# Universal `--agent` Section

Buyer-side agency landscape: commission rate, who-pays split, licensing regime, MLS / no-MLS reality, dual-agency legality, exclusivity-contract risk, buyer's-agent (EBA / aankoopmakelaar / mandataire de l'acquéreur) availability, off-plan vs developer-agent distinction. Covers all 126 supported countries.

**Snapshot**: May 2026. Commissions and statutory splits change with market cycles + reforms — treat as point-in-time. The headline reform shaping 2025-2026 buyer experience is the **US NAR settlement (Sitzer/Burnett)** announced 14 March 2024, effective **17 August 2024** — listing brokers can no longer publish buyer-agent commission via MLS, and buyers must sign a written buyer-agent agreement before the first showing. Also material: **DE Bestellerprinzip extension to sales** (§§656a-d BGB, effective 23 Dec 2020 — buyer's commission capped at seller's share for owner-occupied homes), **AT Bestellerprinzip for rentals** (1 Jul 2023 — not yet extended to sales), **CZ Zákon 39/2020 Sb.** (3 Mar 2020 — broker as regulated trade), **TR Yetki Belgesi** (Communiqué 5 Jun 2018 — 4% statutory cap), **VN Real Estate Business Law 29/2023** (effective 1 Jan 2025), **CN Lianjia commission crackdown** (Beijing/Shanghai/Shenzhen 2023-2025).

**Anti-hallucination**: every commission % or statutory rule should be traceable to a primary source (national agent-association tariff, statutory licensing register, reform legislation). Where the figure is industry-reported aggregate rather than statute, label `(industry-reported)` and surface confidence.

**Disambiguation — `--agent` vs `--notary` vs `--exit`**: `--agent` = the **pre-offer / negotiation-phase** agency landscape (who shows you the property, who negotiates, who you sign exclusivity with). `--notary` = transaction-completion fees + procedural process. `--exit` = sell-side commission + time-on-market when you eventually sell. Some seller-side commission data overlaps `--exit`; this section focuses on the **buyer's** experience.

## Universal contract

For the property's country, return:
1. **Commission rate band** — typical buyer-side / seller-side / total range (e.g., FR 5-7% total seller-paid, DE 3.57% each post-Dec-2020)
2. **Who pays** — buyer / seller / split / negotiated. Statutory vs market practice
3. **Licensing regime** — mandatory state body (CARTE T FR, RICS UK, etc.) / voluntary association (AMPI MX, FIAIP IT) / none
4. **MLS y/n** — and what serves as MLS substitute when absent (Rightmove UK, Funda NL, Idealista ES vs no-MLS reality FR/IT/MX where each agent shops their own listings)
5. **Dual-agency legality** — legal? declaration required? banned (NY post-2024)?
6. **Exclusivity-contract risk** — mandat exclusif (FR 3-mo lock), sole-agency UK, multi-listing FR
7. **Buyer's-agent (EBA) availability** — does an Exclusive Buyer's Agent or aankoopmakelaar (NL) exist? Typical fee?
8. **Off-plan vs developer-agent distinction** — does the listing agent represent the developer (no buyer-side fiduciary)? Common in AE / ES new-build / KH / TH off-plan
9. **Confidence**: HIGH / MEDIUM / LOW

## Output template

```markdown
## Agency Landscape (Buyer Side)

**Country**: <ISO2>
**Commission band**: buyer <%> / seller <%> / total <%> typical
**Who pays**: <buyer / seller / split / negotiated>
**Licensing regime**: <mandatory body | voluntary association | none>
**MLS**: <yes — platform / no — shop-multiple-agents reality>
**Dual agency**: <legal / declaration / banned>
**Exclusivity risk**: <mandat exclusif duration / sole-agency norm / multi-listing>
**Buyer's-agent (EBA)**: <available — typical fee / rare / not a thing>
**Off-plan distinction**: <developer-agent dominant — no buyer-side fiduciary>
**Confidence**: <HIGH/MEDIUM/LOW>
**Sources**: <URLs>
```

## Cross-cutting traps to surface every time

These appear across multiple countries and warrant a buyer-facing flag whenever the user is shopping:

