan war. and the Cercetæ,This was the title, not of a single nation, but of a number of peoples distinguished for their predatory habits. and, behind them, the Cerri and the Cephalotomi.This people occupied the N.E. shore of the Euxine, between the Cimmerian Bosporus and the frontier of Colchis. Their name is still in existence, and is applied to the whole western district of the Caucasus, in the forms of Tcherkas, as applied to the people, and Tcherkeskaia or Circassia, to the country. In the innermost partMeaning, nearly in the extreme corner of Pontus. of this district there was Pityus,In the time of Strabo this was a considerable sea-port, and after its destruction by the Heniochi, it was restored, and served as an important frontier fortress of the Roman empire against the Scythians. a city of very considerable opulence, but destroyed by the Heniochi: behind it are the Epageritæ, a people of Sarmatian origin, dwelling upon the range of the Caucasus, and beyond them, the Sauromatæ. It was with these people that MithridatesThis was Mithridates, king of Bosporus, which sovereignty he obtained by the favour of the emperor Claudius, in A.D. 41. The circumstances are unknown which led to his subsequent expulsion by the Romans, who placed his younger brother Cotys on the throne in his stead. took refuge in the reign of the Emperor Claudius: and from him we learn that the ThalliHardouin thinks that the Thalli inhabited the present country of Astrakan. join up to them, a people who border on the eastern side upon the mouthIt was the ancient opinion, to which we shall find frequent reference made in the present Book, that the northern portion of the Caspian communicated with the Scythian or Septentrional ocean. of the Caspian sea: he tells us also that at the reflux the channel is dry there. Upon the coast of the Euxine, near the country of the Cercetæ, is the river Icarusa,Mentioned only by Pliny. It is supposed to answer to the present Ukrash river; and the town and river of Hierus are probably identical with the Hieros Portus of Arrian, which has been identified with the modern Sunjuk-Kala. with the town and river of Hierus , distant from Heracleium one hundred and thirty-six miles. Next to this, is the promontory of Cruni, after passing which, we find the Toretæ upon a lofty ridge of mountains. The city of SindosInhabited by the Sindi, a people of Asiatic Sarmatia. They probably dwelt in and about the modern peninsula of Taman, between the Sea of Azof and the Black Sea, to the south of the river Hypanis, the modern Kouban. The site of their capital, Sindos, or Sinda, is supposed to have been the modern Anapa. Parisot conjectures that this place was one of the ancient settlements of the Zigeunes, the modern Bohemians or Gypsies. He seems to found his opinion upon some observations of Malte Brun (Précis de Geographie, vol. vi.) upon the origin of the Gypsy race, which will amply repay the perusal. is distant from Hierus sixty-seven miles and a half; after passing which, we come to the river Setheries. (6.) From thence to the entrance of the Cimmerian Bosporus the distance is eighty-eight miles and a half.

The length of the peninsulaThe peninsula on which Taman or Timoutarakan is situate. which projects between the Euxine and Lake Mæotis, is not more than sixty-seven miles and a half, and the width across never less than two jugera:The jugerum was 100 Grecian or 104 Roman feet in length. it has the name of Eion.Signifying in Greek the "sea-shore." The shores of the Bosporus then take a curve both on the side of Europe and of Asia, thus forming the Mæotis. The towns at the entrance of the Bosporus are, first Hermonassa,Lying between Singa and Phanagoria. Rennell fixes it at the opening of the lake into which the Kouban flows. next Cepi,Or the "gardens," from the Greek kh=poi. A town of the Cimmerian Bosporus, founded by the Milesians. Dr. Clarke identifies the modern Sienna with it, and the curious Milesian sculptures found there confirm the supposition. founded by the Milesians, and then Stratoclia and Phanagoria,Its ruins are supposed to be those near Taman, on the eastern side of the Straits of Kaffa. It was the great emporium for all the traffic between the coasts of the Palus Mæotis and the countries on the south of the Caucasus, and was chosen by the kings of Bosporus as their capital in Asia. and the almost deserted town of Apaturos,A town of the Sindæ; it possessed, like Phanagoria, a celebrated temple of Aphrodite Apaturos, or Venus "the Deceiver," whence probably its name. and, at the extremity of the mouth, Cimmerium,Clarke identifies it with the modern Temruk, but Forbiger with Eskikrimm. which was formerly called Cerberion. (7.) We then come to Lake Mæotis, which has been already mentionedSee B. iv. c. 24. in the description of Europe.

After passing Cimmerium, the coastThat lying on the east of the Sea of Azof. It seems impossible to identify the spot inhabited by each of these savage tribes. Hardouin says that the modern name of that inhabited by the Mæotici is Coumania. is inhabited by the Mæotici, the Vali, the Serbi,Parisot suggests that this tribe afterwards emigrated to the west, and after establishing themselves in Macedonia, finally gave its name to modern Servia. He remarks, that most of these names appear to have been greatly mutilated, through the ignorance or carelessness of the transcribers, no two of the manuscripts agreeing as to the mode in which they should be spelt. the Arrechi, the Zingi, and the Psessi. We then come to the river Tanais,Or Don. It flows into the Sea of Azof by two larger mouths and several smaller ones. Strabo says that the distance between the two larger mouths is sixty stadia. several smaller ones. Strabo says that the distance between the two larger mouths is sixty stadia. which discharges itself into the sea by two mouths, and the banks of which are inhabited by the Sarmatæ, the descendants of the Medi, it is said, a people divided into numerous tribes. The first of these are the Sauromatæ Gynæcocratumeni,From the Greek gunaikokratoumenoi\, "ruled over by women." It is not improbable that this name was given by some geographer to these Sarmatian tribes on finding them, at the period of his visit, in subjection to the rule of a queen. Parisot remarks, that this passage affords an instance of the little care bestowed by Pliny upon procuring the best and most correct information, for that the Roman writers had long repudiated the use of the term "Sauromatæ." He also takes Pliny to task for his allusion to these tribes as coupling with the Amazons, the existence of such a people being in his time generally disbelieved. the husbands of the Amazons. Next to them are the Ævazæ,Hardouin suggests from eu(a/zw, "to celebrate the orgies of Bacchus." the Coitæ,Perhaps from koi/tn, a "den" or "cavern," their habitation. the Cicimeni, the Messeniani, the Costobocci, the Choatræ, the Zigæ,Parisot suggests that they may have been a Caucasian or Circassian tribe, because in the Circassian language the word zig has the meaning of "man." He also suggests that they were probably a distinct race from the Zingi previously mentioned, whom he identifies with the ancestors of the Zingari or Bohemians, the modern Gypsies. the Dandarii, the Thyssagetæ, and the Iyrcæ,The more common reading is "Tureæ" a tribe also mentioned by Mela, and which gave name to modern Turkistan. as far as certain rugged deserts and densely wooded vallies, beyond which again are the Arimphæi,The Argippæi of Herodotus and other ancient authors. These people were bald, flat-nosed, and long-chinned. They are again mentioned by Pliny in C. 14, who calls them a race not unlike the Hyperborei, and then, like Mela, abridges the description given by Herodotus. By different writers these people have been identified with the Chinese, the Brahmins or Lamas, and the Calmucks. The last is thought to be the most probable opinion, or else that the description of Herodotus, borrowed by other writers, may be applied to the Mongols in general. The mountains, at the foot of which they have been placed, are identified with either the Ural, the western extremity of the Altai chain, or the eastern part of the Altai. who extend as far as the Riphæan Mountains.Generally regarded as the western branch of the Ural Mountains. The Scythians call the river Tanais by the name of Silis, and the Mæotis the Temarunda, meaning the "mother of the sea." There isThe former editions mostly have "there was," implying that in the time of Pliny it no longer existed. The name of this place was Tanais; its ruins are still to be seen in the vicinity of Kassatchei. It was founded by a colony from Miletus, and became a flourishing seat of trade. The modern town of Azof is supposed to occupy nearly its site. a city also at the mouth of the Ta- nais. The neighbouring country was inhabited first by the Carians, then by the Clazomenii and Mæones, and after them by the Panticapenses.The people of Panticapæum, on the opposite side of the Palus Mæotis, occupying the site of the present Kertch. It was founded by the Milesians B.C. 541, and took its name from the neighbouring river Panticapes.

There are some writers who state that there are the following nations dwelling around the Mæotis, as far as the Ceraunian mountains;The Ceraunian mountains were a range belonging to the Caucasian chain, and situate at its eastern extremity; the relation of this range to the chain has been variously stated by the different writers. at a short distance from the shore, the Napitæ, and beyond them, the Essedones, who join up to the Colchians, and dwell upon the summits of the mountains: after these again, the Camacæ, the Orani, the Autacæ, the Mazacasi, the Cantiocæ, the Agamathæ, the Pici, the Rimosoli, the Acascomarci, and, upon the ridges of the Caucasus, the Itacalæ, the Imadochi, the Rami, the Anclacæ, the Tydii, the Carastasei, and the Anthiandæ. The river Lagoüs runs from the CathæanHe may possibly allude to a range of mountains in the Punjaub and the vicinity of the modern Lahore, by his reference to the Cathei, who are supposed to have been the ancient inhabitants of that district. The localities of the various races here mentioned are involved in great obscurity. mountains, and into it flows the Opharus. Upon it are the tribes of the Cauthadæ, and the Opharitæ. Next to these are the rivers Menotharus and Imityes, which flow from the Cissian mountains, among the peoples called the Acdei, the Carnæ, the Oscardei, the Accisi, the Gabri, the Gogari, and, around the source of the Imityes, the Imityi, and the Apatræi. Some writers say that the Auchetæ, the Athernei, and the Asampatæ, Scythian tribes, have made inroads upon this territory, and have destroyed the Tanaitæ and the Inapæi to a man. Others again represent the Ocharius as running through the Cantici and the Sapæi, and the Tanais as passing through the territories of the Sarcharcei, the Herticei, the Spondolici, the Synhietæ, the Anasi, the Issi, the Catetæ, the Tagoræ, the Caroni, the Neripi, the Agandei, the Mandarei, the Satarchei, and the Spalei.

We have now gone over the coast which borders upon the InnerOr Mediterranean. Sea, and have enumerated the various nations that dwell thereon; let us now turn to those vast tracts of land which lie further in the interior. I do not deny that in my description I shall differ very materially from the ancient writers, but still it is one that has been compiled with the most anxious research, from a full examination into the events which have transpired of late in these countries under the command of Domitius Corbulo,See Vol. i. p. 497. and from information received either from kings who have been sent thence to Rome, as suppliants for our mercy, or else the sons of kings who have visited us in the character of hostages.

We will begin then with the nation of the Cappadocians.

Of all the countries of Pontus, thisHe includes under the term "Cappadocia," the northern part originally called "Cappadocia ad Pontum," and in later times simply Pontus, and the southern part, originally called "Cappadocia ad Taurum," and more recently simply Cappadocia. extends the greatest distance into the interior.Running from the shores of the Euxine to the borders of Syria. On the leftI. e. on the eastern side. it leaves behind the Lesser and the Greater Armenia, as well as Commagene, and on the right all the nations of the province of Asia which we have previously described. Spreading over numerous peoples, it rises rapidly in elevation in an easterly direction towards the range of Taurus. Then passing Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Cilicia, it advances above the district of Antiochia, the portion of it known as Cataonia extending as far as Cyrrhestica, which forms part of that district. The length of AsiaMeaning that part of Asia which we now call Asia Minor. here is twelve hundred and fifty miles, its breadth six hundred and forty.This ill agrees with what he has said in c. 2, that the distance across from Sinope to the Gulf of Issus is but 200 miles.

Greater Armenia,Greater Armenia, now known as Erzeroum, Kars, Van, and Erivan, was bounded on the north-east and north by the river Cyrus, or Kur of the present day; on the north-west and west by the Moschian mountains, the prolongation of the chain of the Anti-Taurus, and the Euphrates, or Frat of the present day; and on the south and south-east by the mountains called Masius, Niphates, and Gordiæi (the prolongation of the Taurus), and the lower course of the Araxes. On the east the country comes to a point at the confluence of the Syrus and Araxes. beginning at the mountains known as the Paryadres,Now known as the Kara-bel-Dagh, or Kut-Tagh, a mountain chain running south-west and north-east from the east of Asia Minor into the centre of Armenia, and forming the chief connecting link between the Taurus and the mountains of Armenia. is separated, as we have already stated,In B. v. c. 20. from Cappadocia by the river Euphrates, and, where that river turns offHe means, where the river Euphrates runs the farthest to the west. in its course, from Mesopotamia, by the no less famous river Tigris. Both of these rivers take their rise in Armenia, which also forms the commencement of Mesopotamia, a tract of country which lies between these streams; the intervening space between them being occupied by the Arabian Orei.Littré suggests that the reading should be "Aroei." It thus extends its frontier as far as Adiabene, at which point it is stopped short by a chain of mountains which takes a cross direction; whereupon the province extends in width to the left, crossing the course of the Araxes,The modern Eraskh or Aras. as far as the river Cyrus;The modern Kur. while in length it reaches as far as the Lesser Armenia,This district was bounded on the east by the Euphrates, on the north and north-west by the mountains Scodises, Paryadres, and Anti-Taurus, and on the south by the Taurus. from which it is separated by the river Absarus, which flows into the Euxine, and by the mountains known as the Paryadres, in which the Absarus takes its rise.

The river CyrusThis river is said by Ammianus to have taken its name from Cyrus. It appears, however, to have been a not uncommon name of the rivers of Persia. takes its rise in the mountains of the Heniochi, by some writers called the Coraxici; the Araxes rises in the same mountains as the river Euphrates, at a distance from it of six miles only;It is probable that these rivers take their rise near each other, but it is not improbable that the intervening distance mentioned in the present passage is much too small. and after being increased by the waters of the Usis, falls itself, as many authors have supposed, into the Cyrus, by which it is carried into the Caspian Sea.

The more famous towns in Lesser Armenia are Cæsarea,Hardouin thinks that this is Neo-Cæsarea, mentioned as having been built on the banks of the Euphrates. Aza,Now called Ezaz, according to D'Anville. Parisot suggests that it ought to be Gaza or Gazaca, probably a colony of Median Gaza, now Tauris. and Nicopolis;Originally called Tephrice. It stood on the river Lycus, and not far from the sources of the Halys, having been founded by Pompey, where he gained his first victory over Mithridates, whence its name, the "City of Victory." The modern Enderez or Devrigni, probably marks its site. in the Greater Arsamosata,Ritter places it in Sophene, the modern Kharpat, and considers that it may be represented by the modern Sert, the Tigranocerta of D'Anville. which lies near the Euphrates, CarcathiocertaThe capital of Sophene, one of the districts of Armenia. St. Martin thinks that this was the ancient heathen name of the city of Martyropolis, but Ritter shows that such cannot be the case. It was called by the Syrians Kortbest; its present name is Kharput. upon the Tigris, TigranocertaGenerally supposed, by D'Anville and other modern geographers, to be represented by the ruins seen at Sert. It was the later capital of Armenia, built by Tigranes. which stands on an elevated site, and, on a plain adjoining the river Araxes, Artaxata.The ancient capital of Armenia. Hannibal, who took refuge at the court of Artaxias when Antiochus was no longer able to afford him protection, superintended the building of it. Some ruins, called Takt Tiridate, or Throne of Tiridates, near the junction of the Aras and the Zengue, were formerly supposed to represent Artaxata, but Colonel Monteith has fixed the site at a bend in the river lower down, at the bottom of which were the ruins of a bridge of Greek or Roman architecture. According to Aufidius, the circumference of the whole of Armenia is five thousand miles, while Claudius Cæsar makes the length, from DascusaA fortress in Lesser Armenia, upon the Euphrates, seventy-five miles from Zimara, as mentioned in B. v. c. 20. It has been identified with the modern ferry and lead mines of Kebban Ma'den, the points where the Kara Su is joined by the Murad Chaï, 270 miles from its source to the borders of the Caspian Sea, thirteenJustin makes it only 1100, and that estimate appears to be several hundreds too much. hundred miles, and the breadth, from Tigranocerta to Iberia,81 A country lying to the north of Armenia. half that distance. It is a well-known fact, that this country is divided into prefectures, called "Strategies," some of which singly formed a kingdom in former times; they are one hundred and twenty in number, with barbarous and uncouth names.We find in Strabo the names of some of them mentioned, such as Sophene, Acilisene, Gorgodylene, Sacassene, Gorgarene, Phanene, Comisene, Orchestene, Chorsene, Cambysene, Odomantis, &c. On the east, it is bounded, though not immediately, by the Ceraunian Mountains and the district of Adiabene. The space that intervenes is occupied by the Sopheni, beyond whom is the chain of mountains,The Ceraunian Mountains. Parisot remarks that in this description, Pliny, notwithstanding his previous professions, does not appear to have made any very great use of the list drawn up by Corbulo. and then beyond them the inhabitants of Adiabene. Dwelling in the valleys adjoining to Armenia are the Menobardi and the Moscheni. The Tigris and inaccessible mountains surround Adiabene. To the leftThat is, looking towards the south. of it is the territory of the Medi, and in the distance is seen the Caspian Sea; which, as we shall state in the proper place, receives its waters from the ocean,The Septentrional Ocean, with which the ancients imagined that the northern part of the Caspian Sea is connected. See c. 15. and is wholly surrounded by the Caucasian Mountains. The inhabitants upon the confines of Armenia shall now be treated of.

The whole plain which extends away from the river Cyrus is inhabited by the nation of the Albani,According to Strabo, Albania was bounded on the east by the Caspian, and on the north by the Caucasus. On the west it joined Iberia, while on the south it was divided from the Greater Armenia by the river Cyrus. By later writers, the northern and western boundaries are differently given. It was found to be the fact that the Albani occupied the country on both sides of the Caucasus, and accordingly Pliny, in c. 15, carries the country further north, as far as the river Casius, while in this Chapter he makes the river Alazon, the modern Alasan, the western boundary towards Iberia. To the west of Albania. and, after them,To the west of Albania by that of the Iberi,Iberia lay south of the great chain of the Caucasus, forming an extensive tract bounded on the west by Colchis, on the east by Albania, and on the south by Armenia, and watered by the river Cyrus. It corresponded very nearly with modern Georgia. who are separated from them by the river Alazon,The modern Alasan. which flows into the Cyrus from the Caucasian chain. The chief cities are Cabalaca,Now called Kablas-Var, according to Parisot. in Albania, Harmastis,Parisot says that this can be no other than Harmoza on the river Cyrus, in the vicinity of the modern Akhalzik. near a riverProbably meaning "of the same name." of Iberia, and Neoris; there is the region also of Thasie, and that of Triare, extending as far as the mountains known as the Paryadres. Beyond theseTo the west. are the deserts of Colchios, on the side of which that looks towards the Ceraunian Mountains dwell the Armenochalybes;"The Armenian workers in iron," or "Chalybes of Armenia." See p. 9. and there is the country of the Moschi, extending to the river Iberus, which flows into the Cyrus; below them are the Sacassani, and after them the Macrones, upon the river Absarus. Such is the manner in which the plains and low country are parcelled out. Again, after passing the confines of Albania, the wild tribes of the Silvi inhabit the face of the mountains, below them those of the Lubieni, and after them the Diduri and the Sodii.

After passing the last, we come to the Gates of Caucasus,There are two chief passes over the chain of the Caucasus, both of which were known to the ancients. The first is between the eastern extremity of its chief north-eastern spur and the Caspian sea, near the modern Derbend. This was called "Albaniæ," and sometimes, "Caspiæ Pylie," the "Albanian" or "Caspian Gates." The other, which was nearly in the centre of the Caspian range, was called "Caucasiæ" or "Sarmaticæ Pylæ," being the same as the modern pass of Dariyel, and probably the one here referred to. by many persons most erroneously called the Caspian Passes; a vast work of nature, which has suddenly wrenched asunder in this place a chain of mountains. At this spot are gates barred up with beams shod with iron, while beneath the middle there runs a stream which emits a most fetid odour; on this side of it is a rock, defended by a fortress, the name of which is Cumania,Probably the same as the present fortress of Dariyel. erected for the purpose of preventing the passage of the innumerable tribes that lie beyond. Here, then, we may see the habitable world severed into two parts by a pair of gates; they are just opposite to Harmastis, a town of the Iberi.

Beyond the Gates of Caucasus, in the Gordyæan Mountains, the Valli and the Suani, uncivilized tribes, are found; still, however, they work the mines of gold there. Beyond these nations, and extending as far away as Pontus, are numerous nations of the Heniochi, and, after them, of the Achæi. Such is the present state of one of the most famous tracts upon the face of the earth.

Some writers have stated that the distance between the Euxine and the Caspian Sea is not more than three hundred and seventy-five miles; Cornelius Nepos makes it only two hundred and fifty. Within such straits is Asia pent up in this second instanceThe first instance was that of the narrow isthmus to which the continent of Asia is reduced from Sinope across to the Gulf of Issus, as mentioned in c. 2. by the agency of the sea! Claudius Cæsar has informed us that from the Cimmerian Bosporus to the Caspian Sea is a distance of only one hundred and fiftyThe shortest distance across, in a straight line, is in reality little less than 600 miles. miles, and that Nicator SeleucusThe ancestor of the Seleucidæ, kings of Syria, treacherously slain by Ptolemy Ceraunus, brother of Ptolemy Philadelphus. contemplated cutting through this isthmus just at the time when he was slain by Ptolemy Ceraunus. It is a well-known fact that the distance from the Gates of Caucasus to the shores of the Euxine is two hundred miles.

The islands of the Euxine are the Placate or Cyaneæ,Already mentioned in B. iv. c. 27. otherwise called Symplegades, and Apollonia, surnamed Thynias,Mentioned in c. 44 of the last Book. to distinguish it from the island of that nameThe one lying at the mouth of the Danube, and mentioned in B. iv. c. 27. in Europe; it is four miles in circumference, and one mile distant from the mainland. Opposite to PharnaceaMentioned in c. 4 of the present Book. See p. 9. is Chalceritis, to which the Greeks have given the name of Aria,Or "Mars' Island," also called Aretias; at this island, in the south of the Euxine, the two queens of the Amazons, Otrere and Antiope, built a temple in honour of Ares or Mars. It is thought to be the rocky islet called by the Turks Kerasunt Ada, between three and four miles from Kerasunt, the ancient Pharnacea. and consecrated it to Mars; here, they say, there were birds that used to attack strangers with blows of their wings.

Having now stated all that bears reference to the interior of Asia, let us cross in imagination the RiphæanIt is difficult to say what chain of mountains, if indeed any in particular, he would designate by this name. Parisot remarks that these mountains would seem to belong rather to the region of poetry and fable than of fact, and states that it is pretty clear that the Balkan chain, the districts in which the Danube takes its rise, the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Hercynian mountains, and even the chain of Taurus and Caucasus, have at different times been described or mentioned under the name of Riphæan Mountains. It was evidently Pliny's belief that the great Northern or Scythian Ocean skirted the northern shores of Asia, a little above the latitude perhaps of the northern extremity of the Caspian. In B. iv. c. 26, we find him crossing these, perhaps imaginary, mountains, and then proceeding to the left, along, as he supposes, the extreme northern shores of Europe; here he seems to start from the same point, but turns to the right, and proceeds along the northern, eastern, and southern shores of Asia. Mountains, and traverse the shores of the ocean to the right. On three sides does this ocean wash the coasts of Asia, as the Scythian Ocean on the north, the Eastern Ocean on the east, and the Indian Ocean on the south; and it is again divided into various names, derived from the numerous gulfs which it forms, and the nations which dwell upon its shores. A great part of Asia, however, which lies exposed to the north, through the noxious effects of those freezing climates, consists of nothing but vast deserts. From the extreme north northeast to the pointNorth-east. where the sun rises in the summer, it is the country of the Scythians. Still further than them, and beyondI. e. more to the west. the point where north north-east begins, some writers have placed the Hyperborei, who are said, indeed, by the majority to be a people of Europe.See B. iv. c. 26. After passing this point,The extremity of the supposed shores of the Hyperborei the first place that is known is Lytarmis,D'Anville supposes that he means the headland called Cande-Noss or Kanin-Noss, in the White Sea. Parisot, who thinks that Pliny had no idea of the regions which lie in those high latitudes, supposes that he refers to Domnes-Ness in the Baltic, and that by the Carambucis he means the river Niemen. a promontory of Celtica, and next to it the river Carambucis,Ansart thinks that he means the Dwina, which falls into the Gulf of Archangel. where the chain of the Riphæan Mountains terminates, and with it the extreme rigour of the climate; here, too, we have heard of a certain people being situate, called the Arimphæi,Previously mentioned in c. 7. a race not much unlike the Hyperborei.For a full description of them, see B. iv. c. 26. Their habitations are the groves, and the berries their diet; long hair is held to be disgraceful by the women as well as the men, and they are mild in their manners. Hence it is that they are reported to be a sacredSee the Note to c. 7, p. 15. This description is borrowed from that given by Herodotus. Their sacred character has been explained as referring to the class or caste of priests among this Eastern people, whoever they may have been. race, and are never molested even by the savage tribes which border upon them, and not only they, but such other persons as well as may have fled to them for refuge. Beyond these we come straight to the Scythians, the Cimmerii, the Cisianthi, the Georgi, and a nation of Amazons.Ansart thinks that the Cicianthi, the Georgi, and the Amazons, inhabited the modern governments of Archangel and Vologda. It seems almost akin to rashness to hazard a conjecture. These last extend to the Caspian and Hyrcanian Sea.It has been already stated that the Caspian Sea was, in one portion of it, so called, and in another the Hyrcanian Sea .

Bursting through, this sea makes a passage from the Scythian Ocean into the back of Asia,His meaning is, that the Scythian ocean communicates on the northern shores of Asia with the Caspian Sea. Hardouin remarks, that Patrocles, the commander of the Macedonian fleet, was the first to promulgate this notion, he having taken the mouth of the river Volga for a narrow passage, by means of which the Scythian or Northern Ocean made its way into the Caspian Sea. receiving various names from the nations which dwell upon its banks, the two most famous of which are the Caspian and the Hyrcanian races. Clitarchus is of opinion that the Caspian Sea is not less in area than the Euxine. Eratosthenes gives the measure of it on the south-east, along the coast of CadusiaThe country of the Cadusii, in the mountainous district of Media Atropatene, on the south-west shores of the Caspian Sea, between the parallels of 390 and 370 north latitude. This district probably corresponds with the modern district of Gilan. and Albania, as five thousand four hundred stadia; thence, through the territories of the Anariaci, the Amardi, and the Hyrcani, to the mouth of the river Zonus he makes four thousand eight hundred stadia, and thence to the mouth of the JaxartesNow the Syr-Daria or Yellow River, and watering the barren steppes of the Kirghiz-Cossacks. It really discharges itself into the Sea of Aral, and not the Caspian. two thousand four hundred; which makes in all a distance of one thousand five hundred and seventy-five miles. Artemidorus, however, makes this sum smaller by twenty-five miles. Agrippa bounds the Caspian Sea and the nations around it, including Armenia, on the east by the Ocean of the Seres,The supposed Eastern Ocean of the ancients. on the west by the chain of the Caucasus, on the south by that of Taurus, and on the north by the Scythian Ocean; and he states it, so far as its extent is known, to be four hundred and eighty miles in length, and two hundred and ninety in breadth. There are not wanting, however, some authors who state that its whole circumference, from the Straits,The imaginary passage by which it was supposed to communicate with the Scythian Ocean. is two thousand five hundred miles.

