Commmentary on the Plunder of Syracuse

The Plunder of Syracuse. (In C. Verrem: Actio II., Lib. IV., ch. 52-60.)

The passage which follows is from the fourth oration of the Accusatio, the most famous of all, known as the De Signis because it treats chiefly of the works of art stolen by Verres. Cicero has been describing the plundering of many temples and public buildings, and in this passage he recounts in detail the case of one chief city, Syracuse, as a climax. Syracuse was by far the largest and richest of all the Greek cities of Italy and Sicily. It was a colony of Corinth, founded B.C. 734, and in course of time obtained the rule over the whole eastern part of Sicily. It remained independent, with a considerable territory, after the western part of the island (far the larger part) passed under the power of Rome in the First Punic War; but in the Second Punic War (B.C. 212) it was captured by Marcellus, and ever after was subject to Rome. It was at this time the capital of the province.

Contrast between the treatment of Syracuse by the conqueror Marcellus in time of war and its treatment by Verres, the governor, in time of peace.

aliquando ,at last, implying impatience, here assumed as a kind of apology to his hearers for the length of his account.

Marcello : M. Claudius Marcellus, of a noble plebeian family (all the other families of the Claudian gens were patrician), was the ablest general the Romans had in the early years of the Second Punic War, but illiterate and cruel. His capture of Syracuse was in B.C. 212. He was killed in battle B.C. 208.

The contrast between Verres and Marcellus is a brilliant one; nevertheless, the orator exaggerates, as on so many occasions. Not only did Marcellus stain his military honor by permitting a general pillage of the wealthy mercantile city, in the course of which Archimedes and many other citizens were put to death, but the Roman Senate lent a deaf ear to the complaints which the Syracusans afterwards presented regarding that celebrated general, and neither returned to individuals their property nor restored to the city its freedom (Mommsen).

imperatoris : this title, properly belonging to every holder of the imperium, was by usage assumed by the commander only after his first considerable victory.

cohortem ,train of courtiers, etc.: the provincial magistrates, representing the Roman imperium, had almost a royal suite, as well as other insignia of royalty.

omitto : a good example of the rhetorical device known as praeteritio.

locis , i.e. in the other speeches of the Accusatio .

forum: every ancient town had its central market-place or square (forum,ἀγορά), an open space, used for trading, public assemblies, and the administration of justice. The same feature exists in European towns at the present day.

clausus fuisset : Marcellus had been obliged to starve out the city.

Cilicum : Cilicia was the chief seat of the organized bands of pirates who ruled the Mediterranean at this time.

illis rebus , i.e. the plunder of temples, etc.

Situation and topography of Syracuse.

maximam : the circuit of its walls was about 180 stadia = more than 20 miles.

ex omni aditu limits praeclaro ad aspectum .

in aedificatione , etc., i.e. enclosed by the buildings of the city. Ancient harbors (as at Athens) were often at a considerable distance from the city.

conjunguntur : Ortygia (or Insula), the site of the original town, had an independent harbor on each side connected by a narrow channel. This channel is the exitus mentioned.

Hieronis : Hiero II, king of Syracuse (B.C. 270 to about 216), who was during most of his reign a steadfast ally of Rome.

Dianae : the quail, ὄρτυξ (whence the name Ortygia), was sacred to Diana (Artemis).

istius , i.e. of Verres.

Arethusa : for the myth of Arethusa and Alpheus, see Ovid, Met. 5.573-641; Gayley, Classic Myths.

Achradina , the plain and table-land north of Ortygia

prytaneum : the building in which the city was conceived to have its home. Here was the hearth, sacred to Vesta, whence colonists carried the sacred fire to kindle a new hearth in the prytaneum of their new home. It was also used for courts of justice, public banquets, etc. Such public buildings were usually grouped round the forum in the centre of the city.

urbis , i.e. Achradina.

perpetua ,running its whole length .

continentur ,are lined in continuous rows.

gymnasium : the place for exercise and baths, with porticos, groves, and halls.

coaedificata ,built up.

Neapolis , i.e. the new city.

quam ad summam ,at the highest point of which.