1. **The "no-MLS, shop-multiple-agents" trap** — France, Italy, Mexico, Spain, parts of LatAm have no consolidated MLS. Each agent shops their own catalogue with exclusivity contracts. Buyers who walk into the first agency they find see only that agency's listings — they may miss 70% of the local market. Always shop ≥3 agents OR engage a buyer's-agent who has cross-agency access.
2. **The "buyer pays both halves" trap** — Germany pre-Dec 2020 (still in some Bundesländer for non-residential), Austria, parts of Switzerland, Cyprus historically, Italy (statutory both-sides under Art. 1755 c.c.), Greece (statutory both-sides under L. 4072/2012), Japan (statutory cap both-sides). The seller-side commission is **also** charged to the buyer at closing. Read the listing's "Käuferprovision" / "Provision" line carefully.
3. **The "exclusive mandat" lock-in trap** — French *mandat exclusif* runs 3 months minimum (often auto-renewing), during which the buyer can ONLY transact via that agency; even buying direct from seller during the period triggers the commission. Italian *mandato esclusivo* has similar dynamics. Sign multi-listing (*mandat simple*) when possible.
4. **The "implicit seller-fiduciary" trap** — UK / IE / US default: the agent represents the seller. Their statutory duty is to maximise the seller's price. Buyers who treat them as "neutral" advisors get burned. NAR settlement (effective 17 Aug 2024) requires US buyers to sign written buyer-agent agreements — but the listing agent is still on the seller's side. The "buyer's agent" in common-law markets is a separate engagement. **Norway is the structural exception** — Eml. § 6-3 imposes statutory neutrality (eiendomsmegler owes duty of care to BOTH parties).
5. **The "developer agent on-site, no buyer's agent" off-plan trap** — UAE off-plan (Emaar/DAMAC/Nakheel/Sobha pavilions), SA Vision 2030 mega-projects (NEOM/Diriyah/AlUla), Spanish costa new-build, Cambodia, Thailand condo developments, Vietnam HCMC pre-construction, Philippines Manila pre-selling, Brazil "lançamento", Mexico coastal "preventa" all have on-site sales reps employed (or commissioned) by the developer. They are NOT independent. Walk past them if you want independent representation.
6. **The "advertised rent is a floor, not a ceiling" trap (tight rental markets)** — in supply-tight rental markets the asking rent is an *opening bid*: applicants compete by offering above-ask, several months upfront, or a longer term. Most acute in the **Netherlands** (Amsterdam / Utrecht / the Randstad), parts of **Germany** (Berlin / Munich), and **Ireland** (Dublin). But rent regulation can claw an over-ask bid back: NL's *Wet betaalbare huur* (Affordable Rent Act, in force 1 Jul 2024) extends the WWS points cap into the mid-rent segment and makes above-cap rents challengeable to the *Huurcommissie*; DE *Mietpreisbremse* and IE Rent Pressure Zones cap increases similarly. Verify the legal-max rent BEFORE bidding up — on a regulated unit an above-max "winning" bid is often recoverable.

---

## Regional patterns

### Western Europe (FR, IT, ES, PT, DE, AT, CH, NL, BE, LU, IE, UK, GR, MT, CY)

Western Europe splits cleanly along two axes: legal tradition (civil-law vs common-law) and reform posture on who pays the agent. The civil-law core — FR, IT, ES, PT, GR, BE, LU — runs on a fragmented, multi-agent listing model with no true MLS; properties appear simultaneously on agency websites, portals (SeLoger, Idealista, Immobiliare.it, Funda's BE peers), and direct from notaries. Common-law markets — UK (England & Wales primary), IE — and portal-dominated NL approximate MLS coverage via Rightmove/Zoopla, Daft/MyHome, and Funda respectively, where listing on the dominant portal is de facto mandatory. Licensing regimes range from strict statutory (FR Carte T under Loi Hoguet 1970; IE PSRA Act 2011; AT Maklergesetz; BE IPI; MT REA Act 2020) to redress-scheme-only (UK has no general estate-agent licence — only mandatory ombudsman membership under EAA 1979 + CPRs 2008). The headline reform of the decade is DE's Bestellerprinzip extension to sales (§§656a-d BGB, effective 23 Dec 2020): for owner-occupied homes the buyer's commission is capped at the seller's share (typically split 3.57% + 3.57% incl. VAT). CH varies by canton with no federal cap; ES costa and PT Algarve new-build markets are dominated by developer-tied agents whose commission is embedded in price (buyer pays no agent fee directly but loses negotiating leverage). Buyer's-agent (chasseur / aankoopmakelaar / buying agent) services are mature in FR, NL, UK, DE; nascent in IT, ES, PT. Dual agency is generally legal in civil-law countries with disclosure (FR — declared in mandat; IT — Art. 1754 c.c. requires disclosure to both); ES regional rules vary; UK NAEA Propertymark code requires full disclosure and informed consent.