Its waters make their way into this sea by a very narrow mouth,This being in reality the mouth of the Rha or Volga, as mentioned in Note 18, p. 24. but of considerable length; and where it begins to enlarge, it curves obliquely with horns in the form of a crescent, just as though it would make a descent from its mouth into Lake Mæotis, resembling a sickle in shape, as M. Varro says. The firstOn the eastern side. of its gulfs is called the Scythian Gulf; it is inhabited on both sides, by the Scythians, who hold communication with each other across the Straits,Across the mouths of the Volga. the Nomades being on one side, together with the Sauromatæ, divided into tribes with numerous names, and on the other, the Abzoæ, who are also divided into an equal number. At the entrance, on the right hand side,On a promontory, on the right or eastern side of the mouth of the river Volga. dwell the Udini, a Scythian tribe, at the very angle of the mouth. Then alongHe here means the western shores of the Caspian, after leaving the mouth of the Volga. the coast there are the Albani, the descendants of Jason, it is said; that part of the sea which lies in front of them, bears the name of ' Albanian.' This nation, which lies along the Caucasian chain, comes down, as we have previously stated,In c. 11. as far as the river Cyrus, which forms the boundary of Armenia and Iberia. Above the maritime coast of Albania and the nation of the Udini, the Sarmatæ, the Utidorsi, and the Aroteres stretch along its shores, and in their rear the Sauromatian Amazons, already spoken ofSee the end of c. 14.

The rivers which run through Albania in their course to the sea are the CasiusThe Cæsius of Ptolemy, and the Koisou of modern times. and the Albanus,Probably the modern river Samour. and then the Cambyses,It is difficult to determine the exact locality of this river, but it would seem to have been near the Amardus, the modern Sefid-Rúd. which rises in the Caucasian mountains, and next to it the Cyrus, rising in those of the Coraxici, as already mentioned.In c. 10. Agrippa states that the whole of this coast, inaccessible from rocks of an immense height, is four hundred and twenty-five miles in length, beginning from the river Casius. After we pass the mouth of the Cyrus, it begins to be called the 'Caspian Sea;' the Caspii being a people who dwell upon its shores.

In this place it may be as well to correct an error into which many persons have fallen, and even those who lately took part with Corbulo in the Armenian war. The Gates of Iberia, which we have mentionedSee the beginning of c. 12, and the Note, p. 21. as the Caucasian, they have spoken of as being called the 'Caspian,' and the coloured plans which have been sent from those parts to Rome have that name written upon them. The menaced expedition, too, that was contemplated by the Emperor Nero, was said to be designed to extend as far as the Caspian Gates, where- as it was really intended for those which lead through Iberia into the territory of the Sarmatæ; there being hardly any possibility of approach to the Caspian Sea, by reason of the close juxtaposition of the mountains there. There are, however, other Caspian Gates, which join up to the Caspian tribes; but these can only be distinguished from a perusal of the narrative of those who took part in the expedition of Alexander the Great.

The kingdom of the Persians, by which we now understand that of Parthia, is elevated upon the Caucasian chain between two seas, the Persian and the Hyrcanian. To the Greater Armenia, which in the front slopes towards Commagene, is joined Sophene, which lies upon the descent35 See c. 10. on both sides thereof, and next to it is Adiabene, the most advanced frontier of Assyria; a part of which is Arbelitis,He alludes to the town of Arbela, where, as it is generally said, the army of Darius was defeated by Alexander the Great; by which engage- ment the conflict was terminated. It was the fact, however, that Darius left his baggage and treasures at Arbela, while the battle really took place near the village of Gaugamela, about twenty miles to the north-west of Arbela. This place still retains its name of Arbil. He alludes to the town of Arbela, where, as it is generally said, the army of Darius was defeated by Alexander the Great; by which engage- ment the conflict was terminated. It was the fact, however, that Darius left his baggage and treasures at Arbela, while the battle really took place near the village of Gaugamela, about twenty miles to the north-west of Arbela. This place still retains its name of Arbil, where Alexander con- quered Darius, and which joins up to Syria. The whole of this country was called Mygdonia by the Macedonians, on account of the resemblance it bore to MygdoniaA district in the east of Macedonia, bordering on the Thermaic gulf and the Chalcidic peninsula. in Europe. Its cities are Alexandria,Nothing is known of this place. Hardouin suggests that it may have been built on the spot where Alexander defeated Darius. and Antiochia, also called Nisibis;Also known as Antiochia Mygdoniæ, the capital of Mygdonia. Its ruins are still to be seen near a place called Nisibin. It stood on the river Mygdonius, now the Nahral Huali. this last place is distant from Artaxata seven hundred and fifty miles. There was also in former times Ninus,Or Nineveh, the capital of the great Assyrian monarchy, destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians about B.C. 606. a most renowned city, on the banks of the Tigris, with an aspect towards the west. Adjoining the other front of Greater Armenia, which runs down towards the Caspian Sea, we find Atropatene,There is great difficulty in ascertaining, from the accounts given by the ancient writers, the exact limits of this district, but it is supposed to have included a considerable portion of the province now known by the name of Azerbaijan. It derived its name from Atropates or Atropes, who was governor of this district under the last Darius. which is separated from Otene, a region of Armenia, by the river Araxes; GazæMost probably the place now known as Gazæa, the royal residence of the Parthian kings, and, as its name would imply, their treasure city. Colonel Rawlinson thinks that this place underwent many changes of name according to the rulers who successively occupied it; among other names, it appears to have borne that of Ecbatana. is its chief city, distant from Artaxata four hundred and fifty miles, and the same from Ecbatana in Media, to which country Atropatene belongs.

Ecbatana,A city of great magnitude, pleasantly situate near the foot of Mount Orontes, in the northern part of Greater Media. Its original foundation was attributed by Diodorus Siculus to Semiramis, and by Herodotus to Deioces. It was the capital of the Median kingdom, and afterwards the summer residence of the Persian and Parthian kings. The genuine orthography of the name seems to be Agbatana. The ruins seen at the modern Hamadan are generally supposed to represent those of the ancient Ecbatana; but it is most probable that at different times, if not contemporaneously, there were several cities of this name in Media. the capital of Media, was builtPliny in this statement, as also in the distances which he here assigns to Ecbatana, is supposed to have confounded Ecbatana with Europus, now Veramin, rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator. by king Seleucus, at a distance from Great Seleucia of seven hundred and fifty miles, and twenty miles from the Caspian Gates. The remaining towns of the Medians are Phazaca, Aganzaga, and Apamea,This was a city in the vicinity of Rhagæ, which was distant about 500 stadia from the Caspian Gates. It was built by the Greeks after the Macedonian conquest of Asia. The other places here mentioned do not appear to have been identified. surnamed Rhagiane. The reason of these passes receiving the name of "Gates," is the same that has been stated above.See the beginning of c. 12, p. 21. The chain of mountains is suddenly broken by a passage of such extreme narrowness that, for a distance of eight miles, a single chariot can barely find room to move along: the whole of this pass has been formed by artificial means. Both on the right hand and the left are overhanging rocks, which look as though they had been exposed to the action of fire; and there is a tract of country, quite destitute of water, twenty-eight miles in extent. This narrow pass, too, is rendered still more difficult by a liquid salt which oozes from the rocks, and uniting in a single stream, makes its way along the pass. Besides this, it is frequented by such multitudes of serpents, that the passage is quite impracticable except in winter.

(15.) Joining up to Adiabene are the people formerly known as the 'Carduchi,' now the Cordueni,This was the name of the wild tribes which occupied the high mountainous district between the great upland of Persia and the low plains of Mesopotamia. In addition to the name mentioned by Pliny, they were called Gordyæ, Cardaces, and Curtii. The present Kurds, inhabiting Kurdistan, are supposed to be descended from them. in front of whom the river Tigris flows: and next to them are the Pratitæ, entitled the Par Odon,The Greek par' o(do\n, "on the road"—meaning, probably, to the Caspian Gates. Hardouin says that the Pratitæ were so called from the Greek prati=tai, "merchants." who hold possession of the Caspian Gates.Although dwelling at a considerable distance, the custody of these gates was delivered to them, Hardouin says, by the kings of Media. On the other sideTo the south-east of them. of these gates we come to the desertsMentioned in c. 29 of the present Book. of Parthia and the mountain chain of Cithenus; and after that, the most pleasant locality of all Parthia, ChoaraOr Choarene. by name. Here were two cities of the Parthians, built in former times for their protection against the people of Media, Calliope,Its site is unknown; but it is mentioned by Appian as one of the many towns erected by Seleucus. and Issatis, the last of which stood formerlyBy the use of the word "quondam," he implies that in his time it was in ruins. on a rock. Hecatompylos,A place of considerable importance, which seems to have derived its name from its "hundred gates." It was one of the capitals of the Arsacidan princes; but, extensive though it may have been, there is great doubt where it was situate, the distance recorded by ancient writers not corresponding with any known ruins. the capital of Parthia, is distant from the Caspian Gates one hundred and thirty-three miles. In such an effectual manner is the kingdom of Parthia shut out by these passes. After leaving these gates we find the nation of the Caspii, extending as far as the shores of the Caspian, a race which has given its name to these gates as well as to the sea: on the left there is a mountainous district. Turning backIn a northern direction, along the western shores of the Caspian. from this nation to the river Cyrus, the distance is said to be two hundred and twenty miles; but if we go from that river as far down as the Caspian Gates, the distance is seven hundredsAccording to Hardouin, Eratosthenes, as quoted by Strabo, makes the distance 5060 stadia, or about 633 miles. He has, however, mistranslated the passage, which gives 5600 stadia, or 700 miles exactly, as stated by Pliny. miles. In the itineraries of Alexander the Great these gates were made the central or turning point in his expeditions; the distance from the Caspian Gates to the frontier of India being there set down as fifteen thousand six hundred and eightyOr 1960 miles. stadia, to the city of Bactra,Bactra, Bactrum, or Bactrium, was one of the chief cities, if not the capital, of the province of Bactriana. It was one of the most ancient cities in the world, and the modern Balkh is generally supposed to occupy its site. Strabo, as well as Pliny, evidently considers that Bactra and Zareispa were the same place, while Appian distinguishes between the two, though he does not clearly state their relative positions. commonly called Zariaspa, three thousand seven hundred, and thence to the river JaxartesThe modern Syr-Daria, mentioned in c. 15. See p. 25. five thousand stadia.

Lying to the east of the Caspii is the region known as Apavortene,By some writers called Apavareticene, in the south-eastern part of Parthia. Ansart says that it is now known as Asterabad and Ghilan. in which there is a place noted for its singular fertility, called Dareium.Or Dara. A strongly fortified place, built by Arsaces I., and situate on the mountains of the Zapaorteni. We then come to the nations of the Tapyri,According to Ansart, the district now known as Tabaristan, or Mazanderan, derives the first of those names from the Tapyri. the Anariaci, the Staures, and the Hyrcani, past whose shores and beyond the river SiderisD'Anville remarks that this river still retains its "starry" name, being the modern Aster or Ester, on which Asterabad is situate. the Caspian begins to take the name of the 'Hyrcanian' Sea: on this side of that stream are also the rivers Maxeras and Strato: all of them take their rise in the Caucasian chain. Next comes the district of Margiane,This district occupied the southern part of modern Khiva, the southwestern part of Bokhara, and the north-eastern part of Khorassan. This province of the ancient Persian empire received its name from the river Margus, now the Moorghab. It first became known to the Greeks by the expeditions of Alexander and Antiochus I. so remarkable for its sunny climate. It is the only spot in all these regions that produces the vine, being shut in on every side by verdant and refreshing hills. This district is fifteen hundred stadia in circumference, but is rendered remarkably difficult of access by sandy deserts, which extend a distance of one hundred and twenty miles: it lies opposite to the country of Parthia, and in it Alexander founded the city of Alexandria. This place having been destroyed by the barbarians, Antiochus,Antiochus Soter, the son of Seleucus Nicator. the son of Seleucus, rebuilt it on the same site as a Syrian city.The meaning of this, which has caused great diversity of opinion among the Commentators, seems to be, that on rebuilding it, he preferred giving it a name borne by several cities in Syria, and given to them in honour of kings of that country. To this he appears to have been prompted by a supposed resemblance which its site on the Margus bore to that of Antiochia on the Orontes. For, seeing that it was watered by the Margus,The modern Moorghab; it loses itself in the sands of Khiva. which passes through it, and is afterwards divided into a number of streams for the irrigation of the district of Zothale, he restored it, but preferred giving it the name of Antiochia.Its remains are supposed to be those of an ancient city, still to be seen at a spot called Merv, on the river Moorghab. The circumference of this city is seventy stadia: it was to this place that Orodes conducted such of the Romans as had survived the defeat of Crassus. From the mountain heights of this district, along the range of Caucasus, the savage race of the Mardi, a free people, extends as far as the Bactri.The people of modern Bokhara. Below the district inhabited by them, we find the nations of the Orciani, the Commori, the Berdrigæ, the Harmatotropi,This appears to mean the nations of "Chariot horse-breeders." the Citomaræ, the Comani, the Marucæi, and the Mandruani. The rivers here are the Mandrus and the Chindrus.In former editions, called the 'Gridinus.' It is impossible to identify many of these nations and rivers, as the spelling varies considerably in the respective MSS. Beyond the nations already mentioned, are the Chorasmii,An extensive tribe of Sogdiana, now represented by the district of Khawarezm, in the desert country of Khiva. the Candari,A tribe in the north-western part of Sogdiana. They appear to have been situate to the east of the district of Khawarezm. It has been suggested that they derived their name from the Sanscrit Gandharas, a tribe beyond the Indus. the Attasini, the Paricani, the Sarangæ, the Marotiani, the Aorsi,The chief seat of the Aorsi, who appear to have been a numerous and powerful people both of Europe and Asia, was in the country between the Tanais, the Euxine, the Caspian, and the Caucasus. It seems doubtful, however, whether it is these people who are alluded to in the present passage. the Gaëli, by the Greek writers called Cadusii,These would almost seem to be a different people from those mentioned in c. 15 of the present Book, as dwelling in Atropatene. The present appears to have been a tribe of Sogdiana. the Matiani, the city of Heraclea,Strabo mentions a town of this name, which he places, together with Apamea, in the direction of Rhagæ. If Pliny has observed anything like order in his recital of nations and places, the Heraclea here mentioned cannot be that spoken of by Strabo, but must have been distant nearly 1000 miles from it. which was founded by Alexander, but was afterwards destroyed, and rebuilt by Antiochus, and by him called Achaïs; the Derbices also,This was a tribe, apparently of Scythian origin, settled in Margiana, on the left bank of the Oxus. Strabo says that they worshipped the earth, and forbore to sacrifice or slay any female; but that they put to death their fellow-creatures as soon as they had passed their seventieth year, it being the privilege of the next of kin to eat the flesh of the deceased person. The aged women, however, they used to strangle, and then consign them to the earth. through the middle of whose territory the river OxusThe modern Jihoun or Amou. It now flows into the Sea of Aral, but the ancients universally speak of it as running into the Caspian; and there are still existing distinct traces of a channel extending in a southwesterly direction from the sea of Aral to the Caspian, by which at least a portion, and probably the whole of the waters of the Oxus found their way. into the Caspian; and not improbably the Sea of Aral itself was connected with the Caspian by this channel. runs, after rising in Lake Oxus,Most probably under this name he means the Sea of Aral. the Syrmatæ, the Oxydracæ, the Heniochi, the Bateni, the Saraparæ, and the Bactri, whose chief city is Zariaspe, which afterwards received the name of Bactra, from the riverThe Bactrus. This river is supposed to be represented by the modern Dakash. Hardouin says that Ptolemy, B. vi. c. 11, calls this river the Zariaspis, or Zariaspes. See the Note at the end of c, 17, p. 30. there. This last nation lies at the back of Mount Paropanisus,Now known as the Hindoo-Koosh; a part of the great mountainchain which runs from west to east through the centre of the southern portion of the highlands of Central Asia, and so divides the part of the continent which slopes down to the Indian ocean from the great central table-land of Tartary and Thibet. The native term, Hindoo-Koosh, is only a form of the ancient name "Indicus Caucasus," which was sometimes given to this chain. The ancient name was derived probably from the Persian word paru,a "mountain." over against the sources of the river Indus, and is bounded by the river Ochus.Flowing from the north side of the Paropanisus. According to Pliny and Ptolemy, this river flowed through Bactria into the Oxus; but ac- cording to Strabo, through Iyrcania into the Caspian Sea. Some suppose it to have been only another name for the Oxus. Ansart suggests that it may have been the river now known as the Bash. Beyond it are the Sogdiani,D'Anville says that there is still the valley of Al Sogd, in Tartary, beyond the Oxus. The district called Sogdiana was probably composed of parts of modern Turkistan and Bokhara. The site of Panda does not appear to be known. the town of Panda, and, at the very extremity of their territory, Alexandria,It was built on the Jaxartes, to mark the furthest point reached by Alexander in his Scythian expedition. It has been suggested that the modern Kokend may possibly occupy its site. founded by Alexander the Great. At this spot are the altars which were raised by Hercules and Father Liber, as also by Cyrus, Semiramis, and Alexander; for the expeditions of all these conquerors stopped short at this region, bounded as it is by the river Jaxartes, by the Scythians known as the Silis, and by Alexander and his officers supposed to have been the Tanais. This river was crossed by Demodamas, a general of kings Seleucus and Antiochus, and whose account more particularly we have here followed. He also consecrated certain altars here to Apollo Didymæus.The "twin," of the same birth with Diana.

Beyond this river are the peoples of Scythia. The Persians have called them by the general name of Sacæ,The Sacæ probably formed one of the most numerous and most powerful of the Scythian Nomad tribes, and dwelt to the east and north-east of the Massagetæ, as far as Servia, in the steppes of Central Asia, which are now peopled by the Kirghiz Cossacks, in whose name that of their ancestors, the Sacæ, is traced by some geographers. which properly belongs to only the nearest nation of them. The more ancient writers give them the name of Aramii. The Scythians themselves give the name of "Chorsari" to the Persians, and they call Mount Caucasus Graucasis, which means "white with snow." The multitude of these Scythian nations is quite innumerable: in their life and habits they much resemble the people of Parthia. The tribes among them that are better known are the Sacæ, the Massagetæ,Meaning the "Great Getæ." They dwelt beyond the Jaxartes and the Sea of Aral, and their country corresponds to that of the Khirghiz Tartars in the north of Independent Tartary. the Dahæ,The Dahæ were a numerous and warlike Nomad tribe, who wandered over the vast steppes lying to the east of the Caspian Sea. Strabo has grouped them with the Sacæ and Massagetæ, as the great Scythian tribes of Inner Asia, to the north of Bactriana. the Essedones,See also B. iv. c. 20, and B. vi. c. 7. The position of the Essedones, or perhaps more correctly, the Issedones, may probably be assigned to the east of Ichim, in the steppes of the central border of the Kirghiz, in the immediate vicinity of the Arimaspi, who dwelt on the northern declivity of the Altaï chain. A communication is supposed to have been carried on between these two peoples for the exchange of the gold that was the produce of those mountain districts. the Ariacæ,They dwelt, according to Ptolemy, along the southern banks of the Jaxartes. the Rhymmici, the Pæsici, the Amardi,Or the Mardi, a warlike Asiatic tribe. Stephanus Byzantinus, following Strabo, places the Amardi near the Hyrcani, and adds, "There are also Persian Mardi, without the a;" and, speaking of the Mardi, he mentions them as an Hyrcanian tribe, of predatory habits, and skilled in archery. the Histi, the Edones, the Came, the Camacæ, the Euchatæ,D'Anville supposes that the Euchatæ may have dwelt at the modern Koten, in Little Bukharia. It is suggested, however, by Parisot, that they may have possibly occupied a valley of the Himalaya, in the midst of a country known as "Cathai," or the "desert." the Cotieri, the Anthusiani, the Psacæ, the Arimaspi,The first extant notice of them is in Herodotus; but before him there was the poem of Aristeas of Proconnesus, of which the title was 'Arimaspea;' and it is mainly upon the statements in it that the stories told relative to this people rest—such as their being one-eyed, and as to their stealing the gold from the Gryphes, or Griffins, under whose custody it was placed. Their locality is by some supposed to have been on the left bank of the Middle Volga, in the governments of Kasan, Simbirsk, and Saratov: a locality which is sufficiently near the gold districts of the Uralian chain to account for the legends connecting them with the Gryphes, or guardians of the gold. the Antacati, the Chroasai, and the Œtei; among them the NapæiThe former reading was, "The Napæi are said to have perished as well as the Apellæi." Sillig has, however, in all probability, restored the correct one. "Finding," he says, "in the work of Diodorus Siculus, that two peoples of Scythia were called, from their two kings, who were brothers, the Napi and the Pali, we have followed close upon the footsteps of certain MSS. of Pliny, and have come to the conclusion that some disputes arose between these peoples, which ultimately led to the destruction of one of them." are said to have been destroyed by the Palæi. The rivers in their country that are the best known, are the Mandragæus and the Carpasus. Indeed upon no subject that I know of are there greater discrepancies among writers, from the circumstance, I suppose, of these nations being so extremely numerous, and of such migratory habits. Alexander the Great has left it stated that the water of this seaOf the Caspian Sea. is fresh, and M. Varro informs us, that some of it, of a similar character, was brought to Pompey, when holding the chief command in the Mithridatic war in its vicinity; the salt,Said on the supposition that it is a bay or gulf of the Scythian or Septentrional Ocean. no doubt, being overpowered by the volume of water discharged by the rivers which flow into it. He adds also, that under the direction of Pompey, it was ascertained that it is seven days' journey from India to the river Icarus,Ansart suggests that this is the modern Rocsha. in the country of the Bactri, which discharges itself into the Oxus, and that the merchandize of India being conveyed from itFrom the Oxus. through the Caspian Sea into the Cyrus, may be brought by land to Phasis in Pontus, in five days at most. There are numerous islands throughout the whole of the Caspian sea: the only one that is well known is that of Tazata.Ansart suggests that this island is that now called Idak, one of the Ogurtchinski group.

After we have passed the Caspian Sea and the Scythian Ocean, our course takes an easterly direction, such being the turn here taken by the line of the coast. The first portionThis would apply to the north-eastern coasts of Siberia, if Pliny had had any idea of land situate in such high latitudes; but, on the contrary, as already remarked, he appears to have supposed that the continent of Asia terminated a little above the northern extremity of the Caspian. It would be a loss of time to guess what locality is meant by the Scythian Promontory. of these shores, after we pass the Scythian Promontory, is totally uninhabitable, owing to the snow, and the regions adjoining are uncultivated, in consequence of the savage state of the nations which dwell there. Here are the abodes of the Scythian Anthropophagi,Or "man-eaters." who feed on human flesh. Hence it is that all around them consists of vast deserts, inhabited by multitudes of wild beasts, which are continually lying in wait, ready to fall upon human beings just as savage as themselves. After leaving these, we again come to a nation of the Scythians, and then again to desert tracts tenanted by wild beasts, until we reach a chain of mountains which runs up to the sea, and bears the name of Tabis.This, it would appear, he looks upon as the extreme north-eastern point of Asia. Parisot suggests that the word Tabis is allied to the Mongol Daba, which signifies "mountain;" or else that it may have some affinity with Thibet." It is not, however, before we have traversed very nearly one half of the coast that looks towards the north-east, that we find it occupied by inhabitants.

The first people that are known of here are the Seres,The people of Serica, which country with Ptolemy corresponds to the north-western part of China, and the adjacent portions of Tibet and Chinese Tartary. The capital, Sera, is by most supposed to be Singan, on the Hoang-ho, but by some Peking. Pliny evidently refers to the same people, and has some notion of the locality of their country. so famous for the wool that is found in their forests.This is generally supposed to bear reference to the cloths exported by the Seres, as Serica, and corresponding to our silks. On examination, however, it will appear that he rather refers to some textures of cotton, such as calicos or muslins; it being not unknown to Pliny that silks or bombycina were the produce of the bombyx or silk-worm; see B. xi. c. 22. The use of the word "canities" points strongly to cotton as being the substance meant. After steeping it in water, they comb off a white down that adheres to the leaves; and then to the females of our part of the world they give the twofold taskWhether it is silk or cotton that is here referred to, Pliny seems in this passage to allude to some peculiarity in the texture, which was perhaps so close, that when brought to the Western world it was the custom to draw out a portion of tie threads. In such case it perhaps strongly resembled the Chinese crapes of the present day. Speaking of Cleopatra in B. x. 141, of the Pharsalia, Lucan says, "Her white breasts are resplendent through the Sidonian fabric, which, wrought in close texture by the sley of the Seres, the needle of the workman of the Nile has separated, and has loosened the warp by stretching out the web." of unravelling their textures, and of weav- ing the threads afresh. So manifold is the labour, and so distant are the regions which are thus ransacked to supply a dress through which our ladies may in public displayHe either refers to dresses consisting of nothing but open work, or what we may call fine lace, and made from the closely woven material imported from China, or else to the 'Coan vestments' which were so much worn by the Roman women, especially those of light character, in the Augustan age. This Coan tissue was remarkable for its extreme transparency. It has been supposed that these dresses were made of silk, as in the island of Cos silk was spun and woven at an early period, so much so as to obtain a high celebrity for the manufactures of that island. Seneca, B. vii. De Benef. severely censures the practice of wearing these thin garments. For further information on this subject, see B. xi. c. 26, 27, and B. xii. c. 22. their charms. The Seres are of inoffensive manners, but, bearing a strong resemblance therein to all savage nations, they shun all intercourse with the rest of mankind, and await the approachMeaning that they do not actively seek intercourse with the rest of the world, but do not refuse to trade with those who will take the trouble of resorting to them. This coincides wonderfully with the character of the Chinese even at the present day. of those who wish to traffic with them. The first river that is known in their territory is the Psitharas,Ptolemy speaks of it as the Œchordas. next to that the Cambari, and the third the Laros; after which we come to the Promontory of Chryse,The headland of Malacca, in the Aurea Chersonnesns, was also called by this name, but it is hardly probable that that is the place here meant. the Gulf of Cynaba, the river Atianos, and the nation of the Attacori on the gulf of that name, a people protected by their sunny hills from all noxious blasts, and living in a climate of the same temperature as that of the Hyperborei. Amometus has written a work entirely devoted to the history of these people, just as Hecatæus has done in his treatise on the Hyperborei. After the Attacori, we find the nations of the Phruri and the Tochari, and, in the interior, the Casiri, a people of India, who look toward the Scythians, and feed on human flesh. Here are also numerous wandering Nomad tribes of India. There are some authors who state that in a north-easterly direction these nations touch upon the CiconesSee B. iv. c. 18. and the Brysari.