Marcellus, the conqueror at Syracuse: compare Verres, the governor.

pulchritudinem : the English would put it less abstractly, — this beautiful city.

in ,in respect to.

habuit victoriae rationem ,had regard for the right of victory.

deportare : a Roman custom, imitated in the nineteenth century by Napoleon.

possent , subj. of characteristic.

humanitatis ,the part of humanity .

Honoris etc the worship of abstractions was a characteristic of the Roman religion Marcellus restored the temple of Honor and built the temple of Virtus, the two were so connected that in common parlance they were referred to as a single edifice

in aedibus , i.e. in his own house in town

ornamento , i.e. as being free from stolen treasures

deum nullum translate, in order to keep the emphasis of the position, of the gods not one (i e not a single statue)

comparetis , i e in renown and in personal character

pacem cum bello , etc implying that the administration of Verres in time of peace was worse than the armed capture by Marcellus

forum et juris dictionem ,law and justice the forum is mentioned as being the place where the praetor administered justice; juris dictio was his special function (see note on Verres, 1, sect. 12, p.32, 1.13).

Details of the robberies of Verres.

aedis Minervae : the illustration shows how this ancient temple of Minerva in Syracuse has been made over into a church.

tamen in bello : translate though in war, still, etc. The particle tamen (still) often suggests a concession (although), not expressed, but loosely implied in the context or the circumstances; here the implied concession is though the rights of an enemy in war are unlimited.

religionum ,things sacred .

consuetudinis , i.e. things hallowed by use.

Agathocli : tyrant of Syracuse, B.C. 317-289.

visendum : see Manil., sect. 40,p.85, l. 6, note.

profana fecisset : the Romans had a formula by which they called away (evocare) and gained over to their side the tutelary deities of any cities they were besieging. Of course, the temples of these gods then lost all their sanctity and became profane buildings. With the same idea the true name of Rome and that of its tutelar divinity were said to be kept as a mystery, lest they should become known to an enemy, who might thus disarm the city of its protector.

Notwithstanding this doctrine, the Romans were often, as in the case of Marcellus, prevented by religious feeling ( religione) from violating the sacred edifices of conquered cities. Often, too, they transferred the worship of the deities in question to Rome. On the whole idea, cf. Aeneid, 2. 351.

jam belongs with sacra religiosaque.

id quod ,what

deberet : subj. of characteristic.

in quibus erant ,upon which were represented.

cognitione formarum ,acquaintance with their features.

tamen : see note on p.52, i. 4.

tam . . . cupidum ,that I am so eager (in appos. with quod).

illi , i.e. the Greeks, as being over-fond of art. The Romans were inclined to look down upon culture and the fine arts as being less manly than politics and war; cf. the famous passage in the Aeneid, 6. 846-853.

argumenta ,subjects or stories (in relief) ; cf. Aeneid, vi. 20, and note.

Gorgonis : the head of Medusa, a favorite subject of ancient art. See Fig. 10, from an ancient marble mask.

bullas , i.e. knobs.

in hoc nomine ,at this item (i.e. wondering why Verres should have taken these).

commoveri ,were surprised .

satis esset , i.e. they were only curiosities. Any natural object which was, in the view of the ancients, out of the common order of nature was regarded as a monstrum or prodigium, and as therefore associated in some w-ay with the gods ; hence such objects were frequently dedicated in temples.

id merely repeats hastas .

nam explains (ironically) why he asks the last question. A passion for art might, he suggests, excuse the theft of such an object as the Sappho, but the stealing of the bamboos was a wanton sacrilege.

potius, etc., rather than this most tasteful and cultivated man.

haberet : §444 (268); B. 277; G. 265; H. 559, 4 (484. v). H.-B. 503.

nimirum (continuing the irony), of course.

nostrum ,of us (emph.), opp. to Verres.

eat (hort. subj.), must go .

ad aedem Felicitatis : the temple of Felicitas was adorned with the spoils of conquered Corinth. Catulus had adorned his temple of Fortuna, and Metellus his portico, with splendid works of art.

istorum , Verres and his friends.