- **FR**: Total commission 4-8% (Apr 2026 industry-reported), typically 5-6% on €300-500k, declining to 3-4% above €1M. Charged to the seller in the mandat; economically borne by buyer via price. Licensing: **Carte T** (transactions) under **Loi Hoguet n°70-9 du 2 janvier 1970** + Décret n°72-678; renewed every 3 years via CCI. No real MLS — agents work mandat simple (non-exclusive) or **mandat exclusif** (3-month minimum, then monthly cancellation per Loi Hoguet). Chasseur immobilier (buyer's agent) charges 2-3% of purchase price under separate mandat de recherche. New-build VEFA: developer pays an in-house or tied commercialisateur; buyer pays 0% direct.
- **IT**: Total commission 5-7% (Apr 2026 industry-reported); split **3% + 3% + 22% IVA** is the modal pattern — buyer AND seller each pay the agent (Art. 1755 c.c.). Both sides liable as soon as the agent has "put the parties in contact" (provvigione due at preliminary contract / proposta accettata). Licensing: agents must be enrolled in the **REA** (Repertorio Economico Amministrativo) at the local Camera di Commercio under **Legge 39/1989** as amended; FIAIP and FIMAA are voluntary professional associations. No MLS in the US sense — Immobiliare.it, Idealista.it, Casa.it serve as portals; multi-agent listings normal. Mandato esclusivo possible but mandato non esclusivo more common.
- **ES**: Total commission 3-7% (Apr 2026 industry-reported), seller-paid in resale; 5% modal in costa markets, 2-3% in Madrid/Barcelona high-end. **No mandatory national agent licence** — Real Decreto-ley 4/2000 deregulated; **Cataluña**, **Madrid**, and several CCAA require registration in regional **RAICV / Registro de Agentes Inmobiliarios** (verify per region). Idealista + Fotocasa dominate as portals; no true MLS though regional MLS-style cooperatives (MLS España, AMPSI) exist among API-affiliated agents. Off-plan/costa new-build: developer pays the commercializadora directly; buyer pays 0% agent fee but the cost is in the price. Buyer's agent / personal shopper inmobiliario emerging, typically 1-3%.
- **PT**: Total commission 5-6% + 23% IVA (Apr 2026 industry-reported); seller-paid. Licensing: **AMI licence** (Mediação Imobiliária) issued by **IMPIC, I.P.** under **DL 15/2013**; mandatory civil liability insurance. Idealista.pt, Imovirtual, Casa Sapo as portals — no MLS. **Mandato de exclusividade** common (6-month default but negotiable). New-build Algarve/Lisbon: developer-tied agents (e.g., large agencies' new-developments arms) commission embedded in price. APEMIP is the main professional association.
- **DE**: **Bestellerprinzip for sales** in force since **23 Dec 2020 (§§ 656a-d BGB, Gesetz über die Verteilung der Maklerkosten bei der Vermittlung von Kaufverträgen über Wohnungen und Einfamilienhäuser)**. For owner-occupied **flats and single-family houses**, the buyer's share **cannot exceed the seller's share** — the buyer pays at most 50% of total. Modal structure post-reform: 7.14% total split **3.57% + 3.57% incl. 19% VAT** (Bavaria, Berlin, Hamburg, Hesse, NRW, Saxony etc. — most Bundesländer); some regions historically had seller-only or buyer-only conventions, now superseded for the covered property types. Licensing: **§ 34c GewO Maklererlaubnis** at the municipal Gewerbeamt; not as strict as Carte T. No MLS — ImmoScout24, Immowelt dominate.
- **AT**: Statutory commission caps under the **Immobilienmaklerverordnung (IMV) BGBl. 297/1996** as amended: for sale price ≥ €48,449.12, **max 3% + 20% USt each side** (buyer and seller); below thresholds 4% then sliding scale. **Bestellerprinzip for rentals** since **1 July 2023 (§ 17a MaklerG)** — note this is the rental reform, NOT extended to sales as in DE. Licensing: **Maklergesetz (MaklerG) BGBl. 262/1996** + **Gewerbeordnung § 117** — Immobilienmakler is a regulated trade (reglementiertes Gewerbe). No MLS — willhaben.at, ImmobilienScout24.at, derStandard portals. ÖVI is the main professional association.
- **CH**: No federal cap; commission set freely. Industry-reported range 2-3.5% seller-paid (Apr 2026); **GE/VD French-speaking cantons cluster 3-5%**, **ZH/ZG German-speaking cantons 2-3%**. No federal real-estate licence — regulation by cantonal trade laws (e.g., **GE Loi sur les courtiers en valeurs mobilières et les courtiers en immeubles** for Geneva). **SVIT** (German-speaking) and **USPI** (French-speaking) are voluntary professional associations with codes of conduct. Homegate, ImmoScout24.ch portals — no MLS.
- **NL**: Commission 1-2% seller-side (verkoopmakelaar) + 1-2% buyer-side **aankoopmakelaar** when engaged (Apr 2026 industry-reported); typical aankoopmakelaar fee **1-1.5% + 21% BTW** or fixed €3,000-6,000. Two separate mandates standard. Licensing: **no statutory licence since 2001** (Wet op de beëdigde makelaars repealed); **NVM, VBO, VastgoedPRO** are voluntary associations — NVM members get exclusive access to the NVM data exchange feeding **Funda**. Funda is the de facto MLS substitute. Dual agency (dienen van twee heren) legal only with both parties' written consent under NVM rules.
- **BE**: Commission 3-3.63% incl. 21% BTW seller-side typical (Apr 2026 industry-reported), regional variation Flanders / Brussels / Wallonia. Licensing: **BIV/IPI (Beroepsinstituut van Vastgoedmakelaars / Institut Professionnel des agents Immobiliers)** mandatory under **Loi-cadre du 11 février 2013** (replacing 1993 framework); IPI register publicly searchable. Immoweb, Zimmo, Immovlan as portals — no MLS. Exclusivity contracts (alleenverkoopovereenkomst) common, 3-6 months typical.
- **LU**: Commission 3% + 17% TVA seller-side typical (Apr 2026 industry-reported, **Chambre Immobilière Grand-Duché de Luxembourg** range); buyer pays 0% direct. Licensing: **autorisation d'établissement** (business permit) from Ministère de l'Économie under **Loi du 2 septembre 2011** on access to professions; agent must demonstrate professional qualification. AtHome.lu, Immotop.lu portals — no MLS. Mandat exclusif uncommon; mandat simple modal.
- **IE**: **PSRA (Property Services Regulatory Authority)** licence mandatory under **Property Services (Regulation) Act 2011**; licence categories A (auctioneer/estate agent), B (letting agent), C, D. Public licence register at psr.ie. Commission 1-2.5% + 23% VAT seller-side (Apr 2026 industry-reported); **sale by private treaty** dominant; **sale by tender / sealed bid** used in competitive markets. Daft.ie + MyHome.ie as the dominant portals — no formal MLS but high coverage. Buyer's agent (buying agent) services niche, 1-2% fees. IPAV and SCSI are the two professional bodies.
- **UK (E&W)**: Agent represents the seller by default; commission **1-3% + 20% VAT seller-paid**, sole agency 1-2% modal, multi-agency 2-3.5% (Apr 2026 industry-reported). **No general estate-agent licence in E&W** — regulation via **Estate Agents Act 1979**, **Consumer Protection from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008**, mandatory **redress scheme membership** (The Property Ombudsman or Property Redress Scheme) under **Consumers, Estate Agents and Redress Act 2007**, and AML registration with HMRC. **NAEA Propertymark** and **RICS** are voluntary professional bodies. **Rightmove + Zoopla + OnTheMarket** as portal triumvirate — Rightmove de facto MLS substitute. Buying agents 1-2.5% + VAT, mature segment in London/SE. Scotland differs: solicitor-estate-agents, **offers-over** + sealed bid norm (not E&W).
- **GR**: Commission 2-4% + 24% FPA each side typical (Apr 2026 industry-reported) — **buyer AND seller both pay** the agent under **Law 4072/2012** (mesitis akiniton); 2% modal each side. Licensing: registration in the **General Commercial Registry (GEMI)** at local Chamber of Commerce; mesitis must hold a professional licence. Spitogatos, XE.gr as portals — no MLS. Dual agency legal with disclosure.
- **MT**: Commission 5% + 18% VAT seller-side typical (Apr 2026 industry-reported); buyer pays 1% in some agency models. Licensing: **Real Estate Agents, Property Brokers and Property Consultants Act (Chapter 615 of the Laws of Malta)** in force since **2020** — mandatory licensing via the **Licensing Authority** (Malta Competition and Consumer Affairs Authority / MCCAA framework). Frank Salt, RE/MAX Malta, Dhalia dominate — no MLS, agency websites + propertymarket.com.mt + MaltaPark portals.
- **CY**: Commission 3-5% + 19% VAT seller-side typical (Apr 2026 industry-reported). Licensing: **Real Estate Agents Law 71(I)/2010** as amended — mandatory registration with the **Cyprus Real Estate Agents Registration Council (CREAA)**; licence number must appear on all marketing. Bazaraki.com, Property.com.cy as portals — no MLS. **Off-plan / developer-direct sales dominate Paphos/Limassol coastal markets** — developer pays in-house or tied agents; buyer pays 0% direct but cost is embedded.