But we come now to nations as to which there is a more general agreement among writers. Where the chain of EmodusThe Emodi Montes (so called probably from the Indian hemâdri, or the "golden") are supposed to have formed that portion of the great lateral branch of the Indian Caucasus, the range of the Himalaya, which extends along Nepaul, and probably as far as Bhotan. rises, the nations of India begin, which borders not only on the Eastern sea, but on the Southern as well, which we have already mentionedIn c. 14 of the present Book. as being called the Indian Ocean. That part which faces the east runs in a straight line a distance of eighteen hundred and seventy-five miles until it comes to a bend, at which the Indian Ocean begins. Here it takes a turn to the south, and continues to run in that direction a distance of two thousand four hundred and seventy-five miles, according to Eratosthenes, as far as the river Indus, the boundary of India on the west.The whole of this passage seems very intricate, and it is difficult to make sense of it. His meaning, however, is probably this: that the coast of India, running from extreme north-east to south-east, relatively to Greece, the country of Eratosthenes, is exactly opposite to the coast of Gaul, running from extreme north-west to south-west—India thus lying due west of Gaul, without any intervening land. This, it will be remembered, was the notion of Columbus, when contemplating the possibility of a western passage to India. Many authors have represented the entire length of the Indian coast as being forty days' and nights' sail, and as being, from north to south, two thousand eight hundred and fifty miles. Agrippa states its length to be three thousand three hundred miles, and its breadth, two thousand three hundred. Posidonius has given its measurement as lying from north-east to south-east, placing it opposite to Gaul, of which country he has given the measurement as lying from north-west to south-west; making the whole of India to lie due west of Gaul. Hence, as he has shewn by undoubted proofs, India lying opposite to Gaul must be refreshed by the blowing of that wind,This appears also to be somewhat obscure. It is clear that if India lies to the west of Gaul, it cannot be Pliny's meaning that it is refreshed by the west wind blowing to it from Gaul. He may possibly mean that the west wind, which is so refreshing to the west of Europe, and Gaul in particular, first sweeps over India, and thus becomes productive of that salubrity which Posidonius seems to have discovered in India, but for which we look in vain at the present day. Amid, however, such multiplied chances of a corrupt text, it is impossible to assume any very definite position as to his probable meaning. The French translators offer no assistance in solving the difficulty, and Holland renders it, "This west wind which from behind Gaul bloweth upon India, is very healthsome," &c. and derive its salubrity there- from.

In this region, the appearance of the heavens is totally changed, and quite different is the rising of the stars; there are two summers in the year, and two harvests, while the winter intervenes between them during the time that the EtesianAs to the Etesian winds, see 1. ii. c. 48. winds are blowing: during our winter too, they enjoy light breezes, and their seas are navigable. In this country there are nations and cities which would be found to be quite innumerable, if a person should attempt to enumerate them. For it has been explored not only by the arms of Alexander the Great and of the kings who succeeded him, by Seleucus and Antiochus, who sailed round even to the Caspian and Hyrcanian Sea, and by Patrocles,In the geographical work which Patrocles seems to have published, he is supposed to have given some account of the countries bordering on the Caspian Sea, and there is little doubt that, like other writers of that period, he regarded that sea as a gulf or inlet of the Septentrional Ocean, and probably maintained the possibility of sailing thither by sea from the Indian Ocean. This statement, however, seems to have been strangely misinterpreted by Pliny in his present assertion, that Patrocles had himself accomplished this circumnavigation. the admiral of their fleet, but has been treated of by several other Greek writers who resided at the courts of Indian kings, such, for instance, as Megasthenes, and by Dionysius, who was sent thither by Philadelphus, expressly for the purpose: all of whom have enlarged upon the power and vast resources of these nations. Still, however, there is no possibility of being rigorously exact, so different are the accounts given, and often of a nature so incredible. The followers of Alexander the Great have stated in their writings, that there were no less than five thousand cities in that portion of India which they vanquished by force of arms, not one of which was smaller than that of Cos;See B. v. c. 36. that its nations were eight in number, that India forms one-third of the whole earth, and that its populations are innumerable—a thing which is certainly far from improbable, seeing that the Indians are nearly the only race of people who have never migrated from their own territories. From the time of Father LiberOr Bacchus. to that of Alexander the Great, one hundred and fifty-three kings of India are reckoned, extending over a period of six thousand four hundred and fifty-one years and three months. The vast extent of their rivers is quite marvellous; it is stated that on no one day did Alexander the Great sail less than six hundred stadiaOr seventy-five miles. on the Indus, and still was unable to reach its mouth in less than five months and some few days: and yet it is a well-known fact that this river is not so large as the Ganges.This is the statement of Arrian. Seneca, one of our fellow-countrymen, who has written a treatiseAmong the lost works of that philosopher. upon the subject of India, has given its rivers as sixty-five in number, and its nations as one hundred and eighteen. The difficulty too would be quite as great, if we were to attempt to enumerate its mountains. The chains of Emaüs, of Emodus, of Paropanisus, and of Caucasus, are all connected, the one with the other; and from their foot, the country of India runs down in the form of a vast plain, bearing a very considerable resemblance to that of Egypt.

However, that we may come to a better understanding relative to the description of these regions, we will follow in the track of Alexander the Great. Diognetus and Bæton, whose duty it was to ascertain the distances and length of his expeditions, have written that from the Caspian Gates to Hecatompylon, the city of the Parthians, the distance is the number of miles which we have alreadyIn c. 17 of the present Book. stated; and that from thence to Alexandria,See c. 25 of the present Book. of the Arii, which city was founded by the same king, the distance is five hundred and seventy-five miles; from thence to Prophthasia,See c. 25 of the present Book. the city of the Drangæ, one hundred and ninety-nine; from thence to the city of the Arachosii,See c. 25 of the present Book. five hundred and sixty-five; from thence to Ortospanum,A town placed by Strabo on the confines of Bactriana, and by Ptolemy in the county of the Paropanisidæ. one hundred and seventy-five; and from thence to the city built by Alexander,See c. 25 of the present Book. fifty, miles. In some copies, however, the numbers are found differently stated; and we find this last city even placed at the very foot of Mount Caucasus! From this place to the river CophesSee c. 24 of the present Book. and Peucolaitis, a city of India, is two hundred and thirty-seven miles; from thence to the river Indus and the city of TaxillaThe present Attok, according to D'Anville. sixty; from thence to the famous river HydaspesOne of the principal rivers of that part of India known as the Punjaub. It rises in the north-western Himalayah mountains in Kashmere, and after flowing nearly south, falls into the Acesines or Chenab. Its present most usual name is the Jhelum. one hundred and twenty; and from thence to the Hypasis,The most eastern, and most important of the five rivers which water the country of the Punjaub. Rising in the western Himalaya, it flows in two principal branches, in a course nearly south-west (under the names respectively of Vipasa and Satadru), which it retains till it falls into the Indus at Mittimkote. It is best known, however, by its modern name of Sutlej, probably a corrupt form of the Sanscrit Satadru. a river no less famous, two hundred and ninety miles, and three hundred and ninety paces. This last was the extreme limit of the expedition of Alexander, though he crossed the river and dedicated certain altarsSee c. 18 of the present Book. The altars there spoken of, as consecrated by Alexander the Great, appear to have been erected in Sogdiana, whereas those here mentioned were dedicated in the Indian territory. on the opposite side. The dispatches written by order of that king fully agree with the distances above stated.

The remaining distances beyond the above point were ascertained on the expedition of Seleucus Nicator. They are, to the river Sydrus,It does not appear that this river has been identified. In most of the editions it is called Hesidrus; but, as Sillig observes, there was a town of India, near the Indus, called Sydros, which probably received its name from this river. one hundred and sixty-eight miles; to the river Jomanes, the same; some copies, however, add to this last distance five miles; thence to the Ganges, one hundred and twelve miles; to Rhodapha, five hundred and sixty-nine—though, according to some writers, this last distance is only three hundred and twenty-five miles; to the town of Calinipaxa,It has been suggested that this place is the modern Kanouge, on the Ganges. one hundred and sixty-seven, according to some, two hundred and sixty-five; thence to the confluence of the river JomanesThe modern Jumna. It must be borne in mind by the reader, that the numbers given in this Chapter vary considerably in the different MSS. and Ganges, six hundred and twenty-five; most writers, however, add thirteen miles to this last distance; thence to the city of Palibothra,See the next Chapter. four hundred and twenty-five—and thence to the mouth of the Ganges, six hundred and thirty-seven miles and a half.

The nations whom it may be not altogether inopportune to mention, after passing the Emodian Mountains, a cross range of which is called "Imaus," a word which, in the language of the natives, signifies "snowy,"The Sanscrit for "snowy" is "himrarat." The name of Emodus, combined with Imaiis, seems here to be a description of the knot of mountains formed by the intersections of the Himalaya, the Hindoo Koosh, and the Bolor range; the latter having been for many ages the boundary between the empires of China and Turkistan. It is pretty clear, that, like Ptolemy, Pliny imagined that the Imaiis ran from south to north; but it seems hardly necessary, in this instance at least, to give to the word "promontorium" the meaning attached to our word "promontory," and to suppose that he implies that the range of the Imaüs runs down to the verge of the eastern ocean. are the Isari, the Cosyri, the Izi, and, upon the chain of mountains, the Chisiotosagi, with numerous peoples, which have the surname of Brachmanæ,A name evidently given to numerous tribes of India, from the circumstance that Alexander and his followers found it borne by the Brahmins or priestly caste of the Hindoos. among whom are the Maccocalingæ. There are also the rivers Prinas and Cainas,Still called the Cane, a navigable river of India within the Ganges, falling into the Ganges, according to Arrian as well as Pliny, though in reality it falls into the Jumna. which last flows into the Ganges, both of them navigable streams. The nation of the CalingæThe Calingæ, who are further mentioned in the next Chapter, probably dwelt in the vicinity of the promontory of Calingon, upon which was the town of Dandaguda, mentioned in c. 23 of the present Book. This promontory and city are usually identified with those of Calinapatnam, about half-way between the rivers Mahanuddy and Godavery; and the territory of the Calingæ seems to correspond pretty nearly to the district of Circars, lying along the coast of Orissa. comes nearest to the sea, and above them are the Mandei and the Malli.By the Malli, Parisot is of opinion that the people of Moultan are meant. In the territory of the last-named people is a mountain called Mallus: the boundary of this region is the river Ganges.

Some writers have stated that this river, like the Nile, takes its rise from unknown sources,So much so, indeed, that its sources were unknown to the learned world till the beginning of the present century, although the Chinese emperor Tang-Hi on one occasion sent a body of Llamas for the purpose of inquiring into the subject. It is now ascertained that the river Ganges is the result of the confluence of three separate streams, which bear the respective names of the Gannavi, the Bhagirathi, and the Alakananda. The second is of the most sacred character, and is the one to which the largest concourse of pilgrims resort. The ancients held various opinions as to the sources of the river. and, in a similar manner, waters the neighbouring territory; others, again, say that it rises in the mountains of Scythia. They state also that nineteen rivers discharge their waters into it; those among them that are navigable, besides the rivers already mentioned,The Cainas and the Jomanes, mentioned in the last Chapter. are the Condochates,The modern Gandaki or Gundûk is generally supposed to be represented by the Condochates. the Erannoboas,Represented as flowing into the Ganges at Palimbothra, the modern Patna. There has been considerable discussion among the learned as to what river is indicated by this name. It has, however, been considered most probable that it is the same as the Sonus of Pliny, the modern Soane, though both that author, as well as Arrian, speaks of two rivers, which they call respectively Erannoboas and Sonus. The name was probably derived from the Sanscrit Hyranyavahas, the poetical name of the Sonus. the Cosoagus,Supposed to be the same as the river Cosi or Coravaha. and the Sonus. Other writers again say that it bursts forth at its very source with a loud noise, hurling itself over rocks and precipices; and that after it has reached the plains, its waters become more tranquil, and it pauses for a time in a certain lake, after which it flows gently on. They say also that it is eight miles in breadth, where it is the very narrowest, and one hundred stadia where it is but moderately wide, and that it is nowhere less than twenty paces in depth. The last nation situate on the banks of the Ganges is that of the GangaridesThe wide diffusion of the Calingæ and their close connection with the Gangaridæ, are shown by the fact that Pliny here calls them "Calingæ; Gangarides," and mentions the Modogalingæ on a large island in the Ganges, and the Maccocalingæ on the upper course of that river. See note 43, p. 42. Calingæ; the city where their king dwells has the name of Protalis.Called Parthalis in most of the editions. (19.) This king has sixty thousand foot-soldiers, one thousand horse, and seven hundred elephants, always caparisoned ready for battle. The people of the more civilized nations of India are divided into several classes.Or castes, as we call them. These institutions prevail equally at the present day, and the divisions of the duties of the respective castes are pretty much as Pliny states them to be, except that the husbandmen and merchants form one class, called the Vaisya, the Brahmins being the ministers of religion, the Kshatriya forming the warlike class, the Sudra constituting the menial or servant class. Pliny here represents the rulers and councillors as forming a distinct class. Such, however, does not appear to be the fact; for we find that the sovereign is chosen from the Kshatriya or military class, while from the Brahmins are selected the royal councillors, judges, and magistrates of the country. One of these classes tills the earth, another attends to military affairs, others again are occupied in mercantile pursuits, while the wisest and the most wealthy among them have the management of the affairs of state—act as judges, and give counsel to the king. The fifth class,He alludes to the Brahmins, who seem to have been called by the Greek writers "Gymnosophists," or "naked wise men." The Brahmin Calanus is a memorable example of this kind of self-immolation. entirely devoting themselves to the pursuit of wisdom, which in these countries is almost held in the same veneration as religion, alwaysIt is extremely doubtful if, even in his own day, Pliny was correct in venturing upon so sweeping an assertion. end their life by a voluntary death upon the lighted pile. In addition to these, there is a classThe Sudra or menial caste. in a half-savage state, and doomed to endless labour; by means of their exertions, all the classes previously mentioned are supported. It is their duty to huntHe is incorrect here; these duties devolve on the Vaisya class. the elephant, and to tame him when captured; for it is by the aid of these animals that they plough; by these animals they are conveyed from place to place; these in especial they look upon as constituting their flocks and herds; by their aid they wage their wars, and fight in defence of their territories. Strength, age, and size, are the points usually considered in making choice of these animals.

In the Ganges there is an island of very considerable size, inhabited by a single nation; it is called Modogalinga.Inhabited, probably, by a branch of the Calingæ previously mentioned. Beyond the Ganges are situate the Modubæ, the Molindæ, the Uberæ, with a magnificent city of the same name, the Modresi, the Preti, the Caloæ, the Sasuri, the Passalæ, the Colobæ, the Orumcolæ, the Abali, and the Thalutæ. The king of the last-named people has fifty thousand foot-soldiers, four thousand horse, and four hundred armed elephants. We next come to a still more powerful nation, the Andaræ,Ansart suggests that this may be the modern kingdom of Pegu. He thinks also that the preceding kingdom may be that now called Arracan. who dwell in numerous villages, as well as thirty cities fortified with walls and towers. They furnish for their king one hundred thousand foot, two thousand horse, and a thousand elephants. The country of the DardæThese may possibly be the Daradræ of Ptolemy, but it seems impossible to guess their locality. is the most productive of gold, that of the Setæ of silver.

But more famous and more powerful than any nation, not only in these regions, but throughout almost the whole of India, are the Prasii, who dwell in a city of vast extent and of remarkable opulence, called Palibothra;Probably the present Patna. D'Anville, however, identifies it with Allahabad, while Welford and Wahl are inclined to think it the same as Radjeurah, formerly called Balipoutra or Bengala. The Prasii are probably the race of people mentioned in the ancient Sanscrit books under the name of the "Pragi" or the Eastern Empire, while the Gangarides are mentioned in the same works under the name of "Gandaressa" or Kingdom of the Ganges. from which circumstance some writers have given to the people themselves the name of Palibothri, and, indeed, to the whole tract of country between the Ganges and the Indus. These people keep on daily pay in their king's service an army, consisting of six hundred thousand foot, thirty thousand horse, and nine thousand elephants, from which we may easily form a conjecture as to the vast extent of their resources. Behind these people, and lying still more in the interior, are the Monedes, and the Suari,Hardouin is of opinion that these nations dwelt in the localities occupied by the districts of Gwalior and Agra. among whom is a mountain known as Maleus, upon which the shadow falls to the north in winter, and to the south in summer, six months alternately. In this district the Constellation of the Greater BearThe Septentriones or "Seven Trions," in the original. Parisot is of opinion that under this name of Mount Maleus he alludes to the Western Ghauts, and that the name still survives in the word Malabar. He also remarks that this statement of Pliny is not greatly exaggerated. is seen at only one period in the year, and then but for fifteen days, according to what Bæton states. Megasthenes, however, informs us that the same is the case also in many other localities of India. The South Pole is by the Indians called Diamasa.

The river Jomanes runs into the Ganges through the territory of the Palibothri, between the cities of MethoraAnsart says that this is the same as the modern town of Muttra or Matra upon the Jumna, and to the north of Agra. and Chrysobora.Or Clisobora, according to Hardouin. It does not appear to have been identified. In the regions which lie to the southIn the Indian Peninsula, constituting more especially the presidency of Madras. of the Ganges, the people are tinted by the heat of the sun, so much so as to be quite coloured, but yet not burnt black, like the Æthiopians. The nearerIt is clear that he looks upon the countries of the Indus as lying to the south of the Ganges. they approach the Indus, the deeper their colour, a proof of the heat of the climate. After leaving the nation of the Prasii, we immediately come to the Indus; in the mountains of the Prasii a race of Pygmies is said to exist. Artemidorus says that between these two rivers there is a distance of two thousand one hundred miles.

The Indus, called Sindis by the natives, rises in that branch of the Caucasian range which bears the name of Paropanisus,Or Hindoo Koosh. In this statement he is supported by Arrian, Strabo, Mela, and Quintus Curtius. It rises, however, a considerable distance on the north-east side of the Himalaya. and runs in an easterly direction, receiving in its course the waters of nineteen rivers. The most famous of these are the Hydaspes,The modern Jhelum. into which four other rivers have already discharged themselves, the Cantaba,Some writers suppose that this must be the same as the Hydraotes, or modern Ravi, because the latter is not otherwise found mentioned in the list given by Pliny. The name, however, leaves but little doubt that Pliny had heard of the Acesines under its Indian name of Chandabragha, and out of it has made another river. which receives three other rivers, the Acesinus, and the Hypasis,The modern Sutlej. which last two are navigable themselves. Still however, so moderate, as it were, do the waters of this river show themselves in their course, that it is never more than fifty stadia in width, nor does it ever exceed fifteen paces in depth. Of two islands, which it forms in its course, the one, which is known as Prasiane, is of very considerable size; the other, which is smaller, is called Patale. According to the accounts given by the most moderate writers, this river is navigable for a distance of twelve hundred and fifty miles, and after following the sun's course to the west, in some degree, discharges itself into the ocean. I will here give the distances of various places situate on the coast to the mouth of this river, in a general way, just as I find them stated, although they none of them tally with each other.

From the mouth of the Ganges to the Promontory of the Calingi and the town of Dandaguda,Probably in the vicinity of the modern Calingapatam; none of the other places seem to be identified. is six hundred and twenty-five miles; from thence to Tropina twelve hundred and twenty-five; from thence to the promontory of Perimula, where is held the most celebrated mart in all India, seven hundred and fifty, and from thence to the city of Patala, in the island just mentioned, six hundred and twenty miles.

The mountain races between the Indus and the Jomanes are the Cesi,Ansart suggests that the Cesi may be the same race as the modern Sikhs. the Cetriboni, who dwell in the woods, and after them the Megallæ, whose king possesses five hundred elephants, and an army of horse and foot, the numbers of which are unknown; then the Chrysei, the Parasangæ, and the Asmagi,Perhaps the people of modern Ajmere. whose territory is infested by wild tigers; these people keep in arms thirty thousand foot, three hundred elephants, and eight hundred horse. They are bounded by the river Indus, and encircled by a range of mountains and deserts for a distance of six hundred and twenty-five miles. Below these deserts are the Dari and the Surve, and then deserts again for one hundred and eighty-seven miles, sands in general encircling these spots just as islands are surrounded by the sea. Below these deserts, again, are the Maltecoræ, the Singæ, the Marohæ, the Rarungæ, and the Morontes. These last peoples, who possess the mountains throughout the whole range of country as far as the shores of the ocean, are free, and independent of all kings, and hold numerous cities upon the declivities of the mountains. After them come the Nareæ,These peoples are supposed by Hardouin to have occupied the southern parts of the peninsula now known as Bisnagar, Calicut, and the Deccan, with the Malabar and Coromandel coasts. who are bounded by Capitalia, the most lofty of all the Indian peaks: the inhabitants who dwell on the other side of it have extensive mines of gold and silver. After these again are the Oratæ, whose king possesses only ten elephants, but a large army of foot; next come the Suarataratæ, who live under the rule of a king as well, but breed no elephants, as they depend solely on their horse and foot; then the Odonbeores, the Arabastree, and the Horacæ, which last inhabit a fine city fortified by trenches cut in the marshes. It is quite impossible to approach the city, except by the bridge, as the water in the trenches is full of crocodiles, an animal most insatiate for human flesh. There is another city also in their territory, which has been greatly extolled, Automula by name, situate on the sea-shore, a famous mart, lying at the point of confluence of five rivers: their king possesses sixteen hundred elephants, one hundred and fifty thousand foot, and five thousand horse. The king of the Charmæ is a less opulent potentate; he has only sixty elephants and some small remains of his former strength. After these we come to the nation of the Pandæ,Hardouin suggests that this people dwelt on the present peninsula of Guzerat. the only one throughout all India which is ruled by women. It is said that Hercules had but one child of the female sex, for which reason she was his especial favourite, and he bestowed upon her the principal one of these kingdoms. The sovereigns who derive their origin from this female, rule over three hundred towns, and have an army of one hundred and fifty thousand foot, and five hundred elephants. After passing through this list of three hundred cities, we come to the Darangæ,None of these appear to have been identified; indeed, it appears to be next to impossible, owing to the corrupt state in which they have come down to us. the Posingæ, the Butæ, the Gogaræi, the Umbræ, the Nereæ, the Brancosi, the Nobundæ, the Cocondæ, the Nesei, the Palatitæ, the Salobriasæ, and the Olostræ, who reach up to the island of Patala, from the extremity of whose shores to the Caspian Gates it is a distance of nineteen hundred and twenty-five miles.

After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is occupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the Athoæ, the Bolingæ, the Gallitalutæ, the Dimuri, the Megari, the Ardabæ, the Mesæ, and after them, the Uri and the Silæ; beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations, we come to the Organagæ, the Abortæ, the Bassuertæ, and, after these last, deserts similar to those previously 'mentioned. We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbæ, the Marogomatræ, the Umbrittæ, of whom there are twelve nations, each with two cities, and the Asini, a people who dwell in three cities, their capital being Bucephala,Built on the Hydaspes by Alexander after his victory over Porus, B. C. 326, at the spot where he had crossed the river before the battle, and in memory of his celebrated charger Bucephalus, who had expired during the battle from fatigue and old age, or from wounds. The exact site of this place is not known, but the probabilities appear in favour of Jhelum, at which place is the usual passage of the river, or else of Jellapoor, about sixteen miles lower down. 78 Probably the same that is mentioned in c. 21 of the present Book. which was founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alexander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are some mountain tribes, which lie at the foot of Caucasus, the Soseadæ and the Sondræ, and, after passing the Indus and going down its stream, the Samarabriæ, the Sambraceni, the Bisambritæ, the Orsi, the Anixeni, and the Taxilæ, with a famous city, which lies on a low but level plain, the general name of the district being Amenda: there are four nations here, the Peucolaitæ,Parisot supposes that these were the inhabitants of the district which now bears the name of Pekheli. the Arsagalitæ, the Geretæ, and the Assoï.

The greater part of the geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it the four Satrapies of the Gedrosi,Gedrosia comprehended probably the same district as is now known by the name of Mekran, or, according to some, the whole of modern Beloochistan. the Arachotæ,The people of the city and district of Arachotus, the capital of Ara- ehosia. M. Court has identified some ruins on the Argasan river, near Kandahar, on the road to Shikarpur, with those of Arachotus; but Professor Wilson considers them to be too much to the south-east. Colonel Rawlinson thinks they are those to be seen at a place called Ulan Robat. He states that the most ancient name of the city, Cophen, (mentioned by Pliny in c. 25 of the present Book), has given rise to the territorial desig- nation. See p. 57. the Arii,The people of Aria, consisting of the eastern part of Khorassan, and the western and north-western part of Afghanistan. This was one of the most important of the eastern provinces or satrapies of the Persian empire. and the Paropauisidæ,This was the collective name of several peoples dwelling on the southern slopes of the Hindoo Koosh, and of the country which they inhabited which was not known by any other name. It corresponded to the eastern part of modern Afghanistan and the portion of the Punjaub lying to the west of the Indus. the river CophesIt is supposed that the Cophes is represented by the modern river of Kabul. thus forming the extreme boundary of India. All these territories, however, according to other writers, are reckoned as belonging to the country of the Arii. (21.) Many writers, too, place in India the city of Nysa,The place here alluded to was in the district of Goryræa, at the north-western corner of the Punjaub, near the confluence of the rivers Cophen and Choaspes being probably the same place as Nagara or Dionysopolis, the modern Nagar or Naggar. and the mountain of Merus, sacred to Father Bacchus; in which circumstanceThe word mn/ros, in Greek, signifying a "thigh." originated the story that he sprang from the thigh of Jupiter. They also place here the nation of the Astacani, whose country abounds in the vine, the laurel, the box-tree, and all the fruits which are produced in Greece. As to those wonderful and almost fabulous stories which are related about the fertility of the soil, and the various kinds of fruits and trees, as well as wild beasts, and birds, and other sorts of animals, they shall be mentioned each in its proper place, in a future portion of this work. I shall also very shortly have to make some further mention of the four Satrapies, it being at present my wish to hasten to a description of the island of Taprobane.

But first there are some other islands of which we must make mention. Patala,Supposed by some to have been Lower Scinde, and the vicinity of Kurrachee, with its capital Potala. as we have already stated, lies at the mouth of the Indus: it is of a triangular figure, and is two hundred and twenty miles in breadth. Beyond the mouth of the Indus are the islands of Chryse and Argyre,Ansart suggests that these may be the Laccadives. Their name means the "gold" and "silver" islands. abounding in metals, I believe; but as to what some persons have stated, that their soil consists of gold and silver, I am not so willing to give a ready credence to that. After passing these islands we come to Crocala,Probably an island near the mouths of the Indus. twenty miles in breadth, and then, at twelve miles' distance from it, Bibraga,Probably the same as the Bibacta of Arrian. The present name of it is Chilney Isle. abounding in oysters and other bell-fish. At eight miles' distance from Bibraga we find Toralliba, and many others of no note.