Tusculanum ,villa at Tusculum (about 15 miles southeast of Rome) where the wealthy Romans, Hortensius among the rest, had splendid country-houses.

ornatum , i.e. as it was on festal days.

commodarit ,lent: such works of art were often placed temporarily in the Forum; cf. our modern loan exhibitions.

operari ,mere day-laborer: said in contempt of Verres’s pretensions to culture.

studia ,fine tastes.

delicias ,luxurious pleasures (both ironical).

appositior ,better fitted .

ad ferenda , etc., to carry (as a porter) than to carry off (as a connoisseur): a sarcasm on Verres’s coarse and heavy build.

Graeculus : in contemptuous allusion to his pretence of taste.

subtiliter judicat ,is a fine connoisseur of.

nunc ,now (as it is) opposed to si . . . tulisset .

parinum (corrupt and meaningless): the common reading is parvum; perhaps the old conjecture Parium, of Parian marble, is best.

Libero patre : not Liber his father, but father Liber, pater being a common attribute of Liber as well as of Mars and other gods. Liberi filius (1.6) is spurious.

Jovem : the statue was of Zeus οὖριος, god of favorable weather, identified, from some fancied resemblance, with Juppiter imperator.

suo : the emphatic position continues the emphasis on Jovem .

Flamininus : T. Quinctius Flamininus, who defeated Philip of Macedon at Cynoscephalae, B.C. 197.

in Ponti ore : the Thracian Bosporus, the strait extending from Constantinople to the Black Sea, about 1 7 miles.

sua : §301, b (196, c); cf. B. 244, 4; G. 309, 2; H. 503, 2 (449, 2); H.-B. 264, 2.

Capitolio : the Capitol, or Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, had three cellae, or chapels, sacred to the Capitolian triad, Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva. This was now the most illustrious temple, the earthly abode, of Jupiter.

incolae ,residents, i.e. persons of foreign birth who made Syracuse their home, without having obtained citizenship ; advenae (next line), visitors .

adventu , abl. of cause.

mensas Delphicas : tables with three legs, like the Delphic tripod (see Figs. 13, 14); vasa Corinthia were made of a kind of bronze, of peculiar beauty and very costly.

Robberies of works of art are especially odious to men of Greek blood.

levia et contemnenda : cf. note on p. 53, l. 30.

fanorum ,shrines: the word indicates the consecrated spot rather than the temple or altar erected upon it.

nisi forte : introducing, as usual, an absurd supposition.

desierunt ,ceased, i.e. by the transference of the courts to the Senators.

Crasso : L. Licinius Crassus, the famous orator, and Quintus Scaevola, pontifex maximus, the famous jurist and statesman, were close friends, and colleagues in nearly every office. They were curule aediles, B.C. 103, and gave the first exhibition of lion-fights. The splendor of their aedileship was the work of Crassus, a man of elegant and luxurious tastes, while Scaevola was moderate and simple in his habits.

Claudio : probably a brother of Claudia, the wife of Tiberius Gracchus. In his aedileship, B.C. 99, he exhibited fights of elephants.

commercium : Crassus and Claudius would have bought such objects of art if anybody could have done it.

fuisse , sc. commercium.

referri ,be entered, has for subject pretio . . . abalienasse .

rebus istis ,things of that sort .

apud illos , i.e. the Greeks generally.

The cities referred to in this section were all centres of Greek art or celebrated for the possession of some masterpiece. Reginos: Rhegium, Reggio, was a very ancient Greek city at the point of Italy nearest Sicily. It was a colony of Chalcis, probably founded in the eighth century B.C., and became a Roman municipium after the Social War, B.C. 91-90.

merere velle ,would take .

illa ,that famous.

Tarentinos : Tarentum was the largest Greek city in Italy, a colony of Sparta, founded in the eighth century B.C., subjugated by Rome just after the invasion of Pyrrhus, B.C. 272.

Cnidios . . . Coos : observe the chiasm.

buculam : the celebrated bronze cow of Myron.

longum est, it would be tedious: §522, a (311, c) ; B. 304, 3 ; G. 254, R.1 ; H. 525, 2 (476,5); H.-B. 582, 3, b.