### Western European microstates (LI, MC, AD, SM)

Microstate brokerage markets are tiny, opaque, and family-/private-banking-mediated. There is no MLS in any of the four; properties move through a handful of CIM/AGIA-affiliated agencies (MC, AD), notaries (LI, SM), and word-of-mouth. Foreign-buyer eligibility (LI's GVG residency rule, AD's prior FDI authorization, SM's reciprocity gate) constrains the agency role more than commission economics. Buyer's-agents in the EBA sense are essentially absent — when foreign buyers want representation, they hire a notary or a Swiss/French/Italian relocation lawyer. Listing exclusivity is industry custom, not statute, except in AD where AGIA membership and the 5% legal cap shape the contract.

- **LI**: No mandatory licensing or statutory association; some agents hold FIABCI certification or register with the Government — buyer-side commission ~3–3.9% of price (industry-reported), typically buyer-paid when buyer engages agent. GVG (Land Transfer Act) approval gate dominates the transaction; agent role is secondary to notary/Government approval. No MLS; tiny inventory.
- **MC**: Chambre Immobilière Monégasque (CIM, founded 1945, ~90 member agencies) publishes a regulated fee scale for member agencies — practitioner-reported norm is 3% buyer + 3% seller (industry-reported; CIM scale not publicly URL-citable in full). No MLS; CIM member directory is the substitute. Dual agency tolerated within CIM ethics framework.
- **AD**: AGIA (Col·legi d'Agents i Gestors Immobiliaris d'Andorra) governed by Llei d'agents i gestors immobiliaris of 15 December 2000 — mandatory registration to practise. Statutory commission cap **5% paid solely by seller**; buyer pays no agency fee. AGIA member directory + parish-level listings substitute for MLS.
- **SM**: No domestic licensing regime distinct from Italy; commission practice tracks Italian Civil Code Art. 1755 (buyer + seller each pay) — both sides 2–4% + 22% VAT (industry-reported). Listings flow through Italian portals (Immobiliare.it, Idealista.it) covering San Marino as an Italian-province overlay; no domestic MLS.

### CEE / Baltics (CZ, SK, PL, HU, RO, BG, SI, EE, LV, LT, HR)

The CEE/Baltics agency landscape splits into **formalised regimes** (CZ — Zákon č. 39/2020 Sb. effective 3 Mar 2020, mandatory regulated trade + professional liability insurance; HR — Zakon o posredovanju u prometu nekretnina with HGK chamber registry and recent 2025 reform tightening; SI — ZNPosr permit + 2025 Constitutional Court annulment of most of Article 5's 4% cap; HU — state-recognized real-estate-agent qualification 04164005 replacing the OKJ 52 341 02 from 1 Jan 2021) and **deregulated regimes** (PL — "Lex Gowin" deregulation, Ustawa o ułatwieniu wykonywania działalności gospodarczej of 9 May 2014, abolished mandatory licensing — only mandatory civil-liability insurance remains; LT — no formal license but the LRTA + 10 agencies were fined in 2015 for a 3% minimum-commission cartel by the Competition Council, a useful tell on real fees; LV, EE, BG — voluntary association membership only; RO — voluntary APAIR today, with a National Electronic Register of Real Estate Agents (RENII) bill + 180-hour training proposal pending). Across the region the **portal duopoly substitutes for MLS** (CZ Sreality + Bezrealitky; PL Otodom + OLX/Domiporta; HU ingatlan.com; SK nehnutelnosti.sk + topreality.sk; RO Imobiliare.ro + Storia.ro; BG imot.bg + bazar.bg; SI Nepremicnine.net; HR Njuškalo + Index Oglasi + Crozilla; EE KV.ee + city24.ee; LV ss.com + city24.lv; LT aruodas.lt + skelbiu.lt). **Dual agency** is broadly tolerated everywhere except where statute prohibits charging the non-engaging party (SI, post-Constitutional-Court 2025). **Exclusivity contracts** are the agent's preference but fragmented enforcement means buyers can usually escape with notice. **Buyer's-agent (EBA) representation** is rare across the entire region — boutique advisory firms exist in Prague, Warsaw, Budapest, Bucharest, Zagreb but volume is thin. **Off-plan/developer-agent distinction** matters most in Warsaw, Prague, Budapest, and Zagreb — developer's in-house sales offices typically charge buyer 0% (commission baked into list price), but third-party agents marketing the same units may charge buyer 2–3%; verify on each listing.