Taprobane,Although Poinsinet will not admit its identity, it is now universally agreed among the learned that the island of Taprobana is the modern Ceylon. As Gosselin observes, in the accounts said to have been given of Ceylon by the ambassadors to Claudius, great allowance must be made for the wrong interpretation which, owing to their ignorance of the language, the Romans must have given to much of their narrative. under the name of the "land of the Antich- thones,"From a)nti, "opposite," and xqw/n, "the earth." Its people being supposed to be the antipodes of those of Europe. was long looked upon as another world: the age and the arms of Alexander the Great were the first to give satisfactory proof that it is an island. Onesicritus, the commander of his fleet, has informed us that the elephants of this island are larger, and better adapted for warfare than those of India; and from Megasthenes we learn that it is divided by a river, that the inhabitants have the name of Paleogoni,"The ancient race." As Ansart observes, the island contains a mountain, the name of which is "Adam's" Peak. and that their country is more productive of gold and pearls of great size than even India. Eratosthenes has also given the dimensions of this island, as being seven thousand stadia in length, and five thousand in breadth: he states also that there are no cities, but villages to the number of seven hundred.Ælian makes the villages to be 750 in number. It begins at the Eastern sea, and lies extended opposite to India, east and west. This island was in former times supposed to be twenty days' sail from the country of the Prasii,A general term probably, as already stated, for the great peninsula of India, below the Ganges. but in later times, whereas the navigation was formerly confined to vessels constructed of papyrus with the tackle peculiar to the Nile, the distance has been estimated at no more than seven days'This expression has been relied upon by those who do not admit that Ceylon is identical with the ancient Taprobana. But it is not improbable that the passage here referred to is from Cape Comorin to Ceylon, and not from Cape Ramanan Cor, the nearest part of the continent. In such case, the distance would be sixty-five or sixty-six leagues, and we can easily conceive that Greek vessels, sailing from nine to ten leagues per day, might occupy seven days in making the passage from Cape Comorin, past Ramanan Cor, to the coasts of Ceylon. sail, in reference to the speed which can be attained by vessels of our construction. The sea that lies between the island and the mainland is full of shallows, not more than six paces in depth; but in certain channels it is of such extraordinary depth, that no anchor has ever found a bottom. For this reason it is that the vessels are constructed with prows at either end; so that there may be no necessity for tacking while navigating these channels, which are extremely narrow. The tonnage of these vessels is three thousand amphoræ.The amphora, as a measure, contained eight congii, or forty-eight sextarii. In traversing their seas, the people of Taprobane take no observations of the stars, and indeed the Greater BearOr "Septentrio;" "the Seven Trions," which was more especially employed by the nations of Europe for the purposes of navigation. is not visible to them; but they carry birds out to sea, which they let go from time to time, and so follow their course as they make for the land. They devote only four months in the year to the pursuits of navigation, and are particularly careful not to trust themselves on the sea during the next hundred days after our summer solstice, for in those seas it is at that time the middle of winter.

Thus much we learn from the ancient writers; it has fallen to our lot, however, to obtain a still more accurate knowledge of these people; for during the reign of the Emperor Claudius, an embassy came from even this distant island to Rome. The circumstances under which this took place were as follow: Annius Plocamus had farmed from the treasury the revenues arising from the Red Sea. A certain freedman of his, while sailing around Arabia, was carried away by a gale from the north beyond the coast of Carmania. In the course of fifteen days he had drifted to Hippuros, a port of Taprobane, where he was most kindly and hospitably received by the king; and having, after a study of six months, become well acquainted with the language, was enabled to answer all his enquiries relative to the Romans and their emperor. But of all that he heard, the king was more particularly struck with surprise at our rigid notions of justice, on ascertaining that among the money found on the captive, the denarii were all of equal weight, although the different figures on them plainly showed that they had been struck in the reigns of several emperors. By this circumstance in especial, the king was prompted to form an alliance with the Romans, and accordingly sent to Rome an embassy, consisting of four persons, the chief of whom was Itachias.Parisot suggests that the word "Radijah," or "Rajah," denoting the rank which he held, may have been here taken by Pliny for his name.

From these persons we learned that in Taprobane there are five hundred towns, and that there is a harbour that lies facing the south, and adjoining the city of Palæsimundus,Ptolemy says that the ancient name of the island was Simundi, or Palæsimundi, but speaks of no such city as the one here mentioned, nor indeed of any other of the localities described by Pliny. the most famous city in the isle, the king's place of residence, and containing a population of two hundred thousand. They also informed us that in the interior there is a lake called Megisba, three hundred and seventy-five miles in circumference, and containing islands which are fertile, though for pasturage only. In this lake they informed us two rivers take their rise, one of which, called Palesimundus, flows into the harbournear the city of that name, by three channels, the narrowest of which is five stadia in width, the largest fifteen; while the other, Cydara by name, takes a direction northward, towards the Indian coast. We learned also that the nearest point of the Indian coast is a promontory known as Coliacum,It is difficult to say whether by this name is meant the modern Cape Comorin, or that known as Ramanan Cor, which is in reality the nearest point to the coast of Ceylon. Perhaps the latter is meant; in which case it is not improbable that the Island of the Sun will be represented by the islet called Rameserum in the maps, or else the one adjoining called Manaar. It must not be confounded with the Island of the Sun, mentioned in c. 26. See p. 60. distant from the island four days' sail, and that midway between them lies the island of the Sun. They stated also that those seas are of a deep green tint; besides which, there are numerous trees growing at the bottom, so much so, that the rudders of the vessels frequently break off portions of their foliage.It is not improbable that he alludes to coral reefs. They were much astonished at the constellations which are visible to us, the Greater Bear and the Pleiades,This assertion Gosselin would either reject as a fabulous falsehood, or as having originated in some misconception on the part of the Romans; for, as he remarks, it is quite impossible that the Pleiades should be a constellation unknown at that time to the people of Ceylon; but, on the other hand, it would be equally true that the Greater Bear was concealed from them. as though they had now beheld a new expanse of the heavens; and they declared that in their country the moon can only be seen above the horizonThis was also a fable, or else originated in misapprehension of their language on the part of the Romans. from the eighth to its sixteenth day. They also stated that Canopus, a large bright star, gives light to them by night. But what surprised them more than anything, was that the shadow of their bodies was thrown towards our hemisphereGosselin remarks that their story may have been that for about seven months in the year the shadows fell to the north, and during the remaining five to the south, which would not have been inconsistent with the truth. and not theirs, and that the sun arose on the left hand and set on the right, and not in the opposite direction.This also is classed by Gosselin under the head either of fabulous stories or misapprehensions. They also informed us that the side of their island which lies opposite to India is ten thousand stadia in length, and runs in a south-easterly direction—that beyond the Emodian Mountains they look towards"Scras—ab ipsis aspici." It is difficult to say whether this does not mean that they were in sight of the coast of the Seræ.-Under any circumstances, the Seræ here spoken of must not be taken for the Seres or supposed Chinese. Gosselin remarks that under this name the people of a district called Sera are probably referred to, and that in fact such is the name of a city and a whole province at the present day, situate on the opposite coast, beyond the mountains which terminate the plains of the Carnatic. It is equally impossible that under the name of "Emodi" Pliny can allude to the Himalaya chain, distant more than 2000 miles. The mountains, on the verge of the plains of the Carnatic, are not improbably those here referred to, and it is not impossible that they may be discerned from the shores of Ceylon. Gosselin is of opinion that the name of the ancient Seræ may still be traced in that of Seringapatam, and of the city of Seringham, situate on the river Godavery. the Serve, whose acquaintance they had also made in the pursuits of commerce; that the father of Rachias had frequently visited their country, and that the Seræ always came to meet them on their arrival. These people, they said, exceeded the ordinary human height, had flaxen hair, and blue eyes, and made an uncouth sort of noise by way of talking, having no language of their own for the pur- pose of communicating their thoughts. The rest of their informationRelative to the Seræ, or inhabitants of the opposite shores. was of a similar nature to that communicated by our merchants. It was to the effect that the merchandize on sale was left by them upon the opposite bank of a river on their coast, and it was then removed by the natives, if they thought proper to deal on terms of exchange. On no grounds ought luxury with greater reason to be detested by us, than if we only transport our thoughts to these scenes, and then reflect, what are its demands, to what distant spots it sends in order to satisfy them, and for how mean and how unworthy an end!

But yet Taprobane even, isolated as it is by nature from the rest of the world, is not exempt from our vices. Gold and silver are held in esteem even there. They have a marble which resembles tortoise-shell in appearance; this, as well as their pearls and precious stones, is highly valued; all our luxuries in fact, those even of the most exquisite nature, are there carried to the very highest pitch. They asserted that their wealth is much greater than ours, but admitted that we know better than they how to obtain real enjoyment from opulence.

In this island no slavery exists; they do not prolong their sleep to day-break, nor indeed during any part of the day; their buildings are only of a moderate height from the ground; the price of corn is always the same; they have no courts of law and no litigation. Hercules is the deity whom they worship; SABTUL and their king is chosen by the people, an aged man always, distinguished for his mild and clement disposition, and without children. If after he has been elected king, he happens to become the father of children, his abdication is the consequence; this is done that there may be no danger of the sovereign power becoming hereditary. Thirty advisers are provided for him by the people, and it is only by the advice of the majority of them that any man is condemned to capital punishment. Even then, the person so condemned has a right of appealing to the people, in which case a jury consisting of seventy persons is appointed. Should these acquit the accused, the thirty counsellors are no longer held in any estimation, but are visited with the greatest disgrace. The king wears the costume of Father Liber,Or "Bacchus." This means that he wears a long robe with a train; much like the dress, in fact, which was worn on the stage by tragic actors. while the rest of the people dress like the natives of Arabia. The king, if he is found guilty of any offence, is condemned to death; but no one slays him; all turn their backs upon him, and refuse to hold any communication or even discourse with him. Their festivals are celebrated"Festa venatione absumi, gratissimam earn tigribus elephantisque constare." Holland gives this sentence quite a different meaning, fancying that it bears reference to the mode in which the guilty king comes to his end, which, indeed, otherwise does not appear to be stated. "But to doe him to death in the end, they appoint a solemne day of hunting, right pleasant and agreable unto tigres and elephants, before which beasts they expose their king, and so he is presently by them devoured." It is difficult to say, however, where he finds all this. with the chase, the most valued sports being the pursuit of the tiger and the elephant. The lands are carefully tilled; the vine is not cultivated there, but of other fruits there is great abundance. They take great delight in fishing, and especially in catching turtles; beneath the shellsIt is much more probable that they used the shells for the purpose of making roofs for their habitations. of which whole families find an abode, of such vast size are they to be found. These people look upon a hundred years as a comparatively short life. Thus much have we learned respecting Taprobane.

We will now proceed to give some further particulars relative to the four Satrapies, of which we have postponed further mentionMentioned already, towards the conclusion of c. 23 of the present Book. See p. 51. till the present occasion.

(23). After passing the nations in the vicinity of the Indus, we come to the mountain districts. The territory of Capisene formerly had a city, called Capisa,This place was included in the district of the Paropanisus or Hindoo Koosh. It is doubtful whether Pliny is correct in saying that it was destroyed by Cyrus, as we have no reason for supposing that he ever advanced so far to the north-east. It is supposed by some that Capisene represents the valley of the Kabul river, and Capisa the town on the Indus, now known as Peshawar. Lassen, in his researches, has found in the Chinese annals a kingdom called Kiapiche, in the valley of Ghurbend, to the east of Bamian. It is not improbable that Capisa and Kiapiche were different forms of the same name. which was destroyed by Cyrus. ArachosiaSee the Notes in p. 50. has a river and a city of the same name; the city was built by Semiramis; by some writers it is called Cophen. The river ErymanthusThe principal river of Drangiana, which rises in the lower range of the Paropanisus or Hindoo Koosh, and enters Lake Zarah. Its present name is Ilmend or Helmend. Burnouf has supposed it to be the same as the Arachotus; but Professor Wilson is of opinion that the Arachotus was one of the tributaries of the Erymanthus or Erymandrus, and probably the modern Arkand-Ab. flows past Parabeste,Parisot takes the meaning of this word to be "valley," and is of opinion that it is the modern Chabul; not to be confounded, however, with the country of Cabul, to the east of which it is situate. which belongs to the Arachosii. Writers make the Dexendrusi come next, forming the boundary of the Arachotæ on the southern side, and of the Paropanisadæ on the north. The city of CartanaNow called Birusen, according to Parisot, and not the city of Cabul, as supposed by Hardouin. lies at the foot of Caucasus; in later times it has been called Tetragonis.Or the "four-cornered city." This region lies over against that of the Bactri, who come next, and whose chief city is Alexandria,This place has not been identified. It has been suggested that it is the same as the modern city of Candahar; but that was really Alexandria of the Paropanisadæ, quite a different place. so called from the name of its founder. We then come to the Syndraci,Inhabiting the district now called Arassen, according to Parisot. the DangalæInhabiting the modern Danra, according to Parisot. the Parapinæ,Inhabitants of the modern Parasan, according to Parisot. the Catuces, and the Mazi; and then at the foot of Caucasus, to the Cadrusi, whose townThe modern Candahar is generally supposed to occupy its site. was built by Alexander.

Below all these countries, is the line of coast which we come to after leaving the Indus. ArianaPliny is thought to have here confounded the extensive district of Ariana with the smaller province of Aria, which only formed a portion of it. Ariana comprehended nearly the whole of what had been previously ancient Persia is a region parched by the sun and surrounded by deserts; still, however, as the face of the country is every here and there diversified with well-shaded spots, it finds communities grouped together to cultivate it, and more especially around the two rivers, known as the TonberosThe river known in modern times as the Ilincut, according to Parisot. and the Arosapes.This is supposed by Forbiger to be the modern Arghasan, one of the tributaries of the Helmend. Parisot says that it was the same as the modern Sat. There is also the town of Artacoana,27 Supposed to be the same as the "Aria civitas," or "city of Aria" of other authors, which, however, is most probably represented by Alexandria, the modern Herat, situate on the small stream now called the Heri-Rud. At all events, Artacoana (proved by M. Court to be a word of Persian origin —Arde Koun) was, if not the same place, at a very small distance from it. M. Barbie de Bocage is of opinion that it occupied the site of Fushing, a town on the Heri river, one stage from Herat; and by M. Court it is thought to have been at Obeh, near the same place. and the river Arius,Now called the Heri-Rud, which runs to the west of Herat. which flows past Alexandria,It is said that, judging from a traditional verse still current among the people of Herat, that town is believed to unite the claims of the ancient capital built by Alexander the Great, or indeed, more properly, repaired by him, as he was but a short time in Aria. The distance also from the Caspian Gates to Alexandria favours its identification with the modern Herat. a city founded by Alexander; this place is thirty stadia in extent. Much more beautiful than it, as well as of much greater antiquity, is Artacabane,This place does not appear to have been identified. fortified a second time by Antiochus, and fifty stadia in breadth. We then come to the nation of the Dorisdorsigi, and the rivers Phar- naracotis,Ansart suggests that the river Pharnacotis is the same as the modern Ferrichround, and the Ophradus probably the Kouchround. and Ophradus; and then to Prophthasia,Ansart suggests that the modern name is Zarang. Parisot says that it is Corcharistan. a city of the Zaraspades, the Drangæ,The inhabitants of Drangiana, a district at the eastern end of the modern kingdom of Persia, and comprehending part of the present Sejestan or Seistan. the Evergetæ,They gave its name to the modern Eudras, according to Parisot. the Zarangæ, and the Gedrusi;It is doubtful whether these are the same as the Gedrosi, mentioned by Pliny in c. 23, 24. Parisot censures Hardouin for confounding them, and says that these inhabited the modern Bassar. In Dr. Smith's Dic- tionary, they are looked upon as the same people. the towns of Pucolis, Lyphorta, the desert of the Methorgi,Parisot says that this is the desert region now known as Eremaier, to the east of Mount Maugracot. the river Manais,As Parisot remarks, our author is now approaching the sea-shore; these places, however, do not appear to have been identified. the nation of the Acutri, the river Eorum, the nation of the Orbi, the Pomanus, a navigable river in the territories of the Pandares, the Apirus in the country of the Suari, with a good harbour at its mouth, the city of Condigramma, and the river Cophes;Not the same as the river Cophen or Cophes mentioned in c. 24, the modern Kabul. Hardouin takes it to be the same as the Arbis or Arabius of Ptolemy, the modern Hilmend or Ilmend. into which last flow the navigable streams of the Saddaros,Parisot seems to think that the modern names of these rivers are the Sal, the Ghir, and the Ilmentel, which, according to him, flow into the Ilmend. the Parospus, and the Sodanus. Some writers will also have it that DaritisSituate, according to Ptolemy, in the eastern parts of Media. forms part of Ariana, and give the length of them both as nineteen hundred and fifty miles, and the breadth one half of thatFor this measurement see c. 21. of India. Others again have spread the Gedrusi and the Pasires over an extent of one hundred and thirty-eight miles, and place next to them the Ichthyophagi Oritæ,Meaning the "Fish-eating Mountaineers." According to Parisot they occupied the site of the modern Dulcidan, and Goadel, which are bounded by mountains, whence the name. a people who speak a language peculiar to themselves, and not the Indian dialect, extending over a space of two hundred miles. Alexander forbade the whole of the IchthyophagiNot only the Oritæ, but all those mentioned in the following Chapter. For further particulars as to the Ichthyophagi, see B. vii. c. 2. to live any longer on fish. Next after these the writers have placed extensive deserts, and then Carmania, Persia, and Arabia.

But before we enter into any details respecting these countries, it will be as well to mention what OncsicritusSee the Notes at the end of this Book. has stated, who commanded the fleet of Alexander, and sailed from IndiaBy descending the Indus, and going up the Persian Gulf. into the heart of Persia, and what has been more recently related by Juba; after which I shall speak of the route along these seas which has been discovered in later years, and is followed at the present day. The journal of the voyage of Onesicritus and Nearchus has neither the names of the stations, nor yet the distances set down in it; and first of all, it is not sufficiently explained where Xylenepolis was, and near what river, a place founded by Alexander, and from which, upon setting out, they took their departure. Still, however, the following places are mentioned by them, which are worthy of our notice. The town of Arbis, founded by Nearchus on the occasion of this voyage; the river Nabrus,Near the mouth of the Indus, Hardouin says. navigable for vessels, and opposite to it an island, at a distance of seventy stadia; Alexandria, built by LeonnatusOne of Alexander's most distinguished officers, and a native of Pella. He commanded the division of cavalry and light-armed troops which ac- companied the fleet of Alexander down the Indus, along the right bank of the river. The Alexandria here mentioned does not appear to have been identified. It is not to be confounded with Alexandria in Arachosia, nor yet with a place of the same name in Carmania, the modern Kerman. by order of Alexander in the territories of this people; Argenus, with a very convenient harbour; the river Tonberos,A river Tomerus is spoken of by Arrian as lying between the Indus and the river Arabis or Arbis. a navigable stream, around whose banks are the Pasiræ; then come the Ichthyophagi, who extend over so large a tract of coast that it took thirty daysThey seem to have dwelt along the shores of the modern Mukran, south of Beloochistan, and probably part of Kerman. to sail past their territory; and an island known by the names of the "Island of the Sun"Called Nosala by Arrian. Ansart suggests that it is the island now known by the name of Sengadip. It lay probably off the promontory or headland of the Sun, on the eastern coast of Arabia. and the "Bed of the Nymphs," the earth of which is red, and in which every animal instantly dies; the cause of which, however, has not been ascertained.Mela suggests the reason, but gives to the island a different locality— "over against the mouth of the Indus." He says that the air of the island is of such a nature as to take away life instantaneously, and appears to imply that the heat is the cause. Next to these is the nation of the Ori, and then the Hyctanis,Possibly that now known as the Rud Shur. a river of Carmania, with an excellent harbour at its mouth, and producing gold; at this spot the writers state that for the first time they caught sight of the Great Bear.Properly the "Seven Trions." The star Arcturus too, they tell us, was not to be seen here every night, and never, when it was seen, during the whole of it. Up to this spot extended the empire of the Achæmenidæ,The Persian kings, descendants of Achæmenes. He was said to have been reared by an eagle. and in these districts are to be found mines of copper, iron, arsenic, and red lead.

They next came to the Promontory of Carmania,Called the Promontory of Harmozon by Strabo. Hardouin says that the modern name is Cape Jash, but recent writers suggest that it is represented by the modern Cape Bombaruk, nearly opposite Cape Mussendom. from which the distance across to the opposite coast, where the Macæ, a nation of Arabia, dwell, is fifty miles; and then to three islands, of which that of OraclaPerhaps the modern Kishon, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf; or that may be one of the four islands next mentioned. is alone inhabited, being the only one supplied with fresh water; it is distant from the mainland twenty-five miles; quite in the Gulf, and facing Persia, there are four other islands. About these islands sea-serpentsThe story of Pontoppidan's Kraken or Korven, the serpent of the Norwegian Seas, is as old as Pliny, we find, and he derived his information from older works. were seen swimming towards them, twenty cubits in length, which struck the fleet with great alarm. They then came to the island of Athothradus, and those called the Gauratæ, upon which dwells the nation of the Gyani; the river Hyperis,Forbiger has suggested that this may be the same as the modern Djayrah. which discharges itself midway into the Persian Gulf, and is navigable for merchant ships; the river Sitiogagus, from which to PasargadæMentioned again in c. 29 of the present Book. Its modern name is Pasa or Fasa-Kuri, according to Parisot. is seven days' sail; a navigable river known as the Phristimus, and an island without a name; and then the river Granis,Supposed to be the stream called by D'Anville and Thevenot the Boschavir, the river of Abushir or Busheer. navigable for vessels of small burden, and flowing through Susiane; the Deximontani, a people who manufacture bitumen, dwell on its right bank. The river Zarotis comes next, difficult of entrance at its mouth, except by those who are well acquainted with it; and then two small islands; after which the fleet sailed through shallows which looked very much like a marsh, but were rendered navigable by certain channels which had been cut there. They then arrived at the mouth of the Euphrates, and from thence passed into a lake which is formed by the rivers EulæusA river of ancient Susiana, the present name of which is Karun. Pliny states, in c. 31 of the present Book, that the Eulæus flowed round the citadel of Susa; he mistakes it, however, for the Coprates, or, more strictly speaking, for a small stream now called the Shapúr river, the ancient name of which has not been preserved. He is also in error, most probably, in making the river Eulæus flow through Messabatene, it being most likely the present Mah-Sabaden, in Laristan, which is drained by the Kerkbah, the ancient Choaspes, and not by the Eulæus. and Tigris, in the vicinity of Charax,Called, for the sake of distinction, Charax Spasinu, originally founded by Alexander the Great. It was afterwards destroyed by a flood, and rebuilt by Antiochus Epiphanes, under the name of Antiochia. It is mentioned in c. 31. after which they arrived at Susa,The Shushan of Scripture, now called Shu. It was the winter residence of the kings of Persia, and stood in the district Cersia of the province Susiana, on the eastern bank of the river Choaspes. The site of Sisa is now marked by extensive mounds. on the river Tigris. Here, after a voyage of three months, they found Alexander celebra- ting a festival, seven months after he had left them at Patale.The island of Patala or Patale, previously mentioned in c. 23. Such was the voyage performed by the fleet of Alexander.

In later times it has been considered a well-ascertained fact that the voyage from Syagrus,Most probably the Cape Ras-el-Bad, the most easterly peninsula of Arabia. the Promontory of Arabia, to Patale, reckoned at thirteen hundred and thirty-five miles, can be performed most advantageously with the aid of a westerly wind, which is there known by the name of Hippalus.

The age that followed pointed out a shorter route, and a safer one, to those who might happen to sail from the same promontory for Sigerus, a port of India; and for a long time this route was followed, until at last a still shorter cut was discovered by a merchant, and the thirst for gain brought India even still nearer to us. At the present day voyages are made to India every year: and companies of archers are carried on board the vessels, as those seas are greatly infested with pirates.

It will not be amiss too, on the present occasion, to set forth the whole of the route from Egypt, which has been stated to us of late, upon information on which reliance may be placed, and is here published for the first time. The subject is one well worthy of our notice, seeing that in no year does India drain our empire of less than five hundred and fifty millions35,000,000 francs, according to Ansart, which would amount to £1,400,000 of our money. of sesterces, giving back her own wares in exchange, which are sold among us at fully one hundred times their prime cost.

Two miles distant from Alexandria is the town of Juliopolis.Pliny is the only writer that mentions this place among the towns of Lower Egypt. Some suppose it to have been Nicopolis, or the City of Victory, founded by Augustus B.C. 29, partly to commemorate the reduction of Egypt to a Roman province, and partly to punish the Alexandrians for their adhesion to the cause of Antony and Cleopatra. Mannert, however, looks upon it as having been merely that suburb of Alexandria which Strabo (B. xvii.) calls Eleusis. The distance thence to Coptos, up the Nile, is three hundred and eight miles; the voyage is performed, when the Etesian winds are blowing, in twelve days. From Coptos the journey is made with the aid of camels, stations being arranged at intervals for the supply of fresh water. The first of these stations is called Hydreuma,From the Greek u(/dreuma, a "watering-place." and is distantFrom Coptos, the modern Kouft or Keft. Ptolemy Philadelphus, when he constructed the port of Berenice, erected several caravansaries or watering-places between the new city and Coptos. Coptos was greatly enriched by the commerce between Lybia and Egypt on the one hand, and Arabia and India on the other. twenty-two miles; the second is situate on a mountain, at a distance of one day's journey from the last; the third is at a second Hydreuma, distant from Coptos ninety-five miles; the fourth is on a mountain; the next to that is at another Hydreuma, that of Apollo, and is distant from Coptos one hundred and eighty-four miles; after which, there is another on a mountain. There is then another station at a place called the New Hydreuma, distant from Coptos two hundred and thirty miles: and next to it there is another, called the Old Hydreuma, or the Troglodytic, where a detachment is always on guard, with a caravansary that affords lodging for two thousand persons. This last is distant from the New Hydreuma seven miles. After leaving it we come to the city of Berenice,Belzoni found traces of several of the stations here mentioned. The site of Berenice, as ascertained by Moresby and Carless, 1830–3, was nearly at the bottom of the inlet known as the Sinus Immundus, or Foul Bay. Its ruins still exist. situate upon a harbour of the Red Sea, and distant from Coptos two hundred and fifty-seven miles. The greater part of this distance is generally travelled by night, on account of the extreme heat, the day being spent at the stations; in consequence of which it takes twelve days to perform the whole journey from Coptos to Berenice.

