# Citation format — Nuremberg + Tokyo

How to cite, with worked examples. Read this before drafting any output containing a Nuremberg or Tokyo citation.

## The five citation modes

### 1. Charter / Statute provisions

**IMT Charter:**
> *Charter of the International Military Tribunal*, art. [n], annexed to the *Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis*, 82 U.N.T.S. 280 (London, 8 August 1945).

Short forms: *IMT Charter*, art. [n].

**Tokyo Charter:**
> *Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East*, art. [n], issued by Special Proclamation of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Tokyo, 19 January 1946.

Short forms: *Tokyo Charter*, art. [n]; *IMTFE Charter*, art. [n].

**Control Council Law No. 10:**
> *Control Council Law No. 10 (Punishment of Persons Guilty of War Crimes, Crimes against Peace and against Humanity)*, Allied Control Council, 20 December 1945, art. [n].

### 2. The IMT Judgment

**Blue Series form (preferred for paginated pinpoint):**
> *Judgment of the International Military Tribunal*, in *Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal*, Vol. I (Official Documents) and Vol. XXII (Proceedings), pp. [n] (Nuremberg 1947).

**Oxford ICL form:**
> *France et al. v. Göring (Hermann) et al.*, Judgment and Sentence, [1946] 22 IMT 203; (1946) 41 AJIL 172; (1946) 13 ILR 203; ICL 243 (IMTN 1946), International Military Tribunal, 1 October 1946.

**Avalon Project transcription form:**
> "Judgment of the International Military Tribunal" (Avalon Project, Yale Law School), `https://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/judgen.asp`, accessed [date].

### 3. NMT cases (the twelve subsequent trials)

**Form:**
> *United States v. [Defendant] et al.*, [case nickname if applicable] (US Military Tribunal [number] at Nuremberg, [date of judgment]), in *Trials of War Criminals Before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10*, Vol. [n], pp. [n] (Washington, DC: US GPO, 1949-1953).

**Worked examples:**
- *United States v. Altstötter et al.* (the **Justice Case**) (US Military Tribunal III, Nuremberg, 3-4 December 1947), in *Trials of War Criminals*, Vol. III.
- *United States v. Ohlendorf et al.* (the **Einsatzgruppen Case**) (US Military Tribunal II-A, Nuremberg, 8-9 April 1948), in *Trials of War Criminals*, Vol. IV.
- *United States v. Brandt et al.* (the **Doctors' Trial**) (US Military Tribunal I, Nuremberg, 19-20 August 1947), in *Trials of War Criminals*, Vols. I-II.

### 4. The IMTFE Judgment

**Pritchard-Zaide form (preferred):**
> *Judgment of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East*, 4-12 November 1948, in *The Tokyo War Crimes Trial*, ed. R. John Pritchard & Sonia M. Zaide, Vol. 20 (Judgment and Annexes), pp. [n] (New York: Garland Publishing 1981).

**Short / case-name form (sometimes used in scholarship):**
> *International Military Tribunal for the Far East v. Araki et al.*, Judgment, IMTFE, 4-12 November 1948.

(The defendants are sometimes referred to collectively as "*Araki et al.*" — Sadao Araki was the first-named defendant. Other scholars use "*Tojo et al.*" since Tojo is the best-known defendant. Both are encountered; the Pritchard-Zaide canonical form is recommended.)

**Separate opinions:**
> *Dissentient Judgment of Justice Radhabinod Pal* (IMTFE, 1948), in *The Tokyo War Crimes Trial*, Vol. 21 (Separate Opinions), pp. [n].

Other separate opinions (Röling, Bernard, Webb, Jaranilla) follow the same form.

**Critical citation discipline for the IMTFE:** the Pal dissent is famously cited in post-colonial international legal scholarship. Always distinguish:
- "The IMTFE held …" (= the majority Judgment, Pritchard-Zaide Vol. 20)
- "Justice Pal dissented …" (= the dissenting opinion, Pritchard-Zaide Vol. 21)
- "At Tokyo, it was argued …" (= argument, not holding)

Never present Pal's dissenting view as "the Tribunal said".

### 5. The Nuremberg Principles (ILC 1950)

**Form:**
> *Principles of International Law recognized in the Charter of the Nürnberg Tribunal and in the Judgment of the Tribunal, with Commentaries*, International Law Commission, 1950, Principle [I-VII], in *Yearbook of the International Law Commission*, 1950, Vol. II, paras 95-127.

### 6. UNGA Resolutions

- UNGA Resolution 95(I), UN Doc. A/64, 11 December 1946.
- UNGA Resolution 177(II), 21 November 1947.