- **CZ**: Realitní zprostředkovatel licensing under Zákon č. 39/2020 Sb. (effective 3 Mar 2020) — regulated trade, criminal-record check, mandatory professional liability insurance min. 1,750,000 CZK / event. ARK ČR voluntary association. Typical commission **3–5%** of price (industry-reported, ~4% Prague average); **who pays varies geographically** — Prague often split or buyer-paid, Brno almost always buyer-paid, smaller cities seller-paid. Sreality.cz dominant + Bezrealitky.cz (FSBO).
- **SK**: No statutory licensing — NARKS (Národná asociácia realitných kancelárií Slovenska, 1992) issues voluntary 3-year agent licence (LRM) and 5-year agency licence (LRK) via 35-/70-question competence test. Typical commission **2–5%** seller-paid (industry-reported). nehnutelnosti.sk dominant + topreality.sk.
- **PL**: Deregulated since "Lex Gowin" (Ustawa o ułatwieniu wykonywania działalności gospodarczej z 9 maja 2014 r.) — no mandatory licensing; only mandatory civil-liability insurance. PFRN (Polska Federacja Rynku Nieruchomości) voluntary certification + Centralny Rejestr PFRN. Typical commission **2–4% per side, 3% common** (industry-reported); often double-sided in Warsaw (3%+3%), seller-only at "good" agencies. Otodom dominant + OLX + Domiporta.
- **HU**: State-recognized real-estate-agent qualification 04164005 mandatory (replaced OKJ 52 341 02 from 1 Jan 2021); business must register with the real-estate-supervisory authority before operating; lawyers exempt. MAISZ (Magyar Ingatlanszövetség) voluntary professional federation. Typical commission **1.5–5% + 27% VAT seller-paid**, with optional 2% buyer-side fee if buyer engages own agent (industry-reported). ingatlan.com dominant.
- **RO**: Today voluntary APAIR (Asociația Profesională a Agenților Imobiliari din România, founded 2009) — no statutory license yet; RENII registry + 180-hour training requirement bill pending. Typical commission **2–3% per side** (industry-reported), often both sides; buyer fee ~2–3% of price common. Imobiliare.ro + Storia.ro dominant.
- **BG**: No special license to operate; only Commercial Register entry required. NREA (National Real Estate Association, founded 1992, ~1,500 members across 28 cities) is the dominant voluntary body. Typical commission **2–5%, 3% per side common**; if buyer has no representing broker, they typically owe 3% to the seller's broker (industry-reported, Art. 51 Commerce Act). imot.bg + bazar.bg dominant.
- **SI**: ZNPosr permit-based licensing via SPOT register; previously **4% statutory cap** under Article 5 ZNPosr — Constitutional Court annulled most of Article 5 in 2025, so the only remaining statutory restriction is that an agency cannot charge a party that did not engage them (effectively bans dual-fee). Typical commission **1–3% seller-paid** in practice (industry-reported). Nepremicnine.net dominant portal.
- **EE**: No mandatory licensing — but the Estonian Chamber of Real Estate Agents (EKFL/Maakleritekoda) issues voluntary professional qualifications "Kinnisvaramaakler tase 5" and "Vanemmaakler tase 6" via Kutseregister. Typical commission **3–5% seller-paid** (industry-reported, range up to 6%). KV.ee + city24.ee duopoly.
- **LV**: No formal licensing — anyone can act as intermediary. LANIDA (Latvian Real Estate Association) issues voluntary credential + register. Typical commission **3–5%** (industry-reported, range varies with transaction size). ss.com + city24.lv dominant.
- **LT**: No formal licensing. LRTA (Lithuanian Real Estate Agencies Association) was fined by the Competition Council in 2015 (LRTA + 10 agencies, total EUR 969,060) for a 3%-minimum cartel — meaning the **3% headline rate is the de-facto practitioner norm but cannot be coordinated**; rates today **1.5–3% seller-paid** (industry-reported). aruodas.lt dominant + skelbiu.lt.
- **HR**: Mandatory registration in HGK (Hrvatska gospodarska komora) public broker registry + agent list; broker professional exam, business-premises requirement, mandatory insurance ≥200,000 HRK/event (legacy figure — verify post-euro conversion). Statutory commission cap **6%** under Zakon o posredovanju u prometu nekretnina; recent reform restricts charging both buyer and seller the maximum. Typical practice **3–6%**, often split. Njuškalo + Index Oglasi + Crozilla dominant.