Passengers generally set sail at midsummer, before the rising of the Dog-star, or else immediately after, and in about thirty days arrive at OcelisNow called Gehla, a harbour and emporium at the south-western point of Arabia Felix. in Arabia, or else at Cane,An emporium or promontory on the southern coast of Arabia, in the country of the Adramitæ, and, as Arrian says, the chief port of the increase-bearing country. It has been identified by D'Anville with Cava Canim Bay, near a mountain called Hissan Ghorab, at the base of which there are ruins to be seen. in the region which bears frankincense. There is also a third port of Arabia, MuzaProbably the modern Mosch, north of Mokha, near the southern extremity of Arabia Felix. by name; it is not, however, used by persons on their passage to India, as only those touch at it who deal in incense and the perfumes of Arabia. More in the interior there is a city; the residence of the king there is called Sapphar,Its ruins are now known as Dhafar. It was one of the chief cities of Arabia, standing near the southern coast of Arabia Felix, opposite the modern Cape Guardafui. and there is another city known by the name of Save. To those who are bound for India, Ocelis is the best place for embareation. If the wind, called Hippalus,Or Favonius, the west wind, previously mentioned in the present Chapter. happens to be blowing, it is possible to arrive in forty days at the nearest mart of India, MuzirisThe modern Mangalore, according to Du Bocage. by name. This, however, is not a very desirable place for disembarcation, on account of the pirates which frequent its vicinity, where they occupy a place called Nitrias; nor, in fact, is it very rich in articles of merchandize. Besides, the road-stead for shipping is a considerable distance from the shore, and the cargoes have to be conveyed in boats, either for loading or discharging. At the moment that I am writing these pages, the name of the king of this place is Cælobothras. Another port, and a much more convenient one, is that which lies in the territory of the people called Neacyndi, Barace by name. Here king Pandion used to reign, dwelling at a considerable distance from the mart in the interior, at a city known as Modiera. The district from which pepper is carried down to Barace in boats hollowed out of a single tree,Or canoes. is known as Cottonara.The Cottiara of Ptolemy, who makes it the chief city of the Æi, a tribe who occupied the lower part of the peninsula of Hindostan. It has been supposed to be represented by the modern Calicut or Travancore. Cochin, however, appears to be the most likely. None of these names of nations, ports, and cities are to be found in any of the former writers, from which circumstance it would appear that the localities have since changed their names. Travellers set sail from India on their return to Europe, at the beginning of the Egyptian month Tybis, which is our December, or at all events before the sixth day of the Egyptian month Mechir, the same asMarcus observes that we may conclude that either Pliny or the author from whom he transcribed, wrote this between the years of the Christian era 48 and 51; for that the coincidence of the 6th of the month Mechir with the Ides of January, could not have taken place in any other year than those on which the first day of Thoth or the beginning of the year fell on the 11th of August, which happened in the years 48, 49, 50, and 51 of the Christian era. our ides of January: if they do this, they can go and return in the same year. They set sail from India with a south-east wind, and upon entering the Red Sea, catch the south-west or south. We will now return to our main subject.

Nearchus states in his writings that the coast of CarmaniaAn extensive province of Asia, along the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, supposed to have comprehended the coast-line of the modern Laristan, Kirman, and Moghostan. extends a distance of twelve hundred and fifty miles. From its frontier to the river SabisPtolemy mentions an inland town of Carmania of the same name. is one hundred miles. At this spot begins the cultivation of the vine; which with the tillage of the fields, extends as far as the river Ananis,Supposed to be that known now as the Ibrahim Rud, which falls into the Persian Gulf. a distance of twenty-five miles. This region is known by the name of Armuzia. The cities of Carmania are Zetis and Alexandria.These sites are unknown.

The sea then makes a two-fold indentationsForms two bays or gulfs in succession. in the land upon these coasts, under the name of RubrumHe gives this name to the whole expanse of sea that lies between Arabia and Africa on the west, and India on the east, including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. or "Red," given to it by our countrymen; while the Greeks have called it Erythrum, from king Erythras,Or Erythrus. In all probability entirely a mythical personage. The sea having been called in Greek e)ruqrai=a, or "red"—the legend most probably thence took its rise. No very satisfactory reason has vet been given for its being so called. The Hebrew name of it signifies the "Sedgy Sea." or, according to some writers, from its red colour, which they think is produced by the reflection of the sun's rays; others again are of opinion that it arises from the sand and the complexion of the soil, others from some peculiarity in the nature of the water. (24.) Be this as it may, this body of water is divided into two gulfs. The one which lies to the east is called the Persian Gulf, and is two thousand five hundred miles in circumference, according to Eratosthenes. Opposite to it lies Arabia, the length of which is fifteen hundred miles. On the other side again, Arabia is bounded by the Arabian Gulf. The sea as it enters this gulf is called the AzanianFrom Azania in Æthiopia, mentioned again in c. 34 of the present Book. Sea. The Persian Gulf, at the entrance, is only fiveThe maps appear to make it considerably more. miles wide; some writers make it four. From the entrance to the very bottom of the gulf, in a straight line, has been ascertained to be nearly eleven hundred and twenty-five miles: in outline it strongly resemblesThe only feature of resemblance appears to be its comparative narrowness at the neck. the human head. Onesicritus and Nearchus have stated in their works that from the river Indus to the Persian Gulf, and from thence to Babylon, situate in the marshes of the Euphrates, is a distance of seventeen hundred miles.

In the angle of Carmania are the Chelonophagi,Or "turtle-eaters." who cover their cabins with the shells of turtles, and live upon their flesh; these people inhabit the next promontory that is seen after leaving the river Arbis;Different probably from the Cophis mentioned in c. 25, which was also called Arabius or Arbis, and probably represented by the modern Purali. with the exception of the head, they are covered all over with long hair, and are clothed in the skins of fishes.

(25.) Beyond their district, in the direction of India, is said to be the desert island of Caicandrus, fifty miles out at sea; near to which, with a strait flowing between them, is Stoidis, celebrated for its valuable pearls. After passing the promontoryOf Harmozon, probably the modern Bombareek. are the Armozei,Their district is supposed to denote the vicinity of the modern Ormuz, an island off this coast, which is now known as Moghostan. joining up to the Carmani; some writers, however, place between them the Arbii,Taking their name probably from the river Arbis, previously men- tioned. extending along the shore a distance of four hundred and twenty-one miles. Here is a place called Portus Macedonum,The "Port of the Macedonians." and the Altars of Alexander, situate on a promontory, besides the rivers Saganos, Daras, and Salsa. Beyond the last river we come to the promontory of Themisteas, and the island of Aphrodisias, which is peopled. Here Persis begins, at the river Oratis,Now the Tab, falling into the Persian Gulf. which separates it from Elymais.A district of Susiana, extending from the river Euleus on the west, to the Oratis on the east, deriving its name perhaps from the Elymæi, or Elymi, a warlike people found in the mountains of Greater Media. In the Old Testament this country is called Elam. Opposite to the coast of Persis, are the islands of Psilos, Cassandra, and Aracia, the last sacred to Neptune,Ptolemy says that this last bore the name of "Alexander's Island." and containing a mountain of great height. PersisPersis was more properly a portion only or province of the ancient kingdom of Persia. It gave name to the extensive Medo-Persian kingdom under Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire, B.C. B.C. 559. itself, looking towards the west, has a line of coast five hundred and fifty miles in length; it is a country opulent even to luxury, but has long since changed its name for that of "Parthia."The Parthi originally inhabited the country south-east of the Caspian, now Khorassan. Under Arsaces and his descendants, Persis and the other provinces of ancient Persia became absorbed in the great Parthian empire. Parthia, with the Chorasmii, Sogdii, and Arii, formed the sixteenth satrapy under the Persian empire. See c. 16 of this Book. I shall now devote a few words to the Parthian empire.

The kingdomsThe provinces of Parthia have been already mentioned in detail in the preceding Chapters, except Susiana and Elymais, which are mentioned in c. 31. of Parthia are eighteen in all: such being the divisions of its provinces, which lie, as we have already stated, along the Red Sea to the south, and the Hyrcanian to the north. Of this number the eleven, called the Higher provinces, begin at the frontiers of Armenia and the shores of the Caspian, and extend to the Scythians, whose mode of life is similar in every respect. The other seven kingdoms of Parthia bear the name of the Lower provinces. As to the Parthi themselves, ParthiaThe original Parthia, the modern Khorassan. always lay at the foot of the mountainsThe so-called Caucasian chain. See c. 16 of the present Book. so often mentioned, which overhang all these nations. On the east it is bounded by the Arii, on the south by Carmania and the Ariani, on the west by the Pratitæ, a people of the Medi, and on the north by the Hyrcani: it is surrounded by deserts on every side. The more distant of the Parthi are called Nomades;Or "Wandering Parthians," lying far to the east. on this side of them there are deserts. On the west are the cities of Issatis and Calliope, already mentioned,In c. 17 of the present Book. on the north-east Europus,Not to be confounded with the place in Atropatene, mentioned in c. 21 of the present Book. on the south-east Maria; in the middle there are Hecatompylos,It has been supposed that the modern Damgham corresponds with this place, but that is too near the Portæ Caspie. It is considered most probable that the remains of Hecatompylos ought to be sought in the neighbourhood of a place now known as Jah Jirm. It is mentioned in c. 17 and 21 of the present Book. Arsace, and Nisiæa, a fine district of Parthiene, in which is Alexandropolis, so called from its founder. (26.) It is requisite in this place to trace the localities of the Medi also, and to describe in succession the features of the country as far as the Persian Sea, in order that the account which follows may be the better understood. MediaMedia occupied the extreme west of the great table-land of the modern Iran. It corresponded very nearly to the modern province of Irak-Ajemi. lies crosswise to the west, and so presenting itself obliquely to Parthia, closes the entrance of both kingdomsThe Upper and the Lower, as already mentioned. into which it is divided. It has, then, on the east, the Caspii and the Parthi; on the south, Sittacene, Susiane, and Persis; on the west, Adsiabene; and on the north, Armenia. The Persæ have always inhabited the shores of the Red Sea, for which reason it has received the name of the Persian Gulf. This maritime region of Persis has the name of Ciribo;Hardouin suggests that this should be Syrtibolos. His reasons for so thinking will be found alluded to in a note to c. 31. See p. 80, Note 98. on the side on which it runs up to that of the Medi, there is a place known by the name of Climax Megale,Or the "Great Ladder." The Baron de Bode states, in his Travels in Luristan and Arabistan, that he discovered the remains of a gigantic causeway, in which he had no difficulty in recognizing one of the most ancient and most mysterious monuments of the East. This causeway, which at the present day bears the name of Jaddehi-Atabeg, or the "road of the Atabegs," was looked upon by several historians as one of the wonders of the world, who gave it the name of the Climax Megale or "Great Ladder." At the time even of Alexander the Great the name of its con- structor was unknown. where the mountains are ascended by a steep flight of stairs, and so afford a narrow passage which leads to Persepolis,Which was rebuilt after it was burnt by Alexander, and in the middle ages had the name of Istakhar; it is now called Takhti Jemsheed, the throne of Jemsheed, or Chil-Minar, the Forty Pillars. Its foundation is sometimes ascribed to Cyrus the Great, but more generally to his son, Cambyses. The ruins of this place are very extensive. the former capital of the kingdom, destroyed by Alexander. It has also, at its extreme frontier, Laodicea,Its site is unknown; but Dupinet translates it the "city of Lor." founded by Antiochus. To the east of this place is the fortress of Passagarda,The older of the two capitals of Persia, Persepolis being the later one. It was said to have been founded by Cyrus the Great, on the spot where he gained his victory over Astyages. Its exact site is doubtful, but most modern geographers identify it with Murghab, to the north-east of Persepolis, where there are the remains of a great sepulchral monument of the ancient Persians, probably the tomb of Cyrus. Others place it at Farsa or at Dorab-Gherd, both to the south-east of Persepolis, the direction mentioned by Strabo, but not in other respects answering his description so well as Murghab. held by the Magi, at which spot is the tomb of Cyrus; also Ecbatana,It is most probable that he does not allude here to the Ecbatana, mentioned in c. 17 of this Book. a city of theirs, the inhabitants of which were removed by Darius to the mountains. Between the Parthi and the Ariani projects the territory of the Parætaceni.There were several mountainous districts called Parætacene in the Persian empire, that being the Greek form of a Persian word signifying "mountainous." By these nations and the river Euphrates are the Lower kingdoms of Parthia bounded; of the others we shall speak after Mesopotamia, which we shall now describe, with the exception of that angle of it and the peoples of Arabia, which have been already mentioned in a former book.In B. v. c. 21. He returns to the description of Susiana, Elymais, and Characene in c. 31 of the present Book.

The whole of Mesopotamia formerly belonged to the Assyrians, being covered with nothing but villages, with the exception of BabyloniaThe great seat of empire of the Babylonio-Chaldæan kingdom. It either occupied the site, it is supposed, or stood in the immediate vicinity of the tower of Babel. In the reign of Labynedus, Nabonnetus, or Bel- shazzar, it was taken by Cyrus. In the reign of Augustus, a small part only of Babylon was still inhabited, the remainder of the space within the walls being under cultivation. The ruins of Babylon are found to commence a little south of the village of Mohawill, eight miles north of Hillah. and Ninus.Nineveh. See c. 16 of the present Book. The Macedonians formed these communities into cities, being prompted thereto by the extraordinary fertility of the soil. Besides the cities already mentioned, it contains those of Seleucia,On the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma; a fortress of considerable importance. Laodicea,Its site is unknown. Dupinet confounds it with the place of this name mentioned in the last Chapter, calling them by the name of Lor. Artemita;Pliny is wrong in placing Artemita in Mesopotamia. It was a city of Babylonia, in the district of Apolloniatis. The modern Sherbán is supposed to occupy its site. and in Arabia, the peoples known as the OreiBurnouf, having found the name of these people, as he supposes, in a cuneiform inscription, written "Ayura," would have them to be called Aroei. The Orei are also mentioned in B. v. c. 20. and the Mardani, besides Antiochia,This Antioch does not appear to have been identified. founded by Nicanor, the governor of Mesopotamia, and called Arabis. Joining up to these in the interior is an Arabian people, called the Eldamani, and above them, upon the river Pallaconta, the town of Bura, and the Arabian peoples known as the Salmani and the Masei. Up to the GordyæiThe mountains of the Gordyæi are mentioned in c. 12. join the Aloni, through whose territory runs the river Zerbis, which falls into the Tigris; next are the Azones, the Silici, a mountain tribe, and the Orontes, to the west of whom lies the town of Gaugamela,This, as previously mentioned in a Note to c. 16, was the scene of the last great battle between Alexander and Darius, and known as the battle of Arbela. It has been suggested that it may perhaps be represented by a place now called Karnelis. See p. 27. as also Suë, situate upon the rocks. Beyond these are the Silici, surnamed Classitæ, through whose district runs the river Lycus on its passage from Armenia, the AbsithrisAccording to Ansart, now called the Lesser Zab, and by the inhabitants the Altun-su, meaning the "Golden river." running south-east, the town of Accobis, and then in the plains the towns of Diospage, Polytelia,According to Parisot, the modern name is Calicala. Stratonice, and Anthermis.Strabo speaks of the Aborras, or modern Khabur, as flowing in the vicinity of Anthemusia, the district probably in which the town of Anthermis was situate. According to Isidorus of Charax, it lay between Edessa and the Euphrates. Its site does not appear to have been any further identified. It is called Anthemusia in B. v. c. 21. In the vicinity of the Euphrates is Nicephorion, of which we haveIn B. v. c. 21. already stated that Alexander, struck with the favourable situation of the spot, ordered it to be built. We have also similarly made mentionIn B. v. c. 21. of Apamea on the Zeugma. Leaving that city and going eastward, we come to Caphrena, a fortified town, formerly seventy stadia in extent, and called the "Court of the Satraps." It was to this place that the tribute was conveyed; now it is reduced to a mere fortress. Thæbata is still in the same state as formerly: after which comes Oruros, which under Pompeius Magnus formed the extreme limit of the Roman Empire, distant from Zeugma two hundred and fifty miles. There are writers who say that the Euphrates was drawn off by an artificial channel by the governor Gobares, at the point where we have statedIn B. v. c. 21. that it branches off,This canal, leading from the Euphrates to the Tigris, is by some thought, according to Hardouin, to have been the river Chobar, mentioned in Ezekiel, c. i. v. 3. in order that it might not commit damage in the city of Babylonia, in consequence of the extreme rapidity of its course. The Assyrians universally call this river by the name of Narmalcha,For Arar-Melik, meaning the "River King," according to Parisot. which signifies the "royal river." At the point where its waters divide, there was in former times a very large city, called Agranis, which the Persæ have de- stroyed.

Babylon, the capital of the nations of Chaldæa, long enjoyed the greatest celebrity of all cities throughout the whole world: and it is from this place that the remaining parts of Mesopotamia and Assyria received the name of Babylonia. The circuit of its walls, which were two hundred feet in height, was sixty miles. These walls were also fifty feet in breadth, reckoning to every foot three fingers' breadth beyond the ordinary measure of our foot. The river Euphrates flowed through the city, with quays of marvellous workmanship erected on either side. The temple thereAs to the identity of this, see a Note at the beginning of this Chapter. of Jupiter BelusMeaning Jupiter Uranius, or "Heavenly Jupiter," according to Parisot, who observes that Eusebius interprets baal, or bel, "heaven." According to one account, he was the father of king Ninus and son of Nimrod. The Greeks in later times attached to his name many of their legendary fables. is still in existence; he was the first inventor of the science of Astronomy. In all other respects it has been reduced to a desert, having been drained of its population in consequence of its vicinity to Seleucia,The city of Seleucia ad Tigrin, long the capital of Western Asia, until it was eclipsed by Ctesiphon. Its site has been a matter of considerable discussion, but the most probable opinion is, that it stood on the western bank of the Tigris, to the north of its junction with the royal canal (probably the river Chobar above mentioned), opposite to the mouth of the river Delas or Silla (now Diala), and to the spot where Ctesiphon was afterwards built by the Parthians. It stood a little to the south of the modern city of Baghdad; thus commanding the navigation of the Tigris and Euphrates, and the whole plain formed by those two rivers. founded for that purpose by Nicator, at a distance of ninety miles, on the confluence of the Tigris and the canal that leads from the Euphrates. Seleucia, however, still bears the surname of Babylonia: it is a free and independent city, and retains the features of the Macedonian manners. It is said that the population of this city amounts to six hundred thousand, and that the outline of its walls resembles an eagle with expanded wings: its territory, they say, is the most fertile in all the East. The Parthi again, in its turn, founded Ctesiphon,Ammianus, like Pliny, has ascribed its foundation to the Parthians under Varanes, or Vardanes, of whom, however, nothing is known. It stood in the south of Assyria, on the eastern or left bank of the Tigris. Strabo speaks of it as being the winter residence of the Parthian kings, who lived there at that season, owing to the mildness of the climate. In modern times the site of this place has been identified with that called by the Arabs Al Madain, or the "two cities." for the purpose of drawing away the population of Seleucia, at a distance of nearly three miles, and in the district of Chalonitis; Ctesiphon is now the capital of all the Parthian kingdoms. Finding, however, that this city did not answer the intended purpose, king VologesusOr Vologeses. This was the name of five kings of Parthia, of the race of the Arsacidæ, Arsaces xxiii., xxvii., xxviii., xxix., xxx. It was the first of these monarchs who founded the place here mentioned by Pliny. has of late years founded another city in its vicinity, VologesocertaOr the "City of Vologesus;" certa being the Armenian for "city." by name. Besides the above, there are still the following towns in Mesopotamia: Hipparenum,Nothing appears to be known of this place; but Hardouin thinks that it is the same with one called Maarsares by Ptolemy, and situate on the same river Narraga. rendered famous, like Babylon, by the learning of the Chaldæi, and situate near the river Narraga,Parisot says that this river is the one set down in the maps as falling into the Tigris below its junction with the Euphrates, and near the mouths of the two rivers. He says that near the banks of it is marked the town of Nabrahan, the Narraga of Pliny. which falls into the Narroga, from which a city so called has taken its name. The Persæ destroyed the walls of Hipparenum. Orchenus also, a third place of learning of the Chaldæi, is situate in the same district, towards the south; after which come the Notitæ, the Orothophanitæ, and the Grecichartæ.There is great doubt as to the correct spelling of these names. From Nearchus and Onesicritus we learn that the distance by water from the Persian Sea to Babylon, up the Euphrates, is four hundred and twelve miles; other authors, however, who have written since their time, say that the distance to Seleucia is four hundred and forty miles: and Juba says that the distance from Babylon to Charax is one hundred and seventy-five. Some writers state that the Euphrates continues to flow with an undivided channel for a distance of eighty-seven miles beyond Babylon, before its waters are diverted from their channel for the purposes of irrigation; and that the whole length of its course is not less than twelve hundred miles. The circumstance that so many different authors have treated of this subject, accounts for all these variations, seeing that even the Persian writers themselves do not agree as to what is the length of their schœni and para- sangœ, each assigning to them a different length.

When the Euphrates ceases, by running in its channel, to afford protectionsAgainst the attacks of robbers dwelling on the opposite side; the Attali, for instance. to those who dwell on its banks, which it does when it approaches the confines of Charax, the country is immediately infested by the Attali, a predatory people of Arabia, beyond whom are found the Scenite.Or "dwellers in tents," Bedouins, as we call them. The banks along this river are occupied by the Nomades of Arabia, as far as the deserts of Syria, from which, as we have already stated,B. v. c. 20 and 21 it takes a turn to the south,Towards Mahamedieh. and leaves the solitary deserts of Palmyra. Seleucia is distant, by way of the Euphrates, from the beginning of Mesopotamia, eleven hundred and twenty- five; from the Red Sea, by way of the Tigris, two hundred and twenty; and from Zeugma, seven hundred and twenty-three, miles. Zeugma is distant from SeleuciaNear Antioch and the Orontes: now Seleukeh, or Kepse, near Suadeiah. in Syria, on the shores of our sea, one hundred and seventy-fiveSee B. v. c. 13. miles. Such is the extent of the land that lies in these parts between the two seas.The Mediterranean and the Red Sea; the latter including the modern Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The length of the kingdom of Parthia is nine hundred and eighteen miles.

There is, besides the above, another town in Mesopotamia, on the banks of the Tigris and near its confluence with the Euphrates, the name of which is Digba.Forbiger is of opinion that this is the same as the Didigua or Didugua of Ptolemy. It was situate below Alpamea. D'Anville takes it to be the modern Corna. (27.) But it will be as well now to give some particulars respecting the Tigris itself. This river rises in the region of Greater Armenia,The modern Turcomania. from a very remarkable source, situate on a plain. The name of the spot is Elegosine,Now known as the Plain of Chelat, according to Parisot, extending between Chelat, a city situate on a great lake and the river Rosso, falling into the Caspian Sea. and the stream, as soon as it begins to flow, though with a slow current, has the name of Diglito.Called Diglith by Josephus. Hardouin states that in his time the name given to the river by the natives was Daghela. This name is also supposed to be another form of the Hiddekel of Scripture. See Genesis ii. 14. When its course becomes more rapid, it assumes the name of Tigris,According to Bochart, this was a corruption of the Eastern name Deghel, from which were derived the forms Deger, Teger, and ultimately Tigris. given to it on account of its swiftness, that word signifying an arrow in the Median language. It then flows into Lake Arethusa,Ritter has identified this with the modern lake Nazuk, in Armenia, about thirteen miles in length and five in breadth. The water at the present day is said to be sweet and wholesome. the waters of which are able to support all weighty substances thrown into them, and exhale nitrous vapours. This lake produces only one kind of fish, which, however, never enter the current of the river in its passage through the lake: and in a similar manner, the fish of the Tigris will never swim out of its stream into the waters of the lake. Distinguishable from the lake, both by the rapidity and the colour of its waters, the tide of the river is hurried along; after it has passed through and arrived at Mount Taurus, it disappearsSeneca, however, in his Quæst. Nat. B. vi., represents the Tigris here as gradually drying up and becoming gradually smaller, till it disappears. in a cavern of that mountain, and passing beneath it, bursts forth on the other side; the spot bears the name of Zoroande.This spot is considered by Parisot to be the modern city of Betlis. That the waters on either side of the mountain are the same, is evident from the fact, that bodies thrown in on the one side will reappear on the other. It then passes through another lake, called Thospites, and once more burying itself in the earth, reappears, after running a distance of twenty-two miles, in the vicinity of Nymphæum.A spot where liquid bitumen or naphtha was found. Claudius Cæsar informs us that, in the district of ArreneOr probably Arzarene, a province of the south of Armenia, situate on the left bank of the Tigris. It derived its name from the lake Arsene, or the town Arzen, situate on this lake. It is comprehended in the modern Pashalik of Dyár Bekr. it flows so near to the river Arsanias,Now called the Myrád-chaï. See B. v. c. 24. Ritter considers it to be the southern arm of the Euphrates. that when their waters swell they meet and flow together, but without, however, intermingling. For those of the Arsani, as he says, being lighter, float on the surface of the Tigris for a distance of nearly four miles, after which they separate, and the Arsanias flows into the Euphrates. The Tigris, after flowing through Armenia and receiving the well-known rivers Parthenias and Nicephorion, separates the Arabian OreiOr Aroei, as Littré suggests. See Note to c. 30 in p. 71. from the Adiabeni, and then forms by its course, as previously mentioned, the country of Mesopotamia. After traversing the mountains of the Gordyæi,See c. 17 of the present Book. it passes round Apamea,The site of this place seems to be unknown. It has been remarked that it is difficult to explain the meaning of this passage of Pliny, or to determine the probable site of Apamea. a town of Mesene, one hundred and twenty-five miles on this side of Babylonian Seleucia, and then divides into two channels, oneHardouin remarks that this is the right arm of the Tigris, by Stephanus Byzantinus called Delas, and by Eustathius Sylax, which last he prefers. of which runs southward, and flowing through Mesene, runs towards Seleucia, while the other takes a turn to the north and passes through the plains of the Cauchæ,According to Ammianus, one of the names of Seleucia on the Tigris was Coche. at the back of the district of Mesene. When the waters have reunited, the river assumes the name of Pasitigris. After this, it receives the Choaspes,A river of Susiana, which, after passing Susa, flowed into the Tigris, below its junction with the Euphrates. The indistinctness of the ancient accounts has caused it to be confused with the Eulæus, which flows nearly parallel with it into the Tigris. It is pretty clear that they were not identical. Pliny here states that they were different rivers, but makes the mistake below, of saying that Susa was situate upon the Eulæus, instead of the Choaspes. These errors may be accounted for, it has been suggested, by the fact that there are two considerable rivers which unite at Bund-i- Kir, a little above Ahwaz, and form the ancient Pasitigris or modern Karun. It is supposed that the Karun represents the ancient Eulæus, and the Kerkhah the Choaspes. which comes from Media; and then, as we have already stated,In c. 26 of the present Book. The custom of the Persian kings drinking only of the waters of the Eulæus and Choaspes, is mentioned in B. xxxi. c. 21. flowing between Seleucia and Ctesiphon, discharges itself into the Chaldæan Lakes, which it supplies for a distance of seventy miles. Escaping from them by a vast channel, it passes the city of Charax to the right, and empties itself into the Persian Sea, being ten miles in width at the mouth. Between the mouths of the two rivers Tigris and the Euphrates, the distance was formerly twenty-five, or, according to some writers, seven miles only, both of them being navigable to the sea. But the Orcheni and others who dwell on its banks, have long since dammed up the waters of the Euphrates for the purposes of irrigation, and it can only discharge itself into the sea by the aid of the Tigris.