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## The 22 tried IMT defendants — names, fates

| Defendant | Spelling | Sentence |
|---|---|---|
| Hermann Wilhelm Göring | Göring | Death (suicide before execution) |
| Rudolf Hess | Heß | Life imprisonment |
| Joachim von Ribbentrop | von Ribbentrop | Death |
| Wilhelm Keitel | Keitel | Death |
| Ernst Kaltenbrunner | Kaltenbrunner | Death |
| Alfred Rosenberg | Rosenberg | Death |
| Hans Frank | Frank | Death |
| Wilhelm Frick | Frick | Death |
| Julius Streicher | Streicher | Death |
| Walther Funk | Funk | Life imprisonment |
| Hjalmar Schacht | Schacht | **Acquitted** |
| Karl Dönitz | Dönitz | 10 years' imprisonment |
| Erich Raeder | Raeder | Life imprisonment |
| Baldur von Schirach | von Schirach | 20 years' imprisonment |
| Fritz Sauckel | Sauckel | Death |
| Alfred Jodl | Jodl | Death |
| Martin Bormann | Bormann | Death **in absentia** |
| Franz von Papen | von Papen | **Acquitted** |
| Arthur Seyss-Inquart | Seyß-Inquart | Death |
| Albert Speer | Speer | 20 years' imprisonment |
| Konstantin von Neurath | von Neurath | 15 years' imprisonment |
| Hans Fritzsche | Fritzsche | **Acquitted** |

**Not tried:** Robert Ley (suicide before trial), Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach (found unfit).

**The four counts:** Count 1 (Common Plan or Conspiracy); Count 2 (Crimes against Peace); Count 3 (War Crimes); Count 4 (Crimes against Humanity). Convictions and acquittals are count by count; state the count.

**Criminal organisations declared by the IMT:** Leadership Corps of the Nazi Party; Gestapo and SD; SS. **Acquitted as organisations:** SA; Reich Cabinet; General Staff and High Command.

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## The 28 indicted IMTFE defendants — names, fates

**Tried and convicted:**

| Defendant | Position | Sentence |
|---|---|---|
| Hideki Tōjō (Tojo) | Prime Minister | Death by hanging |
| Kōki Hirota | Prime Minister, Foreign Minister | Death by hanging |
| Kenji Doihara | General | Death by hanging |
| Iwane Matsui | General (Nanjing) | Death by hanging |
| Seishirō Itagaki | General | Death by hanging |
| Heitarō Kimura | General | Death by hanging |
| Akira Mutō | General | Death by hanging |
| Sadao Araki | General, Education Minister | Life imprisonment |
| Kingorō Hashimoto | Colonel | Life imprisonment |
| Shunroku Hata | Field Marshal | Life imprisonment |
| Kiichirō Hiranuma | Prime Minister | Life imprisonment |
| Naoki Hoshino | Cabinet Minister | Life imprisonment |
| Okinori Kaya | Finance Minister | Life imprisonment |
| Kōichi Kido | Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal | Life imprisonment |
| Kuniaki Koiso | Prime Minister | Life imprisonment |
| Jirō Minami | General | Life imprisonment |
| Takasumi Oka | Vice Admiral | Life imprisonment |
| Hiroshi Ōshima | Ambassador to Germany | Life imprisonment |
| Kenryō Satō | General | Life imprisonment |
| Shigetarō Shimada | Admiral, Navy Minister | Life imprisonment |
| Toshio Shiratori | Diplomat | Life imprisonment |
| Teiichi Suzuki | Cabinet Minister | Life imprisonment |
| Yoshijirō Umezu | General | Life imprisonment |
| Shigenori Tōgō | Foreign Minister | 20 years' imprisonment |
| Mamoru Shigemitsu | Foreign Minister | 7 years' imprisonment |

**Not judged on the merits:**
- **Yōsuke Matsuoka** (Foreign Minister) — died during trial (June 1946)
- **Osami Nagano** (Admiral, Chief of Naval General Staff) — died during trial (January 1947)
- **Shūmei Ōkawa** (ideologue) — declared mentally unfit; charges dropped

**Total indicted:** 28. **Total judged:** 25.

**Not indicted (a critical historical point):** **Emperor Hirohito** — a deliberate decision by SCAP / MacArthur, controversial then and now, central to the post-colonial critique of the IMTFE.

**Diacritics and Japanese names.** Japanese names follow the convention "Given name + family name" in IMTFE records (English-language record); Japanese-language records use the conventional Japanese order "Family name + given name" (e.g. Tōjō Hideki / 東條 英機). The Pritchard-Zaide volumes use the English ordering. Cite consistently with the source used.

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## The 11 IMTFE judges — names, nations, separate opinions

| Judge | Nation | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Sir William Webb | Australia | **President of the Tribunal**. Issued a separate opinion (concurring) |
| Edward Stuart McDougall | Canada | — |
| Mei Ju-ao | China | — |
| Henri Bernard | France | Issued a **dissenting opinion** |
| Lord Patrick (William Donald Patrick) | United Kingdom | — |
| Radhabinod Pal | India | Issued a **dissenting opinion** acquitting all defendants — extensively cited |
| Erima Harvey Northcroft | New Zealand | — |
| Bert (B.V.A.) Röling | Netherlands | Issued a **dissenting opinion** (partial) |
| Delfin Jaranilla | Philippines | Issued a separate opinion (concurring, more severe sentences) |
| Iván Mikheyevich Zaryanov | USSR | — |
| John P. Higgins / Myron Cramer | United States | Higgins resigned June 1946; replaced by Cramer |

The five separate opinions are in Pritchard-Zaide Vol. 21. They are not part of the operative Judgment but are extensively cited in scholarship.

## When the citation cannot be completed

If, after verification, you cannot identify the volume, page, count, or judicial opinion, the citation is not yet a citation. Narrow the claim, or tell the user what is missing and ask them to provide the source.