### Nordics + Iceland (SE, FI, NO, DK, IS)

The Nordics + Iceland operate the most heavily regulated brokerage market in Europe. Every country requires individual broker registration with a state authority (not just the firm), enforced via dedicated statutes — Sweden's Fastighetsmäklarlagen (2021:516, replacing 2011:666), Norway's Eiendomsmeglingsloven (2007), Denmark's Lov om formidling af fast ejendom (LBK nr 1009/2014), Finland's LKV/LVV qualification under the Välityslaki (1074/2000 + 1075/2000), and Iceland's Lög um sölu fasteigna 70/2015. The defining feature is **statutory neutrality**: in Norway the eiendomsmegler owes a duty of care to BOTH buyer and seller (Eml. § 6-3), and Sweden's mäklare similarly must act as an "impartial intermediary" (opartisk mellanman) — meaning a separate buyer's agent (köpcoach in SE, kjøpsmegler in NO) is rare and largely advisory, not transactional. Portals are MLS-equivalent monopolies: Hemnet (SE) lists ~90% of stock, Finn.no (NO) is near-universal, Boliga (DK) and Etuovi/Oikotie (FI) split Finland. Öppen budgivning (open ascending bidding, visible to all bidders) is standard in SE/NO and creates strong upward price pressure. Dual agency is statutorily prohibited or tightly restricted everywhere. Commissions are seller-paid, modest by European standards (1.5-3.5% in NO/DK/IS, sliding 2-5% in SE, 4-5% incl. VAT in FI), and broker fee transparency is mandatory pre-contract. Iceland and Denmark mandate that the broker (or in DK an attached jurist/advokat) prepares the deed package — no separate notary visit is needed.

- **SE**: Fastighetsmäklarinspektionen (FMI) individual registration under Fastighetsmäklarlagen 2021:516 (replaced 2011:666); typical 2-5% sliding, seller-paid (industry-reported); Hemnet ~90% portal share; köpcoach buyer-agent advisory only; öppen budgivning standard; statutory impartiality (opartisk mellanman).
- **FI**: LKV (broker) / LVV (rental) qualification via central chamber exam under Välityslaki 1074/2000 + 1075/2000; Etuovi + Oikotie portals; typical 4-5% incl. 25.5% VAT seller-paid (industry-reported); supervised by aluehallintovirasto (regional state agency).
- **NO**: Eiendomsmeglingsloven 2007 (Eml.); Finanstilsynet supervises; Norges Eiendomsmeglerforbund (NEF) trade body; **statutory neutrality — agent owes duty of care to both buyer AND seller** (Eml. § 6-3); Finn.no near-universal; typical 1.5-3.5% seller-paid (industry-reported); kjøpsmegler buyer-agent legal but rare.
- **DK**: Lov om formidling af fast ejendom (LBK nr 1009/2014); Erhvervsstyrelsen registry + Dansk Ejendomsmæglerforening; Boliga + Boligsiden; typical 1.5-3% seller-paid (industry-reported); buyer typically retains a separate købermægler or advokat for due-diligence — dual agency prohibited.
- **IS**: Lög um sölu fasteigna, fyrirtækja og skipa nr 70/2015; Félag fasteignasala Íslands (FF); typical 1.5-2.5% seller-paid + VAT (industry-reported); mbl.is/fasteignir.is + fasteignir.visir.is; small market — same broker often handles both sides under strict disclosure.

### Western Balkans + Eastern Europe non-EU (RS, ME, BA, MK, AL, MD)

This region operates in stark contrast to the Nordics: brokerage is largely **voluntary or chamber-registered rather than state-licensed**, no functional MLS exists, and the same property is routinely listed by 4-8 agents simultaneously at varying prices on competing portals. Serbia is the partial exception — the Law on Real Estate Brokerage (Zakon o posredovanju u prometu i zakupu nepokretnosti, Sl. glasnik 95/2013, amended) requires brokers to be entered in the Ministry of Trade registry and to carry professional indemnity insurance (≥15,000 EUR), but enforcement is uneven. Montenegro, BA, MK, AL, and MD have voluntary trade associations (e.g. Montenegrin Real Estate Association, Klaster Nekretnina Srbije) without statutory monopoly. Commission norms in this region are typically **3% each side (6% total) — significantly higher than the Nordics** — and on the Adriatic coast (Budva, Kotor, Tivat, Saranda, Vlora, Durrës) commissions paid by foreign cash buyers can stretch to 5% buyer-side. Dual agency is legal and routine. Off-plan/developer sales bypass the broker layer entirely — developer in-house sales agents dominate coastal new-build, and "buyer's agent" as a distinct service barely exists outside expat-focused boutique firms in Belgrade, Budva, Tivat, and Tirana. Buyers should treat any quoted price as a starting point and engage an independent advokat (not the agent's lawyer) for cadastre + encumbrance verification.

- **RS**: Zakon o posredovanju u prometu i zakupu nepokretnosti (Sl. glasnik 95/2013); Ministry of Trade broker registry + ≥15k EUR indemnity insurance mandatory; Klaster Nekretnina Srbije voluntary trade body; 4zida + Halo Oglasi + Nekretnine.rs; typical 2-3% each side or 4-6% total (industry-reported); dual agency permitted with disclosure.
- **ME**: no statutory broker law — voluntary Montenegrin Real Estate Association; nekretnine.me + realitica.com; typical 3% each side, coastal Budva/Kotor/Tivat 3-5% on foreign-buyer deals (industry-reported); developer in-house dominates new-build.
- **BA**: entity-level brokerage rules (FBiH vs RS — fragmented); nekretnine.ba + olx.ba; voluntary; typical 3% each side (industry-reported).
- **MK**: pazar3.mk + reklama5.mk; voluntary brokerage, no state license; typical 2-4% total (industry-reported); thin formal agent market outside Skopje/Ohrid.
- **AL**: merrjep.al + Çelësi Real Estate; voluntary, no state license; typical 3% each side, coastal (Saranda/Vlora/Durrës) commissions on foreign cash deals reach 5% buyer-side (industry-reported); developer in-house sales dominate Tirana new-build.
- **MD**: 999.md + lara.md; voluntary, thin agent market; typical 2-4% total (industry-reported); foreign-buyer activity minimal outside Chișinău.