The country on the banks of the Tigris is called Parapotamia;Or the country "by the river." we have already made mention of Mesene, one of its districts. DabithacPliny is the only writer who makes mention of this place. Parisot is of opinion that it is represented by the modern Digil-Ab, on the Tigris, and suggests that Digilath may be the correct reading. is a town there, adjoining to which is the district of Chalonitis, with the city of Ctesiphon,Mentioned in the last Chapter. famous, not only for its palm-groves, but for its olives, fruits, and other shrubs. Mount ZagrusNow called the Mountains of Luristan. reaches as far as this district, and extends from Armenia between the Medi and the Adiabeni, above Parætacene and Persis. ChalonitisThe name of the district of Chalonitis is supposed to be still preserved in that of the river of Holwan. Pliny is thought, however, to have been mistaken in placing the district on the river Tigris, as it lay to the east of it, and close to the mountains. is distant from Persis three hundred and eighty miles; some writers say that by the shortest route it is the same distance from Assyria and the Caspian Sea.

Between these peoples and Mesene is Sittacene, which is also called ArbelitisFrom Arbela, in Assyria, which bordered on it. and Palæstine. Its city of SittaceA great and populous city of Babylonia, near the Tigris, but not on it, and eight parasangs within the Median wall. The site is that probably now called Eski Baghdad, and marked by a ruin called the Tower of Nimrod. Parisot cautions against confounding it with a place of a similar name, mentioned by Pliny in B. xii. c. 17, a mistake into which, he says, Hardouin has fallen. is of Greek origin; this and SabdataNow called Felongia, according to Parisot. Hardouin considers it the same as the Sambana of Diodorus Siculus, which Parisot looks upon as the same as Ambar, to the north of Felongia. lie to the east, and on the west is Antiochia,Of this Antiochia nothing appears to be known. By some it has been supposed to be the same with Apollonia, the chief town of the district of Apolloniatis, to the south of the district of Arbela. between the two rivers Tigris and Tornadotus,Also called the Physcus, the modern Ordoneh, an eastern tributary of the Tigris in Lower Assyria. The town of Opis stood at its junction with the Tigris. as also Apamea,D'Anville supposes that this Apamea was at the point where the Dijeil, now dry, branched off from the Tigris, which bifurcation he places near Samurrah. Lynch, however, has shown that the Dijeil branched off near Jibbarah, a little north of 34° North lat., and thinks that the Dijeil once swept the end of the Median wall, and flowed between it and Jebbarah. Possibly this is the Apamea mentioned by Pliny in c. 27. to which AntiochusThe son of Seleucus Nicator. gave this name, being that of his mother. The Tigris surrounds this city, which is also traversed by the waters of the Archoüs.

BelowMore to the south, and nearer the sea. this district is Susiane, in which is the city of Susa,Previously mentioned in c. 26. the ancient residence of the kings of Persia, built by Darius, the son of Hystaspes; it is distant from Seleucia Babylonia four hundred and fifty miles, and the same from Ecbatana of the Medi, by way of Mount Carbantus.A part of Mount Zagrus, previously mentioned, according to Hardouin. Upon the northern channel of the river Tigris is the town of Babytace,Its site appears to be unknown. According to Stephanus, it was a city of Persia. Forbiger conjectures that it is the same place as Badaca, mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, B. xix. c. 19; but that was probably nearer to Susa. distant from Susa one hundred and thirty-five miles. Here, for the only place in all the world, is gold held in abhorrence; the people collect it together and bury it in the earth, that it may be of use to no one.The buryer excepted, perhaps. On the east of Susiane are the Oxii, a predatory people, and forty independent savage tribes of the Mizæi. Above these are the Mardi and the Saitæ, subject to Parthia: they extend above the district of Elymais, which we have already mentionedIn c. 28 of the present Book. as joining up to the coast of Persis. Susa is distant two hundred and fifty miles from the Persian Sea. Near the spot where the fleet of Alexander came upAs mentioned in c. 26 of the present Book, the Pasitigris to Susa, there is a village situate on the Chaldæan Lake, Aple by name, from which to Susa is a distance of sixty miles and a half. Adjoining to the people of Susiane, on the east, are the Cossiei;A warlike tribe on the borders of Susiana and the Greater Media. In character they are thought to have resembled the Bakhtiara tribes, who now roam over the mountains which they formerly inhabited. It has been suggested that their name may possibly be connected with the modern Khuzistan. and above them, to the north, is Mesabatene, lying at the foot of Mount Cambalidus,Supposed to be the same as the modern Kirmánshah mountains. a branch of the Caucasian chain: from this point the country of the Bactri is most accessible.

Susiane is separated from Elymais by the river Eulæus, which rises in Media, and, after concealing itself in the earth for a short distance, rises again and flows through Mesabatene. It then flows round the citadel of SusaAs mentioned in a previous Note, (67 in p. 77), Pliny mistakes the Eulæus for the Choaspes. In c. 26 he says that Susa is on the river Tigris. and the temple of Diana, which is held in the highest veneration by all these nations; the river itself being the object of many pompous ceremonials; the kings, indeed, will drink of no other water,Pliny says this in B. xxxi. c. 21 of both the Eulæus and the Choaspes. and for that reason carry it with them on their journies to any considerable distance. This river receives the waters of the Hedypnos,Most probably the Hedyphon of Strabo, supposed to be the same as that now called the Djerrabi. which passes Asylus, in Persis, and those of the Aduna, which rises in Susiane. MagoaParisot thinks that this is the modern Jessed, in the vicinity of the desert of Bealbanet. is a town situate near it, and distant from Charax fifteen miles; some writers place this town at the very extremity of Susiane, and close to the deserts.

Below the Eulæus is Elymais,Previously mentioned in c. 28. upon the coast adjoining to Persis, and extending from the river OratesThe modern Tab. to Charax, a distance of two hundred and forty miles. Its towns are SeleuciaNow called Camata, according to Parisot. and Socrate,The modern Saurac, according to Parisot. The more general reading is "Sosirate." upon Mount Casyrus. The shore which lies in front of this district is, as we have already stated, rendered inaccessible by mud,Our author has nowhere made any such statement as this, for which reason Hardouin thinks that he here refers to the maritime region mentioned in c. 29 of the present Book (p. 69), the name of which Sillig reads as Ciribo. Hardouin would read it as Syrtibolos, and would give it the meaning of the "muddy district of the Syrtes." It is more likely, however, that Pliny has made a slip, and refers to something which, by inadvertence, he has omitted to mention. the rivers Brixa and Ortacea bringing down vast quantities of slime from the interior,—Elymais itself being so marshy that it is impossible to reach Persis that way, unless by going completely round: it is also greatly infested with serpents, which are brought down by the waters of these rivers. That part of it which is the most inaccessible of all, bears the name of Characene, from Charax,Charax Spasinu, or Pasinu, previously mentioned in c. 26 (see p. 62). The name Charax applied to a town, seems to have meant a fortified place. the frontier city of the kingdoms of Arabia. Of this place we will now make mention, after first stating the opinions of M. Agrippa in relation to this subject. That author informs us that Media, Parthia, and Persis, are bounded on the east by the Indus, on the west by the Tigris, on the north by Taurus and Caucasus, and on the south by the Red Sea; that the length of these countries is thirteen hundred and twenty miles, and the breadth eight hundred and forty; and that, in addition to these, there is Mesopotamia, which, taken by itself, is bounded on the east by the Tigris, on the west by the Euphrates, on the north by the chain of Taurus, and on the south by the Persian Sea, being eight hundred miles in length, and three hundred and sixty in breadth.

Charax is a city situate at the furthest extremity of the Arabian Gulf, at which begins the more prominent portion of Arabia Felix:Called "Eudemon" by Pliny. it is built on an artificial elevation, having the Tigris on the right, and the Eulæus on the left, and lies on a piece of ground three miles in extent, just between the confluence of those streams. It was first founded by Alexander the Great, with colonists from the royal city of Durine, which was then destroyed, and such of his soldiers as were invalided and left behind. By his order it was to be called Alexandria, and a borough called Pella, from his native place, was to be peopled solely by Macedonians; the city, however, was destroyed by inundations of the rivers. Antiochus,The Great, the father of Antiochus Epiphanes. the fifth king of Syria, afterwards rebuilt this place and called it by his own name; and on its being again destroyed, Pasines, the son of Saggonadacus, and king of the neighbouring Arabians, whom Juba has incorrectly described as a satrap of king Antiochus, restored it, and raised embankments for its protection, calling it after himself. These embankments extended in length a distance of nearly three miles, in breadth a little less. It stood at first at a distance of ten stadia from the shore, and even had a harbourThough this passage is probably corrupt, the reading employed by Sillig is inadmissible, as it makes nothing but nonsense. "Et jam Vip sanda porticus habet;" "and even now, Vipsanda has its porticos." of its own. But according to Juba, it is fifty miles from the sea; and at the present day, the ambassadors from Arabia, and our own merchants who have visited the place, say that it stands at a distance of one hundred and twenty miles from the sea-shore. Indeed, in no part of the world have alluvial deposits been formed more rapidly by the rivers, and to a greater extent than here; and it is only a matter of surprise that the tides, which run to a considerable distance beyond this city, do not carry them back again. At this place was born Dionysius,Dionysius of Charax. No particulars of him are known beyond those mentioned by Pliny. the most recent author of a description of the world; he was sent by the late emperor Augustus to gather all necessary information in the East, when his eldestCaius, the son of Marcus Agrippa and Julia, the daughter of Augustus. He was the adopted son of Augustus. son was about to set out for Armenia to take the command against the Parthians and Arabians.

The fact has not escaped me, nor indeed have I forgotten, that at the beginning of this workSee B. iii. c. 1, p. 151, in vol. 1. I have remarked that each author appeared to be most accurate in the description of his own country; still, while I am speaking of these parts of the world, I prefer to follow the discoveries made by the Roman arms, and the description given by king Juba, in his work dedicated to Caius Cæsar above-mentioned, on the subject of the same expedition against Arabia.

Arabia, inferior to no country throughout the whole world, is of immense extent, running downwards, as we have previously stated,In B. v. c. 21 and 22. from Mount Amanus, over against Cilicia and Commagene; many of the Arabian nations having been removed to those countries by Tigranes the Great,Who called himself the King of kings, and was finally conquered by Pompey. while others again have migrated of their own accord to the shores of our seaThe Mediterranean. and the coast of Egypt, as we have already mentioned.See B. v. c. 12. The NubeiSalmasius thinks that this should be written "Nombei;" but Hardouin remarks that the Nombæi were not of Arabian but Jewish extraction, and far distant from Mount Libanus. have even penetrated as far as Mount Libanus in the middle of Syria; in their turn they are bounded by the Ramisi, these by the Taranei, and these again by the Patami.

As for Arabia itself, it is a peninsula, running out between the Red and the Persian Seas; and it is by a kind of design, apparently on the part of nature, that it is surrounded by the sea in such a manner as to resemble very much the form and sizeThe only resemblance between them is, that each is a peninsula; that of Arabia being of far greater extent than Italy. It will be remarked that here, contrary to his ordinary practice, Pliny makes a distinction between the Red Sea and the Persian Sea or Gulf. of Italy, there being no difference either in the climate of the two countries, as they lie in the same latitudes."In eandem etiam cœli partem nulla differentia spectat." A glance at the map will at once show the fallacy of this assertion. This, too, renders it equally fertile with the countries of Italy. We have already mentionedIn B. v. c. 12 and 21. its peoples, which extend from our sea as far as the deserts of Palmyrene, and we shall now proceed to a description of the remainder. The Scenitæ, as we have already stated,In c. 30 of the present Book. border upon the Nomades and the tribes that ravage the territories of Chaldæa, being themselves of wandering habits, and receiving their name from the tents which constitute their dwellings; these are made of goats' hair, and they pitch them wherever they please. Next after them are the Nabatæi, who have a city called Petra,Mentioned in B. v. c. 21, if, indeed, that is the same Petra. which lies in a deep valley, somewhat less than two miles in width, and surrounded by inaccessible mountains, between which a river flows: it is distant from the city of Gaza, on our shores, six hundred miles, and from the Persian Gulf one hundred and thirty-five. At this place two roads meet, the one leading from Syria to Palmyra, and the other from Gaza. On leaving Petra we come to the Omani,Omana or Omanum was their chief place, a port on the north-east coast of Arabia Felix, a little above the promontory of Syagros, now Ras el Had, on a large gulf of the same name. The name is still preserved in the modern name Oman. who dwell as far as Charax, with their once famous cities which were built by Semiramis, Besannisa and Soractia by name; at the present day they are wildernesses. We next come to a city situate on the banks of the Pasitigris, Fora by name, and subject to the king of Charax: to this place people resort on their road from Petra, and sail thence to Charax, twelve miles distant, with the tide. If you are proceeding by water from the Parthian territories, you come to a village known as Teredon; and below the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris, you have the Chaldæi dwelling on the left side of the river, and the Nomadic tribes of the Scenitæ on the right. Some writers also make mention of two other cities situate at long intervals, as you sail along the Tigris, Barbatia, and then Thumata, distant from Petra, they say, ten days' sail; our merchants report that these places are subject to the king of Charax. The same writers also state, that ApameaIn Sitacene, mentioned in the preceding Chapter. is situate where the overflow of the Euphrates unites with the Tigris; and that when the Parthians meditate an incursion, the inhabitants dam up the river by embankments, and so inundate their country.

We will now proceed to describe the coast after leaving Charax,Or rather, as Hardouin says, the shore opposite to Charax, and on the western bank of the river. which was first explored by order of king Epiphanes. We first come to the place where the mouth of the Euphrates formerly existed, the river Salsus,Called Core Boobian, a narrow salt-water channel, laid down for the first time in the East India Company's chart, and separating a large low island, off the mouth of the old bed of the Euphrates, from the mainland. and the Promontory of Chaldone,The great headland on the coast of Arabia, at the entrance of the bay of Doat-al-Kusma from the south, opposite to Pheleche Island. from which spot, the sea along the coast, for an extent of fifty miles,This is the line of coast extending from the great headland last mentioned to the river Khadema, the ancient Achenus. bears more the aspect of a series of whirlpools than of ordinary sea; the river Achenus, and then a desert tract for a space of one hundred miles, until we come to the island of Ichara; the gulf of Capeus, on the shores of which dwell the Gaulopes and the Chateni, and then the gulf of Gerra.So called from the city of Arabia Felix, built on its shores. Strabo says of this city "The city of Gerra lies in a deep gulf, where Chaldæan exiles from Babylon inhabit a salt country, having houses built of salt, the walls of which, when they are wasted by the heat of the sun, are repaired by copious applications of sea-water." D'Anville first identified this place with the modern El Khatiff. Niebuhr finds its site on the modern Koneit of the Arabs, called "Gran" by the Persians; but Foster is of opinion that he discovered its ruins in the East India Company's Chart, situate where all the ancient authorities had placed it, at the end of the deep and narrow bay at the mouth of which are situated the islands of Bahrein. The gulf mentioned by Pliny is identified by Foster with that of Bahrein. Here we find the city of Gerra, five miles in circumference, with towers built of square blocks of salt. Fifty miles from the coast, lying in the interior, is the region of At- tene, and opposite to Gerra is the island of Tylos,The modern island of Bahrein, according to Brotier, still famous for its pearl-fishery. as many miles distant from the shore; it is famous for the vast number of its pearls, and has a town of the same name; in its vicinity there is a smaller island,Now Samaki, according to Ansart. Its ancient name was Aradus. distant from a promontory on the larger one twelve miles and a half. They say that beyond this large islands may be seen, upon which no one has ever landed: the circumference of the smaller island is one hundred and twelve miles and a half; and it is more than that distance from the Persian coast, being accessible by only one narrow channel. We then come to the island of Asclie, and the nations of the Nocheti, the Zurazi, the Borgodi, the Catharrei, the Nomades, and then the river Cynos.Hardouin takes this to be that which by the Arabians is called by the name of Falg. Beyond this, the navigation is impracticable on that side,On the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf. according to Juba, on account of the rocks; and he has omitted all mention of Batrasave,Considered by modern geographers to be identical in situation with the Black Mountains and the Cape of Asabi, and still marked by a town and district named Sabee, close to Cape Mussendom. a town of the Omani, and of the city of Omana,In the modern district still called Oman. which former writers have made out to be a famous port of Carmania;On the opposite coast. as also of Homna and Attana, towns which at the present day, our merchants say, are by far the most famous ones in the Persian Sea. Passing the river Cynos,He calls it Canis, evidently thinking that "Cynos" was its Greek appellation only: as meaning the "Dogs'" river. there is a mountain, Juba says, that bears marks of the action of fire; also, the nation of the Epimaranitæ, then a nation of Ichthyophagi, and then a desert island, and the nation of the Bathymi. We then come to the Eblitæan Mountains, the island of Omoënus, the port of Mochorbe, the islands of Etaxalos and Inchobrice, and the nation of the Cadæi. There are many islands also that have no name, but the better known ones are Isura, Rhinnea, and another still nearer the shore, upon which there are some stone pillars with an inscription in unknown characters. There are also the port of Gobœa, the desert islands called Bragæ, the nation of the Thaludæi, the region of Dabanegoris, Mount Orsa, with a harbour, the gulf of Duatus, with numerous islands, Mount Tricoryphos,Or the mountain "with the Three Peaks." the region of Cardaleon, and the islands called Solanades, Cachinna, and that of the Ichthyophagi. We then find the Clari, the shore of Mamæum, on which there are gold mines, the region of Canauna, the nations of the Apitami and the Casani, the island of Devade, the fountain of Coralis, the Carphati, the islands of Calaëu and Amnamethus, and the nation of the Darræ. Also, the island of Chelonitis,Stephanus mentions this as an island of the Erythræan Sea. Hardly any of these places appear to have been identified; and there is great uncertainty as to the orthography of the names. numerous islands of Ichthyophagi, the deserts of Odanda, Basa, many islands of the Sabæi, the rivers Thanar and Amnume, the islands of Dorice, and the fountains of Daulotos and Dora. We find also the islands of Pteros, Labatanis, Coboris, and Sambrachate, with a town of the same nameFrom which came the myrrh mentioned by Pliny in B. xii. c. 36. on the mainland. Lying to the south are a great number of islands, the largest of which is Camari; also the river Musecros, and the port of Laupas. We then come to the Sabæi, a nation of Scenitæ,Or the Tent-Dwellers, the modern Bedouins. with numerous islands, and the city of Acila,By some geographers identified with the Ocelis or Ocila, mentioned in c. 26, the present Zee Hill or Ghela, a short distance to the south of Mocha, and to the north of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Hardouin says, however, that it was a different place, Acila being in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf, in which he appears to be correct. which is their mart, and from which persons embark for India. We next come to the region of Amithos- cutta. Damnia, the Greater and the Lesser Mizi, and the Drimati. The promontory of the Naumachæi, over against Carmania, is distant from it fifty miles. A wonderful circumstance is said to have happened here; Numenius, who was made governor of Mesena by king Antiochus, while fighting against the Persians, defeated them at sea, and at low water, by land, with an army of cavalry, on the same day; in memory of which event he erected a twofold trophy on the same spot, in honour of Jupiter and Neptune.Nothing relative to Numenius beyond this fact has been recorded.

Opposite to this place, in the main sea, lies the island of Ogyris,Hardouin and Ansart think that under this name is meant the island called in modern times Mazira or Maceira. famous for being the burial-place of king Erythras;There seem to have been three mythical personages of this name; but it appears impossible to distinguish the one from the other. it is distant from the mainland one hundred and twenty miles, being one hundred and twelve in circumference. No less famous is another island, called Dioscoridu,Or "Dioscoridis Insula," an island of the Indian Ocean, of considerable importance as an emporium or mart, in ancient times. It lay between the Syagrus Promontorium, in Arabia, and Aromata Promontorium, now Cape Guardafui, on the opposite coast of Africa, somewhat nearer to the former, according to Arrian, which cannot be the case if it is rightly identified with Socotorra, 200 miles distant from the Arabian coast, and 110 from the north-east promontory of Africa. and lying in the Azanian Sea;So called from Azania, or Barbaria, now Ajan, south of Somauli, on the mainland of Africa. it is distant two hundred and eighty miles from the extreme point of the Promontory of Syagrus.Now Cape Fartash, in Arabia.

The remaining places and nations on the mainland, lying still to the south, are the Ausaritæ, to whose country it is seven days' journey among the mountains, the nations of the Larendani and the Catabani, and the Gebanitæ, who occupy a great number of towns, the largest of which are Nagia, and Thomna with sixty-five temples, a number which fully bespeaks its size. We then come to a promontory, from which to the mainland of the Troglodytæ it is fifty miles, and then the Thoani, the Actæi, the Chatramotitæ, the Tonabei, the Antidalei, the Lexianæ, the Agræi, the Cerbani, and the Sabæi,Their country is supposed to have been the Sheba of Scripture, the queen of which visited king Solomon. It was situate in the south-western corner of Arabia Felix, the north and centre of the province of Yemen, though the geographers before Ptolemy seem to give it a still wider extent, quite to the south of Yemen. The Sabæi most probably spread originally on both sides of the southern part of the Red Sea, the shores of Arabia and Africa. Their capital was Saba, in which, according to their usage, their king was confined a close prisoner. the best known of all the tribes of Arabia, on account of their frankincense; these nations extend from sea to sea.The Persian Gulf to the Rd Sea. The towns which belong to them on the Red Sea are Marane, Marma, Corolia, and Sabatha; and in the interior, Nascus, Cardava, Carnus, and Thomala, from which they bring down their spices for exportation. One portion of this nation is the Atramitæ,The modern district of Hadramaut derives its name from this people, who were situate on the coast of the Red Sea to the east of Aden. Sabota, their capital, was a great emporium for their drugs and spices. whose capital, Sabota, has sixty temples within its walls. But the royal city of all these nations is Mariaba;Still known as Mareb, according to Ansart. it lies upon a bay, ninety-four miles in extent, and filled with islands that produce perfumes. Lying in the interior, and joining up to the Atramitæ, are the Mitæi; are the Minæ; the ElamitæHardouin is doubtful as to this name, and thinks that it ought to be Elaitæ, or else Læanitæ, the people again mentioned below. dwell on the sea-shore, in a city from which they take their name. Next to these are the Chaculatæ; then the town of Sibi, by the Greeks called Apate;A name which looks very much like "fraud," or "cheating," as Hardouin observes, from the Greek a)pa/th. the Arsi, the Codani, the Vadei, who dwell in a large town, the Barasasæi, the Lechieni, and the island of Sygaros,Off the Promontory of Ras-el-Had. into the interior of which no dogs are admitted, and so being exposed on the sea shore, they wander about there and are left to die. We then come to a gulf which runs far into the interior, upon which are situate the Lænitæ, who have given to it their name; also their royal city of Agra,Probably in the district now known as Akra. It was situate on the eastern coast of the Red Sea, at the foot of Mount Hippus. and upon the gulf that of Læana, or as some call it Ælana;See B. v. c. 12, where this town is mentioned. indeed, by some of our writers this has been called the Ælanitic Gulf, and by others again, the Ælenitic; Artemidorus calls it the Alenitic, and Juba the Lænitic. The circumference of Arabia, measured from Charax to Læana, is said to be four thousand six hundred and sixty-six miles, but Juba thinks that it is somewhat less than four thousand. Its widest part is at the north, between the cities of Heroopolis and Charax. We will now mention the remaining places and peoples of the interior of Arabia.

Up to the NabatæiWhose chief city was Petra, previously mentioned. the ancients joined the Thimanei; at present they have next to them the Taveni, and then the Suelleni, the Arraeeni,Supposed by some writers to have been the ancestors of the Saracens, so famous in the earlier part of the middle ages. Some of the MSS., indeed, read "Sarraceni." and the Areni,Their town is called Arra by Ptolemy. whose town is the centre of all the commerce of these parts. Next come the Hemnatæ, the Aualitæ, the towns of Domata and Hegra, the Tamudæi,Their district is still called Thamud, according to Ansart. with the town of Badanatha, the Carrei, with the town of Cariati,Still called Cariatain, according to Ansart. the Achoali, with the town of Foth, and the Minæi, who derive their origin, it is supposed,A ridiculous fancy, probably founded solely on the similarity of the name. from Minos, king of Crete, and of whom the Carmæi are a tribe. Next comes a town, fourteen miles distant, called Marippa, and belonging to the Palamaces, a place by no means to be overlooked, and then Carnon. The Rhadamæi also—these too are supposed to derive their originA story as probable, Hardouin observes, as that about the descendants of Minos. from Rhadamanthus, the brother of Minos—the Homeritæ,The Arabs of Yemen, known in Oriental history by the name of Himyari, were called by the Greeks Homeritæ. with their city of Masala,An inland city, called Masthala by Ptolemy. the Hamirei, the Gedranitæ, the Amphyræ, the Ilisanitæ, the Bachilitæ, the Samnæi, the Amitei, with the towns of NessaAgatharchides speaks of a town on the sea coast, which was so called from the multitude of ducks found there. The one here spoken of was in the interior, and cannot be the same. and Cennesseris, the Zamareni, with the towns of Sagiatta and Canthace, the Bacascami, the town of Riphearma, the name by which they call barley, the Autei, the Ethravi, the Cyrei and the Mathatræi, the Helmodenes, with the town of Ebode, the Agacturi, dwelling in the mountains, with a town twenty miles distant, in which is a fountain called Ænuscabales,Hardouin observes, that neither this word, nor the name Riphearma, above mentioned, has either a Hebrew or an Arabian origin. which signifies "the town of the camels." AmpelomeProbably the same place as we find spoken of by Herodotus as Ampe, and at which Darius settled a colony of Miletians after the capture of Miletus, B. C. 494. also, a Milesian colony, the town of Athrida, the Calingii, whose city is called Mariva,Hardouin remarks that Mariaba, the name found in former editions, has no such meaning in the modern Arabic. and signifies "the lord of all men;" the towns of Palon and Murannimal, near a river by which it is thought that the Euphrates discharges itself, the nations of the Agrei and the Ammonii, the town of Athenæ, the Caunaravi, a name which signifies "most rich in herds," the Coranitæ, the Œsani, and the Choani.Mentioned by Ovid in the Metamorphoses, B. v. 1. 165, et seq. Sillig, however, reads "Ciani." Here were also formerly the Greek towns of Arethusa, Larisa, and Chalcis, which have been destroyed in various wars.