### Anglo non-EU + North America (CA, AU, NZ, US)

The four Anglo non-EU + North America markets share an MLS-driven, buyer-broker-friendly tradition, but the **US NAR settlement (announced 14 March 2024, effective 17 August 2024)** has fundamentally reshaped the region's commission architecture and is the single most important 2024-2026 buyer-side story in any property-skill context. Pre-settlement, US sellers customarily paid a bundled 5-6% commission split roughly evenly between listing and buyer-side brokers, with the offer of cooperation broadcast through the MLS; post-settlement, listing brokers can no longer publish buyer-agent compensation in MLS feeds, and **buyers must sign a written buyer-agent representation agreement BEFORE the first home tour**. Commission is now negotiated separately on each transaction — sellers may still concede a buyer-agent fee in the offer, or buyers may pay their agent directly. State-level implementation varies (NAR v. Sitzer, NAR v. Burnett (W.D. Mo., 2023); settlement details at facts.realtor/nar-settlement). Canada keeps a strictly provincial licensing model — RECA (AB), RECO (ON), OACIQ (QC), RECBC (BC) — with CREA running the national MLS aggregator; dual-agency is banned or heavily restricted in BC and Ontario after 2018-2019 reforms, and the federal **non-resident purchase ban (Prohibition on the Purchase of Residential Property by Non-Canadians Act)** runs through 1 January 2027. Australia layers state Estate Agents Acts (NSW Fair Trading, Consumer Affairs Victoria, OFT QLD) over the REIA member network; underquoting laws (NSW 2016, VIC 2017) constrain listing-price tactics, and **buyer's advocates** are an established mature profession charging 1.6-2.5% or fixed fees — a model genuinely native to AU rather than imported. New Zealand's **REAA 2008** professionalised what was a lightly-regulated market; the Real Estate Authority register makes licence verification trivial, but standalone buyer's-agency remains rare relative to AU/US.

- **CA**: provincial councils — RECA (Alberta), RECO (Ontario), OACIQ (Quebec), RECBC/BC Financial Services Authority (British Columbia); CREA-operated national MLS at realtor.ca; typical **4-5% total seller-paid commission, split listing/buyer-agent ~50/50** (industry-reported, varies by province and price band); dual-agency restricted (banned in BC for residential since June 2018 except remote-area exceptions; Ontario imposes mandatory disclosure under TRESA 2023); buyer-broker representation common but separate Buyer Representation Agreement standard; **federal foreign-buyer ban through 1 January 2027** under the Prohibition on the Purchase of Residential Property by Non-Canadians Act (repeal deferred to 1 January 2027 by Budget Implementation Act, 2024, No. 1, S.C. 2024, c. 17, s. 149).
- **AU**: state Estate Agents Acts — NSW Fair Trading, Consumer Affairs VIC (Estate Agents Act 1980), OFT QLD, Consumer Protection WA; portal duopoly **realestate.com.au + domain.com.au**; typical **1.6-3.5% seller-paid commission** with state and metro variation (industry-reported — Sydney/Melbourne lower, regional higher); **underquoting laws** in NSW (2016) and VIC (2017) require statement of estimated selling price; **buyer's advocates well-established** charging ~1.6-2.5% or fixed fee (REBAA member network); FIRB (Foreign Investment Review Board) approval gates for non-resident purchases, with established-dwelling restrictions tightened April 2025.
- **NZ**: **Real Estate Agents Act 2008** with the Real Estate Authority (REA) operating the licensee register at rea.govt.nz; portals **trademe.co.nz/property + realestate.co.nz**; typical **2.95-3.95% sliding-scale seller-paid commission + GST** (industry-reported — e.g. ~3.95% on first NZ$400k, lower marginal above); standalone buyer's-agent practice rare but emerging; foreign-buyer ban under the Overseas Investment Amendment Act 2018 still in force with limited exemptions (Australians, Singaporeans).
- **US**: **NAR settlement (Sitzer/Burnett — NAR v. Burnett, W.D. Mo.) — $418M class-action settlement announced 14 March 2024, effective 17 August 2024 — fundamental reform**: (a) listing brokers can no longer offer or advertise buyer-agent commission via MLS; (b) buyers must sign a written buyer-agent representation agreement BEFORE first showing. Pre-reform: ~5-6% total commission, customarily seller-paid and split equally (industry-reported). Post-reform: **structure renegotiated; varies by state** — sellers may still concede buyer-agent compensation in the purchase contract, or buyers may pay their own agent directly. State-level real-estate commissions license agents (e.g. CA DRE, NY DOS, FL DBPR, TX TREC); NAR membership ~1.5M; **dual-agency banned in NY effective 2024** (Department of State amendments) and historically banned in FL/CO/KS/TX with restrictions in many other states; portals Zillow, Redfin, Realtor.com via broker IDX feeds; foreign-national mortgage market is the deepest globally.

### Latin America + Caribbean (MX, BR, AR, CR, PA, CO, UY, CL, PE, EC, PY, DO, JM, BS, BB, BZ, KY, BM, TC, VG, KN, AG, LC, GD, TT)

Latin America and the Caribbean form the **most fragmented buyer-side agency landscape covered by this skill**. Outside Brazil — where CRECI registration under **Lei 6.530/1978** is statutorily mandatory and enforced via state-level Conselhos Regionais de Corretores de Imóveis plus the federal COFECI — every other market in the region operates a **voluntary association regime**. AMPI in Mexico, ACOBIR in Panama, FEDELONJAS in Colombia, CIU in Uruguay, CChC/Cámara Inmobiliaria Chilena in Chile, AEI in the Dominican Republic, BREA in the Bahamas, BAREA in Belize — none of these confer a legal monopoly on practising as a real-estate intermediary. An unlicensed neighbour can list and broker your purchase legally in most of these 24 jurisdictions — the exceptions are Brazil (CRECI), the Bahamas (BREA), Bermuda (Real Estate Brokers' Licensing Act 2017 + Superintendent of Real Estate), and Belize (BREIB, rolling out).