Ælius Gallus,An intimate friend of the geographer Strabo. He was prefect of Egypt during part of the reign of Augustus, and in the years B. C. 24 and 25. Many particulars have been given by Strabo of his expedition against Arabia, in which he completely failed. The heat of the sun, the badness of the water, and the want of the necessaries of life, destroyed the greater part of his army. a member of the Equestrian order, is the sole person who has hitherto carried the Roman arms into these lands, for Caius Cæsar, the sonBy adoption, as previously stated. of Augustus, only had a distant view of Arabia. In his expedition, Gallus destroyed the following towns, the names of which are not given by the authors who had written before his time, Negrana, Nestum, Nesca, Masugum, Caminacum, Labecia, and MarivaThe town of the Calingii, mentioned above. above- mentioned, six miles in circumference, as also Caripeta, the furthest point of his expedition. He brought back with him the following discoveries—that the NomadesOr wandering tribes. live upon milk and the flesh of wild beasts, and that the other nations, like the Indians, extract a sort of wine from the palm-tree, and oil from sesame.Its uses in medicine are stated at length in the last Chapter of B. xxi. He says that the most numerous of these tribes are the Homeritæ and the Minæi, that their lands are fruitful in palms and shrubs, and that their chief wealth is centred in their flocks. We also learn from the same source that the Cerbani and the Agræi excel in arms, but more particularly the Chatramotitæ;Another form of the name of Atramitæ previously mentioned, the ancient inhabitants of the part of Arabia known as Hadramant, and settled, as is supposed, by the descendants of the Joctanite patriarch Hazarmaveth. that the territories of the Carrei are the most extensive and most fertile; but that the Sabæi are the richest of all in the great abundance of their spice-bearing groves, their mines of gold,Arabia at the present day yields no gold, and very little silver. The queen of Sheba is mentioned as bringing gold to Solomon, 1 Kings, x. 2, 2 Chron. ix. i. Artemidorus and Diodorus Siculus make mention, on the Arabian Gulf, of the Debæ, the Alilæi, and the Gasandi, in whose territories native gold was found. These last people, who did not know its value, were in the habit of bringing it to their neighbours, the Sabæi, and exchanging it for articles of iron and copper. their streams for irrigation, and their ample produce of honey and wax. Of their perfumes we shall have to treat more at large in the Book devoted to that subject.B. xii. The Arabs either wear the mitra,The "mitra," which was a head-dress especially used by the Phrygians, was probably of varied shape, and may have been the early form of the eastern turban. or else go with their hair unshorn, while the beard is shaved, except upon the upper lip: some tribes, however, leave even the beard unshaved. A singular thing too, one half of these almost innumerable tribes live by the pursuits of commerce, the other half by rapine: take them all in all, they are the richest nations in the world, seeing that such vast wealth flows in upon them from both the Roman and the Parthian Empires; for they sell the produce of the sea or of their forests, while they purchase nothing whatever in return.

We will now trace the rest of the coast that lies opposite to that of Arabia. Timosthenes has estimated the length of the whole gulf at four days' sail, and the breadth at two, making the StraitsThe Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. to be seven miles and a half in width. Eratosthenes says that the length of the shore from the mouth of the gulf is thirteen hundred miles on each side, while Artemidorus states that the length on the Arabian side is seventeen hundred and fifty miles, (29.) and that along the Troglodytic coast, to Ptolemais, the distance is eleven hundred and thirty-seven and a half. Agrippa, however, maintains that there is no difference whatever in the length of the two sides, and makes it seventeen hundred and twenty-two miles. Most writers mention the length as being four hundred and seventy-five miles, and make the Straits to face the southeast, being twelve miles wide according to some, fifteen according to others.

The localities of this region are as follow: On passing the Ælanitic Gulf there is another gulf, by the Arabians called Sœa, upon which is situate the city of Heroön.Or Heroöpolis, a city east of the Delta, in Egypt, and situate near the mouth of the royal canal which connected the Nile with the Red Sea. It was of considerable consequence as a trading station upon the arm of the Red Sea, which runs up as far as Arsinoë, the modern Suez, and was called the "Gulf" or "Bay of the Heroes." The ruins of Heroöpolis are still visible at Abu-Keyscheid. The town of CambysuThis place, as here implied, took its name from Cambyses, the son of Cyrus. also stood here formerly, between the Neli and the Marchades, Cambyses having established there the invalids of his army. We then come to the nation of the Tyri, and the port of the Danei, from which place an attempt has been made to form a navigable canal to the river Nile, at the spot where it enters the Delta previously mentioned,In c. 9 of the preceding Book. "Dictum," however, may only mean, "called" the Delta. the distance between the river and the Red Sea being sixty-two miles. This was contemplated first of all by Sesostris,Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Tzetzes, mention this, not with reference to Sesostris, but Necho, the grandson of Sesostris. king of Egypt, afterwards by Darius, king of the Persians, and still later by Ptolemy II.,Ptolemy Philadelphus, son of Ptolemy Soter, or Lagides. who also made a canal, one hundred feet in width and forty deep, extending a distance of thirty-seven miles and a half, as far as the Bitter Springs.Now known by the name of Scheib. They derived their name from the saline flavour and deposition of their waters. These springs were strongly impregnated with alkaline salts, and with muriate of lime washed from the rocks which separated the Delta from the Red Sea. The salt which they produced being greatly valued, they were on that account regarded as the private property of the kings. He was deterred from proceeding any further with this work by apprehensions of an inundation, upon finding that the Red Sea was three cubits higher than the land in the interior of Egypt. Some writers, however, do not allege this as the cause, but say that his reason was, a fear lest, in consequence of introducing the sea, the water of the Nile might be spoilt, that being the only source from which the Egyptians obtain water for drinking. Be this as it may, the whole of the journey from the Egyptian Sea is usually performed by land one of the three following ways:—Either from Pelusium across the sands, in doing which the only method of finding the way is by means of reeds fixed in the earth, the wind immediately effacing all traces of footsteps: by the route which begins two miles beyond Mount Casius, and at a distance of sixty miles enters the road from Pelusium, adjoining to which road the Arabian tribe of the Autei dwell; or else by a third route, which leads from Gerrum, and which they call Adipsos,The "not thirsty" route, so called by way of antiphrasis. passing through the same Arabians, and shorter by nearly sixty miles, but running over rugged mountains and through a district destitute of water. All these roads lead to Arsinoë,See B. v. c. 9. a city founded in honour of his sister's name, upon the Gulf of Carandra, by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who was the first to explore Troglodytice, and called the river which flows before Arsinoë by the name of Ptolemæus. After this comes the little town of Enum, by some writers mentioned as Philotera; next to which are the Abasæi, a nation sprung from intermarriages with the Troglodytæ, then some wild Arabian tribes, the islands of Sapirine and Scytala, and after these, deserts as far as Myoshormon, where we find the fountain of Tatnos, Mount Æas, the island of Iambe, and numerous harbours. Berenice also, is here situate, so called after the name of the mother of Philadelphus, and to which there is a road from Coptos, as we have previously stated;In c. 26 of the present Book. then the Arabian Autei, and the Zebadei.

Troglodytice comes next, by the ancients called Midoë, and by some Michoë; here is Mount Pentedactylos, some islands called Stenæ Deiræ,Or "narrow necks," apparently, from the Greek sthnai\ deirai\. If this be the correct reading, they were probably so called from the narrow strait which ran between them. the Halonnesi,An island called Halonnesus has been already mentioned in B iv. c. 23. None of these islands appear to have been identified. a group of islands not less in number, Cardamine, and Topazos,See B. xxxvii. c. 32. which last has given its name to the precious stone so called. The gulf is full of islands; those known as Mareu are supplied with fresh water, those called Erenos, are without it; these were ruled by governorsThis seems to be the meaning, though, literally translated, it would be, "These were the prefects of kings." appointed by the kings. In the interior are the Candei, also called Ophiophagi, a people in the habit of eating serpents; there is no region in existence more productive of them.

Juba, who appears to have investigated all these matters with the greatest diligence, has omitted, in his description of these regions—unless, indeed, it be an error in the copying—another place called Berenice and surnamed Panchrysos,It obtained this title ofpa/nxrusos, or "all golden," from its vicinity to the gold mines of Jebel Allaki, or Ollaki, from which the ancient Egyptians drew their principal supply of that metal, and in the working of which they employed criminals and prisoners of war. as also a third surnamed Epidires,Or e)pi\ deirh=s, "upon the neck." It was situate on the western side of the Red Sea, near the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. and remarkable for the peculiarity of its site; for it lies on a long projecting neck of land, at the spot where the Straits at the mouth of the Red Sea separate the coast of Africa from Arabia by a distance of seven miles only: here too is the island of Cytis,Ansart suggests that the modern island of Mehun is here meant. Gosselin is of opinion that Pliny is in error in mentioning two islands in the Red Sea as producing the topaz. which also produces the topaz.

Beyond this are forests, in which is Ptolemais,Called Theron, as well as Epitheras. It was an emporium on the coast of the Red Sea for the trade with India and Arabia. It was chiefly remarkable for its position in mathematical geography, as, the sun having been observed to be directly over it forty-five days before and after the summer solstice, the place was taken as one of the points for determining the length of a degree of a great circle on the earth's surface. built by Philadelphus for the chase of the elephant, and thence called Epitheras,From the Greek e)pi\ qh/ras, "for hunting." situate near Lake Monoleus. This is the same region that has been already mentioned by us in the Second Book,In B. ii. c. 75. and in which, during forty-five days before the summer solstice and for as many after, there is no shadow at the sixth hour, and during the other hours of the day it falls to the south; while at other times it falls to the north; whereas at the Berenice of which we firstIn the same Chapter. made mention, on the day of the summer solstice the shadow totally disappears at the sixth hour, but no other unusual phænomenon is observed. That place is situate at a distance of six hundred and two miles from Ptolemais, which has thus become the subject of a remarkable theory, and has promoted the exercise of a spirit of the most profound investigation; for it was at this spot that the extent of the earth was first ascertained, it being the fact that Erastosthenes, beginning at this place by the accurate calculation of the length of the shadow, was enabled to determine with exactness the dimensions of the earth.

After passing this place we come to the AzanianSo called from Azania, the adjoining coast of Africa, now known as that of Ajan. It was inhabited by a race of Æthiopians, who were engaged in catching and taming elephants, and supplying the markets of the Red Sea coast with hides and ivory. Sea, a promontory by some writers called Hispalus, Lake Mandalum, and the island of Colocasitis, with many others lying out in the main sea, upon which multitudes of turtles are found. We then come to the town of Suche, the island of Daphnidis,Now called Seyrman, according to Gosselin. and the town of the Adulitæ,Its name was Adule, being the chief haven of the Adulitæ, of mixed origin, in the Troglodytic region, situate on a bay of the Red Sea, called Aduliticus Sinus. It is generally supposed that the modern Thulla or Zulla, still pronounced Azoole, occupies its site, being situate in lat. 15' 35' N. Ruins are said to exist there. D'Anville, however, in his map of the Red Sea, places Adule at Arkeeko, on the same coast, and considerably to the north of Thulla. According to Cosmas, Adule was about two miles in the interior. a place founded by Egyptian runaway slaves. This is the principal mart for the Troglodyte, as also for the people of Æthiopia: it is distant from Ptolemais five days' sail. To this place they bring ivory in large quantities, horns of the rhinoceros, hides of the hippopotamus, tortoise-shell, sphingiæ,Pliny gives a further description of this ape in B. viii. c. 21., and B. x. c. 72. They were much valued by the Roman ladies for pets, and very high prices were given for them. and slaves. Beyond the Æthiopian Aroteræ are the islands known by the name of Aliæu,Now called Dahal-Alley, according to Gosselin. as also those of Bacchias, Antibacchias, and Stratioton. After passing these, on the coast of Æthiopia, there is a gulf which remains unexplored still; a circumstance the more to be wondered at, seeing that merchants have pursued their investigations to a greater distance than this. We then come to a promontory, upon which there is a spring called Cucios,Hardouin, from Strabo, suggests that the reading ought to be Co- racios. much resorted to by mariners. Beyond it is the Port of Isis, distant ten days' rowing from the town of the Adulitæ: myrrh is brought to this port by the Troglodytæ. The two islands before the harbour are called Pseudepylæ,The "False Gates." and those in it, the same in number, are known as Pylæ;The "Gates." upon one of these there are some stone columns inscribed with unknown characters. Beyond these is the Gulf of Abalites, the island of Diodorus,D'Anville and Gosselin think that this is the island known as the French Island. and other desert islands; also, on the mainland, a succession of deserts, and then the town of Gaza, and the promontory and port of Mossylum,Ansart thinks that this promontory is that known as Cape de Meta, and that the port is at the mouth of the little river called Soul or Soal. to the latter of which cinnamon is brought for exportation: it was thus far that Sesostris ledIn his Ethiopian expedition. According to Strabo, he had altars and pillars erected there to record it. his army.

Some writers place even beyond this, upon the shore, one town of Ethiopia, called Baricaza. Juba will have it that at the Promontory of MossylumUnder the impression entertained by the ancients, that the southern progress of the coast of Africa stopped short here, and that it began at this point to trend away gradually to the north-west. the Atlantic Sea begins, and that with a north-west windCoro. Salmasius seems with justice, notwithstanding the censures of Hardouin, to have found considerable difficulty in this passage. If it is Pliny's meaning that by sea round the south of the Promontory of Mossylum there is a passage to the extreme north-western point of Africa, it is pretty clear that it is not by the aid of a north-west wind that it could be reached. "Euro," "with a south-east wind," has been very properly suggested. we may sail past his native country, the Mauritanias, and arrive at Gades. We ought not on this occasion to curtail any portion of the opinions so expressed by him. He says that after we pass the promontory of the Indians,By this name he means the Æthiopian Troglodytæ. Of course it would be absurd to attempt any identification of the places here named, as they must clearly have existed only in the imagination of the African geographer. known as Lepteacra, and by others called Drepanum, the distance, in a straight line, beyond the island of Exusta and Malichu, is fifteen hundred miles; from thence to a place called Sceneos two hundred and twenty-five; and from thence to the island of Adanu one hundred and fifty miles; so that the dis- tance to the open seaThe supposed commencement of the Atlantic, to the west of the Promontory of Mossylum. is altogether eighteen hundred and seventy-five miles. All the other writers, however, are of opinion that, in consequence of the intensity of the sun's heat, this sea is not navigable; added to which, commerce is greatly exposed to the depredations of a piratical tribe of Arabians called Ascitæ,From the Greek a)sko\s, a "bladder," or "inflated skin." It is not improbable that the story as to their mode of navigation is derived only from the fancied origin of their name. who dwell upon the islands: placing two inflated skins of oxen beneath a raft of wood, they ply their piratical vocation with the aid of. poisoned arrows. We learn also from the same author that some nations of the Troglodytae have the name of Therothoæ,Apparently meaning in the Greek the "jackal-hunters," qhroqw=es. For an account of this animal, see B. viii. c. 52, and B. xv. c. 95. being so called from their skill in hunting. They are remarkable for their swiftness, he says, just as the Ichthyophagi are, who can swim like the animals whose element is the sea. He speaks also of the Bangeni, the Gangoræ, the Chalybes, the Xoxinæ, the Sirechæ, the Daremæ, and the Domazames. Juba states, too, that the inhabitants who dwell on the banks of the Nile from Syene as far as Meroë, are not a people of Æthiopia, but Arabians; and that the city of the Sun, which we have mentionedHeliopolis, described in B. v. c. 4. as situate not far from Memphis, in our description of Egypt, was founded by Arabians. There are some writers who take away the further bank of the Nile from Æthiopia,Considering it as part of Asia. and unite it to Africa;Conformably with the usage of modem geographers, and, one would almost think, with that of common sense. and they people its sides with tribes attracted thither by its water. We shall leave these matters, however, to the option of each, to form his opinion on them, and shall now proceed to mention the towns on each sideOf the river Nile. in the order in which they are given.

On leaving Syene,As to Syene and the Catadupi, see B. v. c. 10. and taking first the Arabian side, we find the nation of the Catadupi, then the Syenitæ, and the town of Tacompsos,This place was also called in later times Contrapselcis. It was situate in the Dodecaschœnus, the part of Æthiopia immediately above Egypt, on an island near the eastern bank of the river, a little above Pselcis, which stood on the opposite bank. It has been suggested that this may have been the modern island of Derar. The other places do not appear to have been identified, and, in fact, in no two of the MSS. do the names appear to agree. by some called Thatice, as also Aramasos, Sesamos, Sanduma, Masindomacam, Arabeta and Boggia, Leupitorga, Tantarene, Mecindita, Noa, Gloploa, Gystate, Megada, Lea, Renni, Nups, Direa, Patiga, Bacata, Dumana, Rhadata, at which place a golden cat was worshipped as a god, Boron, in the interior, and Mallos, near Meroë; this is the account given by Bion.

Juba, however, gives another account; he says that there is a city on Mount Megatichos,Or the "Great Wall." which lies between Egypt and Ethiopia, by the Arabians known as Myrson, after which come Tacompsos, Aramus, Sesamos, Pide, Mamuda, Orambis, situate near a stream of bitumen, Amodita, Prosda, Parenta, Mama, Tesatta, Gallas, Zoton, Graucome, Emeus, the Pidibotæ, the Hebdomecontacometæ,Meaning, "the people who live in seventy villages." Nomades, who dwell in tents, Cyste, Macadagale, Proaprimis, Nups, Detrelis, Patis, the Ganbreves, the Magasnei, Segasmala, Crandala, Denna, Cadeuma, Thena, Batta, Alana, Mascoa, the Scamini, Hora, situate on an island, and then Abala, Androgalis, Sesecre, the Malli, and Agole.

On the African sideOr western side of the Nile, between Syene and Meroë. we find mentioned, either what is another place with the same name of Tacompsos, or else a part of the one before-mentioned, and after it Moggore, Sæa, Edos, Plenariæ, Pinnis, Magassa, Buma, Linthuma, Spintum, Sydop, the Censi, Pindicitora, Acug, Orsum, Sansa, Maumarum, Urbim, the town of Molum, by the Greeks called Hypaton,Upato\n, the "supreme," or perhaps the "last." Pagoarca, Zmanes, at which point elephants begin to be found, the Mambli, Berressa, and Acetuma; there was formerly a town also called Epis, over against Meroë, which had, however, been destroyed before Bion wrote.

These are the names of places given as far as Meroë: but at the present day hardly any of them on either side of the river are in existence; at all events, the prætorian troops that were sent by the Emperor NeroDion Cassius also mentions this expedition. From Seneca we learn that Nero dispatched two centurions to make inquiry into the sources; f the Nile. under the command of a tribune, for the purposes of enquiry, when, among his other wars, he was contemplating an expedition against Æthiopia, brought back word that they had met with nothing but deserts on their route. The Roman arms also penetrated into these regions in the time of the late Emperor Augustus, under the command of P. Petronius,Dion Cassius calls him Caius Petronius. He carried on the war in B.c. 22 against the Æthiopians, who had invaded Egypt under their queen Candace. He took many of their towns. a man of Equestrian rank, and prefect of Egypt. That general took the following cities, the only ones we now find mentioned there, in the following order; Pselcis,Du Bocage is of opinion that this place stood not far from the present Ibrim. Primis, Abuncis, Phthuris, Cambusis, Atteva, and Stadasis, where the river Nile, as it thunders down the precipices, has quite deprived the in- habitants of the power of hearing: he also sacked the town of Napata.Supposed by Du Bocage to have stood in the vicinity of the modern Dongola. The extreme distance to which he penetrated beyond Syene was nine hundred and seventy miles; but still. it was not the Roman arms that rendered these regions a desert. Æthiopia, in its turn gaining the mastery, and then again reduced to servitude, was at last worn out by its con- tinual wars with Egypt, having been a famous and powerful country even at the time of the Trojan war, when MemnonHe was clearly a mythical personage, and nothing certain is known with respect to him. Tombs of Memnon were shown in several places. as at Ptolemais in Syria, on the Hellespont, on a hill near the mouth of the river Æsepus, near Palton in Syria, in Æthiopia, and elsewhere. was its king; it is also very evident from the fabulous stories about Andromeda,Her story has been alluded to in the account of Joppa, B. v. c. 34. Cepheus, the father of Andromeda, though possessing the coasts of Syria, was fabled to have been king of Æthliop. that it ruled over Syria in the time of king Cepheus, and that its sway extended as far as the shores of our sea.

In a similar manner, also, there have been conflicting accounts as to the extent of this country: first by Dalion, who travelled a considerable distance beyond Meroë, and after him by Aristocreon and Basilis, as well as the younger Simonides, who made a stay of five years at Meroë,See B. v. c. 10, where Meroë is also mentioned. when he wrote his account of Æthiopia. Timosthenes, however, the commander of the fleets of Philadelphus, without giving any other estimate as to the distance, says that Meroë is sixty days' journey from Syene; while Eratosthenes states that the distance is six hundred and twenty-five miles, and Artemidorus six hundred. Sebosus says that from the extreme point of Egypt, the distance to Meroë is sixteen hundred and seventy-five miles, while the other writers last mentioned make it twelve hundred and fifty. All these differences, however, have since been settled; for the persons sent by Nero for the purposes of discovery have reported that the distance from Syene to Meroë is eight hundred and seventy-one miles, the following being the items. From Syene to Hiera SycaminosOr the sacred "sycamore tree." they make to be fifty-four miles, from thence to Tama seventy-two, to the country of the Evonymitæ,Situate beyond the Great Cataract, and on the western bank. the first region of Æthiopia, one hundred and twenty, to Acina fifty-four, to Pittara twenty-five, and to Tergedus one hundred and six. They state also that the island of Gagaudes lies at an equal distance from Syene and Meroë, and that it is at this place that the bird called the parrot was first seen; while at another island called Articula, the animal known as the sphingiumSee the Notes to the preceding Chapter, in p. 95. was first discovered by them, and after passing Tergedus, the cynocephalus.Or dog's-headed ape, described in B. viii. c. 80. It is supposed to be the baboon. The distance from thence to Napata is eighty miles, that little town being the only one of all of them that now survives. From thence to the island of Meroë the distance is three hundred and sixty miles. They also state that the grass in the vicinity of Meroë becomes of a greener and fresher colour, and that there is some slight appearance of forests, as also traces of the rhinoceros and elephant. They reported also that the city of Meroë stands at a distance of seventy miles from the first entrance of the island of Meroë, and that close to it is another island, Tadu by name, which forms a harbour facing those who enter the right hand channel of the river. The buildings in the city, they said, were but few in number, and they stated that a female, whose name was Candace, ruled over the district, that name having passed from queen to queen for many years. They related also that there was a temple of Jupiter Hammon there, held in great veneration, besides smaller shrines erected in honour of him throughout all the country. In addition to these particulars, they were informed that in the days of the Æthiopian dominion, the island of Meroe enjoyed great renown, and that, according to tradition, it was in the habit of maintaining two hundred thousand armed men, and four thousand artisans. The kings of Æthiopia are said even at the present day to be forty-five in number.

(30.) The whole of this country has successively had the names of Ætheria,Hesychius says that it was also called Aëria, probably from the time of its king Ægyptus, who was called Aërius. Atlantia, and last of all, Æthiopia, from Æthiops, the son of Vulcan. It is not at all surprising that towards the extremity of this region the men and animals assume a monstrous form, when we consider the changeableness and volubility of fire, the heat of which is the great agent in imparting various forms and shapes to bodies. Indeed, it is reported that in the interior, on the eastern side, there is a people that have no noses, the whole face presenting a plane surface; that others again are destitute of the upper lip, and others are without tongues. Others again, have the mouth grown together, and being destitute of nostrils, breathe through one passage only, imbibing their drink through it by means of the hollow stalk of the oat, which there grows spontaneously and supplies them with its grain for food. Some of these nations have to employ gestures by nodding the head and moving the limbs, instead of speech. Others again were unacquainted with the use of fire before the time of Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Egypt. Some writers have also stated that there is a nation of Pygmies, which dwells among the marshes in which the river Nile takes its rise; while on the coast of, Æthiopia, where we paused,"Ubi desiimus." This appears to be a preferable reading to "ubi desinit," adopted by Sillig, and apparently referring to the river Nile. It is not improbable that our author here alludes, as Hardouin says, to his words in the preceding Chapter, "Hinc in ora Æthiopæ," &c. See p. 96. there is a range of mountains, of a red colour, which have the appearance of being always burning.

All the country, after we pass Meroë, is bounded by the Troglodytæ and the Red Sea, it being three days' journey from Napata to the shores of that sea; throughout the whole of this district the rain water is carefully preserved at several places, while the country that lies between is extremely productive of gold. The parts beyond this are inhabited by the Adabuli, a nation of Æthiopia; and here, over against Meroë, are the Megabarri,Ansart thinks that the country of this people was the modem Kor- dofan. This however, could not be the case, if the Macrobii, opposite to them, dwelt on the African side of the river. by some writers called the Adiabari; they occupy the city of Apollo; some of them, however, are Nomades, living on the flesh of elephants. Opposite to them, on the African side, dwell the Macrobii,Or "long-livers." and then again, beyond the Megabarri, there are the Memnones and the Dabeli, and, at a distance of twenty days' journey, the Critensi. Beyond these are the Dochi, and then the Gymnetes, who always go naked; and after them the Andetæ, the Mothitæ, the Mesaches, and the Ipsodoræ, who are of a black tint, but stain the body all over with a kind of red earth. On the African side again there are the Medimni, and then a nation of Nomades, who live on the milk of the cynocephalus, and then the Aladi and the Syrbotæ,Mentioned again in c. 2 of the next Book. which last are said to be eight cubits in height.

Aristocreon informs us that on the Libyan side, at a distance of five days' journey from Meroë, is the town of Tolles, and then at a further distance of twelve days' journey, Esar, a town founded by the Egyptians who fled from Psammetichus;Who is mentioned again in B. xxxvi. c. 19. he states also that they dwelt there for a period of three hundred years, and that opposite, on the Arabian side, there is a town of theirs called Daron.Ptolemy, however, speaks of Esar and Daron as the names of towns situate on the island of Meroë. The town, however, which he calls Esar, is by Bion called Sape, who says that the name means "the strangers:" their capital being Sembobitis, situate on an island, and a third place of theirs, Sinat in Arabia. Between the mountains and the river Nile are the Simbarri, tile Palugges, and, on the mountains themselves, the Asachæ, who are divided into numerous peoples; they are said to be distant five days' journey from the sea, and to procure their subsistence by the chase of the elephant. An island in the Nile, which belongs to the Semberritæ, is governed by a queen; beyond it are the Æthiopian Nubei,On the eastern side of the Nile, and hearing no reference, as Har- douin remarks, to the people of modern Nubia. at a distance of eight days' journey: their town is Tenupsis, situate on the Nile. There are the Sesambri also, a people among whom all the quadrupeds are without ears, the very elephants even. On the African side are the Tonobari, the Ptoenphæ, a people who have a dog for their king, and divine from his movements what are his commands; the Auruspi, who have a town at a considerable distance from the Nile, and then the Archisarmi, the Phaliges, the Marigerri, and the Casmari.

Bion makes mention also of some other towns situate on islands, the whole distance being twenty days' journey from Sembobitis to Meroë; a town in an adjoining island, under the queen of the Semberritæ, with another called Asara, and another, in a second island, called Darde. The name of a third island is Medoë, upon which is the town of Asel, and a fourth is called Garodes, with a town upon it of the same name. Passing thence along the banks of the Nile, are the towns of Navi, Modunda, Andatis, Secundum, Colligat, Secande, Navectabe, Cumi, Agrospi, Ægipa, Candrogari, Araba, and Summara.There is considerable doubt as to the correctness of these names, as they are differently spelt in the MSS.

Beyond is the region of Sirbitum, at which the mountains terminate,Marcus thinks that these mountains are those which lie to the west of the Nile, in Darfour, and Dar-Sale, or Dizzela, mentioned by Salt, in his Travels in Abyssinia. and which by some writers is said to contain the maritime Æthiopians, the Nisacæthæ, and the Nisyti, a word which signifies "men with three or four eyes,"— not that the people really have that conformation, but because they are remarkable for the unerring aim of their arrows. On that side of the Nile which extends along the borders of the Southern Ocean beyond the Greater Syrtes,From this it would appear that Pliny, with Dalion, supposed that the Nile ran down to the southern ocean, and then took a turn along the coast in a westerly direction; the shore being skirted by Syrtes, or quicksands, similar to those in the north of Africa. Dalion says that the people, who use rain-water only, are called the Cisori, and that the other nations are the Longompori, distant five days' journey from the Œcalices, the Usibalci, the Isbeli, the Perusii, the Ballii, and the Cispii, the rest being deserts, and inhabited by the tribes of fable only. In a more westerly direction are the Nigroæ, whose king has only one eye, and that in the forehead, the Agriophagi,So called from the Greek—"Eaters of wild beasts." who live principally on the flesh of panthers and lions, the Pamphagi,The "all-eaters." who will eat anything, the Anthropophagi, who live on human flesh, the Cynamolgi,Or the "livers on the milk of the dog." a people with the heads of dogs, the Artabatitæ, who have four feet, and wander about after the manner of will beasts; and, after them, the Hesperiæ and the Perorsi, whom we have already spokenIn c. 8 of the preceding Book. of as dwelling on the confines of Mauritania. Some tribes, too, of the Æthiopians subsist on nothing but locusts,They were thence called by the Greeks "Acridophagi." According to Agatharchides, these people dwelt in what is modern Nubia, where Burkhardt found the people subsisting on lizards. which are smoke-dried and salted as their provision for the year; these people do not live beyond their fortieth year.

M. Agrippa was of opinion that the lengthHardouin remarks, that the length is measured from south-east to south-west; and the breadth from south to north. of the whole country of the Æthiopians, including the Red Sea, was two thousand one hundred and seventy miles, and its breadth, including Upper Egypt, twelve hundred and ninety-seven. Some authors again have made the following divisions of its length; from Meroë to Sirbitum eleven days' sail, from Sirbitum to the Dabelli fifteen days', and from them to the Æthiopian Ocean six days' journey. It is agreed by most authors, that the distance altogether, from the oceanThe supposed Southern Ocean, which joins the Atlantic on the west. to Meroë, is six hundred and twenty-five miles, and from Meroë to Syene, that which we have already mentioned. Æthiopia lies from south-east to south-west. Situate as it is, in a southern hemisphere, forests of ebony are to be seen of the brightest verdure; and in the midst of these regions there is a mountain of immense height, which overhangs the sea, and emits a perpetual flame. By the Greeks this mountain is called Theon Ochema, Or the "Chariot of the gods," mentioned also in Book ii. c. 110, and B. v. c. 1. It is supposed to have been some portion of the Atlas chain; but the subject is involved in the greatest obscurity. and at a distance of four days' sail from it is a promontory, known as Hesperu Ceras,Or the "Western Horn." It is not known whether this was Cape de Verde, or Cape Roxo. Ansart thinks that it is the same as Cape Non. It is mentioned in c. 1 of B. v. as the "promontorium Hesperium." upon the confines of Africa, and close to the Hesperiæ, an Æthiopian nation. There are some writers who affirm that in these regions there are hills of a moderate height, which afford a pleasant shade from the groves with which they are clad, and are the haunts of ÆgipansSee notes to B. v. c. 1, in vol. i. p. 378. and Satyrs.

We learn from Ephorus, as well as Eudoxus and Timosthenes, that there are great numbers of islands scattered all over this sea; Clitarchus says that king Alexander was informed of an island so rich that the inhabitants gave a talent of gold for a horse, and of anotherMarcus says that these islands are those called the "Two Sisters," situate to the west of the Isle of Socotra, on the coast of Africa. They are called by Ptolemy, Cocionati. upon which there was found a sacred mountain, shaded with a grove, the trees of which emitted odours of wondrous sweetness; this last was situate over against the Persian Gulf. CerneThe position of this island has been much discussed by geographers, as being intimately connected with the subject of Hanno's voyage to the south of Africa. Gosselin, who carries that voyage no further south than Cape Non, in about 28° north lat., identifies Cerne with Fedallah, on the coast of Fez, which, however, is probably much too far to the north. Major Rennell places it as far south as Arguin, a little to the south of the southern Cape Blanco, in about 20° 5′ North latitude. Heeren, Mannert, and others, adopt the intermediate portion of Agadir, or Souta Cruz, on the coast of Morocco, just below Cape Ghir, the termination of the main chain of the Atlas. If we are to trust to Pliny's statement, it is pretty clear that nothing certain was known about it in his day. is the name of an island situate opposite to Æthiopia, the size of which has not been ascertained, nor yet its distance from the main land: it is said that its inhabitants are exclusively Æthiopians. Ephorus states that those who sail from the Red Sea into the Æthiopian Ocean cannot get beyond the ColumnæThe "Pillars." Marcus thinks that these were some small islands near the Isle of Socotra. there, some little islands so called. Polybius says that Cerne is situate at the extremity of Mauritania, over against Mount Atlas, and at a distance of eight stadia from the land; while Cornelius Nepos states that it lies very nearly in the same meridian as Carthage, at a distance from the mainland of ten miles, and that it is not more than two miles in circumference. It is said also that there is another island situate over against Mount Atlas, being itself known by the name of Atlantis.Hardouin says that this is not the Atlantis rendered so famous by Plato, whose story is distantly referred to in B. ii. c. 92 of this work. It is difficult to say whether the Atlantis of Plato had any existence at all, except in the imagination. Five days' sail beyond it there are deserts, as far as the Æthiopian Hesperiæ and the promontory, which we have mentioned as being called Hesperu Ceras, a point at which the face of the land first takes a turn towards the west and the Atlantic Sea. Facing this promontory are also said to be the islands called the Gorgades,Medusa and her sisters, the daughters of Phorcys and Ceto. The identity of their supposed islands seems not to have been ascertained. For the poetical aspect of their story, see Ovid's Met., B. iv. the former abodes of the Gorgons, two days' sail from the mainland, according to Xenophon of Lampsacus. Hanno, a general of the Carthaginians, penetrated as far as these regions, and brought back an account that the bodies of the women were covered with hair, but that the men, through their swiftness of foot, made their escape; in proof of which singularity in their skin, and as evidence of a fact so miraculous, he placed the skinsIt is not improbable that these were the skins of a species of uran- outang, or large monkey. of two of these females in the temple of Juno, which were to be seen there until the capture of Carthage. Beyond these even, are said to be the two islands of the Hesperides; but so uncertain are all the accounts relative to this subject, that Statius Sebosus says that it is forty days' sail, past the coast of the Atlas range, from the islands of the Gorgons to those of the Hesperides, and one day's sail from these to the Hesperu Ceras. Nor have we any more certain information relative to the islands of Mauritania. We only know, as a fact well-ascertained, that some few were discovered by Juba over against the country of the Autololes, upon which he established a manufactory of Gætulian purple.The Purpurariæ, or "Purple Islands," probably the Madeira group.

There are some authors who think that beyond these are the Fortunate Islands,Or Islands of the Blessed—the modern Canaries. and some others; the number of which Sebosus gives, as well as the distances, informing us that JunoniaSupposed to be the modern island of Fuerteventura. is an island seven hundred and fifty miles distant from Gades. He states also that PluvialiaSupposed to be that now called Ferro. and CaprariaProbably the modern Gomera. In B. iv. c. 36, Pliny mentions them as six in number, there being actually seven. are the same distance from Junonia, to the west; and that in Pluvi- alia the only fresh water to be obtained is rain water. He then states that at a distance of two hundred and fifty miles from these, opposite the left of Mauritania, and situate in the direction of the sun at the eighth hour, are the Fortunate Islands,He does not appear on this occasion to reckon those already men- tioned as belonging to the group of the Fortunatæ Insulæ. one of which, from its undulating surface, has the name of Invallis,The present Isle of Teneriffe. and another that of Planasia,Supposed to be that now called Gran Canaria. from the peculiarityThe smoothness of its surface. of its appearance. He states also that the circumference of Invallis is three hundred miles, and that trees grow to a height of one hundred and fourteen feet.

Relative to the Fortunate Islands, Juba has ascertained the following facts: that they are situate to the south in nearly a due westerly direction, and at a distance from the Purple Islands of six hundred and twenty-five miles, the sailing being made for two hundred and fifty miles due west, and then three hundred and seventy-five towards the east.It is impossible to see clearly what he means. Littré says that it has been explained by some to mean, that from the Purpurariæ, or Madeira Islands, it is a course of 250 miles to the west to the Fortunate or Canary Islands; but that to return from the Fortunatæ to the Purpurariæ, required a more circuitous route in an easterly direction. He states that the first is called Ombrios,Or Pluvialia, the Rainy Island, previously mentioned. and that it presents no traces of buildings whatever; that among the mountains there is a lake, and some trees,Salmasius thinks that the sugar-cane is here alluded to. Hardouin says that in Ferro there still grows a tree of this nature, known as the "holy tree." which bear a strong resemblance to giant fennel, and from which water is extracted; that drawn from those that are black is of a bitter taste, but that produced by the white ones is agreeable and good for drinking. He states also that a second island has the name of Junonia, but that it contains nothing beyond a small temple of stone: also that in its vicinity there is another, but smaller, islandOr the Lesser Junonia; supposed to be the same as the modern Lanzarote. of the same name, and then another called Capraria, which is infested by multitudes of huge lizards. According to the same author, in sight of these islands is Ninguaria,Or "Snow Island," the same as that previously called Invallis, the modern Teneriffe, with its snow-capped peak. which has received that name from its perpetual snows; this island abounds also in fogs. The one next to it is Canaria;So called from its canine inhabitants. it contains vast multitudes of dogs of very large size, two of which were brought home to Juba: there are some traces of buildings to be seen here. While all these islands abound in fruit and birds of every kind, this one produces in great numbers the date palm which bears the caryota, also pine nuts. Honey too abounds here, and in the rivers papyrus, and the fish called silurus,As to the silurus, see B. ix. c. 17. are found. These islands, however, are greatly annoyed by the putrefying bodies of monsters, which are constantly thrown up by the sea.

Having now fully described the earth, both withoutHardouin takes this to mean, both as to the continent, with the places there situate, and the seas, with the islands there found; the continent being the interior, and the seas the exterior part. It is much more likely, however, that his description of the interior of the earth is that given in the 2nd Book, while the account of the exterior is set forth in the geographical notices contained in the 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th. as well as within, it seems only proper that we should succinctly state the length and breadth of its various seas.

(33.) Polybius has stated, that in a straight line from the Straits of Gades to the mouth of the Mæotis, it is a distance of three thousand four hundred and thirty-seven miles and a half, and that, starting from the same point,The Straits of Gades or Cadiz. the distance in a straight line to Sicily is twelve hundred and fifty miles, from thence to Crete three hundred and seventy-five, to Rhodes one hundred and eighty-seven and a half, to the Chelidonian Islands the same distance, to Cyprus two hundred and twenty-five, and from thence to Seleucia Pieria, in Syria, one hundred and fifteen miles: the sum of all which distances amounts to two thousand three hundred and forty miles. Agrippa estimates this same distance, in a straight line from the Straits of Gades to the Gulf of Issus, at three thousand three hundred and forty miles; in which computation, however, I am not certain that there is not some error in the figures, seeing that the same author has stated that the distance from the Straits of Sicily to Alexandria is thirteen hundred and fifty miles. Taking the whole length of the sea-line throughout the gulfs above-men- tioned, and beginning at the same point,The Straits of Gades. he makes it ten thousand and fifty-eight miles; to which number Artemidorus has added seven hundred and fifty-six: the same author, including in his calculation the shores of the Mæotis, makes the whole distance seventeen thousand three hundred and ninety miles. Such is the measurement given by men who have penetrated into distant countries, unaided by force of arms, and have, with a boldness that exhibits itself in the times of peace even, challenged, as it were, Fortune herself.

I shall now proceed to compare the dimensions of the various parts of the earth, however great the difficulties which may arise from the discrepancy of the accounts given by various authors: the most convenient method, however, will be that of adding the breadth to the length.Littré has the following remark: "Is it possible that Pliny can have imagined that the extent of a surface could be ascertained by adding the length to the breadth?" It is just possible that such may not have been his meaning; but it seems quite impossible to divine what it was. Following this mode of reckoning, the dimensions of Europe will be eight thousand two hundred and ninety-four miles; of Africa, to adopt a mean between all the various accounts given by authors, the length is three thousand seven hundred and ninety-four miles, while the breadth, so far as it is inhabited, in no part exceeds two hundred and fifty miles.He means to say that the interior is not inhabited beyond a distance of 250 miles from the sea-coast. But, as Agrippa, including its deserts, makes it from Cyrenaica, a part of it, to the country of the Garamantes, so far as was then known, a further distance of nine hundred and ten miles, the entire length, added together, will make a distance of four thousand six hundred and eight miles. The length of Asia is generally admittedSee B. v. c. 9. to be six thousand three hundred and seventy-five miles, and the breadth, which ought, properly, to be reckoned from the Æthiopian Sea to Alexandria,He is probably speaking only of that part of Asia which included Egypt, on the eastern side of the river Nile, according to ancient geography. His mode, however, of reckoning the breadth of Asia, i.e. from south to north, is singular. See p. 104. near the river Nile, so as to run through Meroë and Syene, is eighteen hundred and seventy-five. It appears then that Europe is greater than Asia, by a little less than one half of Asia, and greater than Africa by as much again of Africa and one-sixth. If all these sums are added together, it will be clearly seen that Europe is one-third, and a little more than one-eighth part of one-third, Asia one-fourth and one-four- teenth part of one-fourth, and Africa, one-fifth and one-sixtieth part of one-fifth of the whole earth.On a rough calculation, these aliquot parts in all would make 4/4 2/2 6/9 4/0 3/0 parts of the unit. It is not improbable that the figures given above as the dimensions are incorrect, as they do not agree with the fractional results here given by Pliny.

To the above we shall add even another instance of ingenious discovery by the Greeks, and indeed of the most minute skilfulness; that so nothing may be wanting to our investigation of the geographical divisions of the earth, and the various countries thereof which have been pointed out; that it may be the better understood, too, what affinity, or relationship as it were, exists between one region and another, in respect to the length of their days and nights, and in which of them the shadows are of equal length, and the distance from the pole is the same. I shall therefore give these particulars as well, and shall state the divisions of the whole earth in accordance with the various sections of the heavens. The lines or segments which divide the world are many in number; by our people they are known as "circuli" or circles, by the Greeks they are called "paralleli" or parallels.

(34.) The first begins at that part of India which looks towards the south, and extends to Arabia and those who dwell upon the borders of the Red Sea. It embraces the Gedrosi, the Carmanii, the Persæ, the Elymæi, Parthyene, Aria, Susiane, Mesopotamia, Seleucia surnamed Babylonia, Arabia as far as Petra, Cœle Syria, Pelusium, the lower parts of Egypt called the Chora of Alexandria, the maritime parts of Africa, all the cities of Cyrenaica, Thapsus, Adrumetum, Clupea, Carthage, Utica, the two Hippo's, Numidia, the two Mauritanias, the Atlantic Sea, and the Pillars of Hercules. Within the meridian of this parallel, on the middle day of the equinox, the pin of the dial, usually called the gnomon, if seven feet in length, throws a shadow at mid-day no more than four feet long: the longest day and night are fourteen equinoctial hours respectively, the shortest being only ten.

The next circle or parallel begins with the western parts of India, and runs through the middle of Parthia, through Persepolis, the nearer parts of Persis, the nearer Arabia, Judæa, and the people who live near Mount Libanus, and it embraces Babylon, Idumæa, Samaria, Hierosolyma, Ascalon, Joppa, Cæsarea in Phoenicia, Ptolemais, Sidon, Tyre, Berytus, Botrys, Tripolis, Byblus, Antiochia, Laodicea, Seleucia, the maritime parts of Cilicia, the southern parts of Cyprus, Crete, Lilybæum in Sicily, and the northern parts of Africa and Numidia. In these regions, at the time of the equinox, a gnomon of thirty-five feet in length gives only a shadow twenty-four feet long; and the longest day and night are respectively fourteen equinoctial hours, and one-fifth of an hour, in length.

The third circle or parallel begins at the part of India which lies in the vicinity of Mount Imaiis, and runs through the Caspian Gates and the nearer parts of Media, Cataonia, (appadocia, Taurus, Amanus, Issus, the Passes of Cilicia, Soli, Tarsus, Cyprus, Pisidia, Side in Pamphylia, Lycaonia, Patara in Lycia, Xanthus, Caunus, Rhodes, Cos, Halicarnassus, Cnidos, Doris, Chios, Delos, the middle of the Cyclades, Gythium, Malea, Argos, Laconia, Elis, Olympia, Messenia in Peloponnesus, Syracuse, Catina, the middle of Sicily, the southern parts of Sardinia, Carteia, and Gades. A gnomon, one hundred inches in length, throws a shadow seventy-seven inches long; the length of the longest day is fourteen equinoctial hours and a half, plus one thirtieth of an hour.

Under the fourth circle or parallel lie those parts of India which are on the other side of the Imaiis, the southern parts of Cappadocia, Galatia, Mysia, Sardis, Smyrna, Sipylus, Mount Tmolus, Lydia, Caria, Ionia, Tralles, Colophon, Ephesus, Miletus, Chios, Samos, the Icarian Sea, the northern part of the Cyclades, Athens, Megara, Corinth, Sicyon, Achaia, Patræ, the Isthmus, Epirus, the northern parts of Sicily, the eastern parts of Gallia Narbonensis, and the sea-coast of Spain, from New Carthage westward. In these districts a gnomon of twenty-one feet throws a shadow of sixteen feet in length; the longest day contains fourteen equinoctial hours and two-thirds of an hour.

Under the fifth zone are included, from the entrance to the Caspian Sea, the Bactri, Iberia, Armenia, Mysia, Phrygia, the Hellespont, Troas, Tenedos, Abydos, Scepsis, Ilium, Mount Ida, Cyzicus, Lampsacus, Sinope, Amisus, Heraclea in Pontus, Paphlagonia, Lemnos, Imbros, Thasos, Cassandria, Thessaly, Macedonia, Larissa, Amphipolis, Thessalonica, Pella, Edessa, Berœa, Pharsalia, Carystus, Eubœa in Bœotia, Chalcis, Delphi, Acarnania, Ætolia, Apollonia, Brudisium, Tarentum, Thurii, Locri, Rhegium, the Lucani, Neapolis, Puteoli, the Tuscan Sea, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, and the middle of Spain. A gnomon, seven feet in length, in these countries gives a shadow of six feet, and the length of the day is fifteen equinoctial hours.

The sixth division, in which Rome is included, embraces the Caspian nations, Caucasus, the northern parts of Armenia, Apollonia on the Rhyndacus, Nicomedia, Nicæa, Chalcedon, Byzantium, Lysimachia, the Chersonnesus, the Gulf of Melas, Abdera, Samothracia, Maronea, Ænus, Bessica, Thracia, Mædica, Pæonia, the Illyrii, Dyrrhachium, Canusium, the extreme parts of Apulia, Campania, Etruria, Pisæ, Luna, Luca, Genua, Liguria, Antipolis, Massilia, Narbo, Tarraco, the middle parts of Hispania Tarraconensis, and thence through Lusitania. A gnomon of nine feet here throws a shadow eight feet long; the greatest length of the day is fifteen equinoctial hours, plus one-ninth part of an hour, or, according to Nigidius, one-fifth.

The seventh division begins on the other side of the Caspian Sea, and the line runs above Callatis, and through the Bosporus, the Borysthenes, Tomi, the back part of Thrace, the Triballi, the remainder of Illyricum, the Adriatic Sea, Aquileia, Altinum, Venetia, Vicetia, Patavium, Verona, Cremona, Ravenna, Ancona, Picenum, the Marsi, the Peligni, the Sabini, Umbria, Ariminum, Bononia, Placentia, Mediolanum, all the districts at the foot of the Apennines, and, beyond the Alps, Gallia Aquitanica, Vienna, the Pyrenæan range, and Celtiberia. A gnomon thirty-five feet in length here throws a shadow of thirty-six feet, except in some parts of Venetia, where the shadow just equals the length of the gnomon; the longest day is fifteen equinoctial hours, plus three-fifths of an hour.

Thus far we have set forth the results of observations made by the ancients. The remaining part of the earth has been divided, through the careful researches of those of more recent times, by three additional parallels. The first runs from the Tanais through the Mæotis and the country of the Sarmatæ, as far as the Borysthenes, and so through the Daci and part of Germany, and the Gallic provinces, as far as the shores of the ocean, the longest day being sixteen hours.

The second parallel runs through the country of the Hyperborei and the island of Britannia, the longest day being seventeen hours in length.

The last of all is the Scythian parallel, which runs from the Riphæan range to Thule, in which, as we have already stated,B. iv. c. 26. the year is divided into days and nights alternately, of six months' duration. The same authors have also placed before the first parallel, which we have here given,In p. 111. two other parallels or circles; the first running through the island of Meroë and the city of Ptolemais which was built on the Red Sea for the chase of the elephant; where the longest day is twelve hours and a half in length; and the second passing through Syene in Egypt, in which the longest day is thirteen hours in length. The same authors have also added half an hour to each of the parallels, till they come to the last.

Thus far on the Geography of the earth.

SUMMARY.—Towns mentioned, eleven hundred and ninety-four. Nations, five hundred and seventy-six. Noted rivers, one hundred and fifteen. Famous mountains, thirty-eight. Islands, one hundred and eight. Peoples or towns no longer in existence, ninety-five. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations, two thousand two hundred and fourteen.

ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M.Agrippa,See end of B. iii. M. Varro,See end of B. ii. Varro Atacinus,See end of B. iii. Cornelius Nepos,See end of B. ii. Hyginus,See end of B. iii. L. Vetus,See end of B. iii. Mela Pomponius,See end of B. iii. Domitius Corbulo,See end of B. v. Licinius Mucianus,See end of B. ii. Claudius Cæsar,See end of B. v. Arruntius,See end of B. iii. Sebosus,See end of B. ii. Fabricius Tuscus,See end of B. iii. T. Livius,The famous Roman historian, a native of Padua. He died at his native town, in the year A.D. 17, aged 76. Of his Annals, composed in 142, only 35 Books have come down to us. Seneca,L. Annæus Seneca, the Roman philosopher and millionnaire. He was put to death by Nero. Nigidius.P. Nigidius Figulus, a Roman senator, and Pythagorean philosopher, skilled in astrology and other sciences. He was so celebrated for his knowledge, that Aulus Gellius pronounces him, next to Varro, the most learned of the Romans. He was an active partisan of Pompey, and was compelled by Cæsar to live at a distance from Rome. He died in exile, R. C. 44. There is a letter of consolation addressed to him by Cicero in his Epistles "ad Familiares," which contains a warm tribute to his worth and learning.

FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—King Juba,See end of B. v. Hecatæus,For Hecatæus of Miletus, see end of B. iv. Hecatæus of Abdera was a contemporary of Alexander the Great and Ptolemy Lagides. He is thought to have accompanied the former in his Asiatic expedition as far as Syria. He was a pupil of the sceptic Pyrrho, and is called a philosopher, critic, and grammarian. He was the author of a History of Egypt, a work on the Hyperborei, and a History of the Jews. Hellenicus,See end of B. iv. Damastes,See end of B. iv. Eudoxus,For Eudoxus of Cnidos, see end of B. ii. Eudoxus of Cyzicus was a geographer and a native of Egypt, who was employed by Ptolemy Euergetes and his wife Cleopatra in voyages to India. He made attempts to circumnavigate Africa by sailing to the south, but without success. He is supposed to have lived about B.C. 130. See B. ii. c. 67 of the present work. Dicæarchus,See end of B. ii. Bæton,See end of B. v. Timosthenes,See end of B. iv. Patrocles,He commanded the fleets of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and of Seleucus Nicator, by whose orders he paid a visit to the coasts of India. Strabo speaks of his account of India as the best guide to the geography of that country. Demodamas,A native of Miletus—see the tenth Chapter of this Book. He appears to have written a geographical work on Asia, from which Pliny derived considerable assistance. Clitarchus,Son of Deinon, the historian; he accompanied Alexander in his Asiatic expedition, and wrote a history of it. Quintus Curtius censures him for his inaccuracy. Cicero, Quintilian, and Longinus, also speak in slighting terms of his performance. Eratosthenes,See end of B. ii. Alexander the Great,He alludes to the letters of that monarch, and the journals which were kept on the occasion of his expeditions. In the middle ages several forged works were current under his name. Ephorus,See end of B. iv. Hipparchus,See end of B. ii. Panætius,See end of B. v. Callimachus,See end of B. iv. Artemidorus,See end of B. ii. Apol- lodorus,See end of B. iv. Agathocles,See end of B. iv. Polybius,See end of B. iv. Eumachus,See end of B. iv. Timæus Siculus,See end of B. iv. Alexander Polyhistor,See end of B. iii. Isidorus,See end of B. ii. Amometus,A Greek writer of uncertain date, who wrote, as Pliny tells us, (c. 20 of the present Book), a work on the people called Attaci, or Attacori. He also wrote another, describing a voyage, commenced at Memphis in Egypt. Metrodorus,See end of B. iii. Posidonius,See end of B. ii. Onesicritus,See end of B. ii. Nearchus,The admiral of Alexander, who sailed down the river Indus, and up the Persian Gulf. It is not known when or where he died. After the death of Alexander, he supported the cause of Antigonus. He left a history or journal of his famous voyage. Megasthenes,See end of B. v. Diognetus,Mentioned by Pliny in c. 21. He measured the distances of the marches of Alexander the Great, and wrote a book on the subject. Aristocreon,See end of B. v. Bion,A native of Soli. He is mentioned by Diogenes Lærtius, as the author of a work on Æthiopia, of which some few fragments are preserved. Varro and Pliny mention him, also, as a writer on agriculture. Dalion,A writer on geography and botany, again mentioned by Pliny in B. xx. c. 73. He is supposed to have lived in the first century after Christ. See also c. 35. the Younger Simonides,Said to have been a native of Meroë, and to have written a History of Æthiopia; nothing else seems to be known of him. Basilis,The author of a work on India, of which the second Book is quoted by Athenæus. From what Pliny says, in c. 35, he seems to have also written on Æthiopia. He is mentioned by Agatharchides as one of the writers on the East: but nothing more seems to be known of him. XenophonSee end of B. iii. of Lampsacus.