A unified MLS does not exist in the Latin-American mainland; the two Caribbean BOT exceptions are Cayman (CIREBA) and Turks & Caicos (TCREA), which run regulated broker-MLS aggregators. Market discovery is otherwise **portal-mediated** — ZAP Imóveis + VivaReal + OLX in Brazil, EasyBroker (the closest thing to a true MLS) in Mexico, Metrocuadrado + Finca Raíz in Colombia, Portal Inmobiliario in Chile, Argenprop + MercadoLibre in Argentina, InfoCasas across the Southern Cone, encuentra24 across Central America. Listings routinely appear on multiple portals at different prices and stale-by-months photo sets are normal.

Buyer's-agent representation (EBA) is **structurally rare** outside expat coastal corridors — Tulum, Playa del Carmen, San Miguel de Allende, Puerto Vallarta, Cabo, Punta Cana, Cayman/Bahamas/Barbados beachfront, and Panama City Pacific-coast condos — where USD-pricing, common-law/UK-influenced practice (Caribbean), and offshore-buyer transaction volume have created a genuine buyer-side fee market at 2-3%. Caribbean prime real estate is overwhelmingly **USD-denominated** (BS$ and BB$ are pegged 1:1 to USD), cash-or-escrow-financed, and lawyer-driven; the agent layer is thinner than the legal layer.

Two structural traps: (1) **MX ejido land fraud** — agrarian-reform land cannot be sold to foreigners without conversion to private title; voluntary AMPI means an unscrupulous agent has no licence to lose; verify via the AMPI Pro registry. (2) **BR CRECI mandatory** — an agent operating without a CRECI number is committing a regulatory offence (`exercício ilegal da profissão`); demand the CRECI-XX number and verify on the state council website before signing anything.

- **MX**: AMPI (Asociación Mexicana de Profesionales Inmobiliarios) voluntary; **NO federal real-estate licensing law**; only Quintana Roo, Jalisco, Sonora, Nuevo León have introduced state-level registries (patchy enforcement); typical 5-7% commission seller-paid (industry-reported); EasyBroker partial MLS in major metros + Inmuebles24 + Vivanuncios portals; expat coastal buyer's-agents 2-3% common in Tulum / SMA / PV / Cabo; off-plan "preventa" sales handled by developer in-house teams.
- **BR**: **CRECI mandatory** under Lei 6.530/1978; federal council COFECI + 27 state CRECIs; "exercício ilegal" is a regulatory offence; typical 6% commission seller-paid (5-8% sliding by region/asset; industry-reported); ZAP Imóveis + VivaReal (now merged as Grupo OLX) + OLX Imóveis portal-based; off-plan "lançamento" sold by developer's stand-and-corretor team.
- **AR**: CUCICBA Buenos Aires + provincial colleges (e.g., COCIR Córdoba, CMCPSI Santa Fe) — **mandatory in CABA** and most provinces under Ley 2340 / provincial statutes; typical 4% each side OR 3% buyer + 4% seller with USD-priced "dólar billete" cash transactions (industry-reported); Argenprop + MercadoLibre + Zonaprop.
- **CR**: CCCBR (Cámara Costarricense de Corredores de Bienes Raíces) voluntary; typical 5-6% seller-paid (industry-reported); encuentra24 + Properati; foreigner-owned dollar-priced market in Guanacaste/Nosara/Tamarindo.
- **PA**: ACOBIR voluntary; typical 5% seller-paid (industry-reported); encuentra24 + Compreoalquile; Pacific-coast condo market USD-denominated.
- **CO**: FEDELONJAS + regional Lonjas (Lonja de Bogotá, Lonja de Medellín) voluntary; typical 3% seller-paid + occasional buyer-side fee 1-2% (industry-reported); Metrocuadrado + Finca Raíz portals; "promesa de compraventa" earnest-money risk high.
- **UY**: CIU (Cámara Inmobiliaria Uruguaya) voluntary; typical 3% each side (industry-reported); InfoCasas + MercadoLibre; Punta del Este / Colonia expat market USD-priced.
- **CL**: Cámara Inmobiliaria Chilena (CChC) + COPROCH voluntary; typical 2% each side (industry-reported, lowest in region); Portal Inmobiliario + Yapo + TocToc; bank pre-approval ("preaprobación crediticia") expected.
- **PE**: FIABCI Peru + voluntary CDPE (Cámara de Profesionales Inmobiliarios); typical 3% each side (industry-reported); adondevivir + urbania + nestoria.
- **EC**: voluntary (no national association of weight); PlusValía + Properati; typical 3% each side (industry-reported); USD as official currency since 2000 simplifies foreign-buyer flows.
- **PY**: voluntary; InfoCasas + ClasiPar; typical 3-5% seller-paid (industry-reported); thin foreign-buyer market outside Asunción.
- **DO**: AEI (Asociación de Empresas Inmobiliarias) voluntary; CONFOTUR-incentivised tourism zones (Punta Cana, Cap Cana, Las Terrenas) draw heavy expat USD volume; typical 5% seller-paid (industry-reported); usado.com.do + Punta Cana Real Estate Network portals.
- **JM**: Realtors Association of Jamaica (RAJ) voluntary + Real Estate Board licensing oversight (more regulated than DR); common-law UK-style conveyancing; typical 5% seller-paid + GCT 15% on commission (industry-reported); Realtor.com.jm + Caribbean MLS partial.
- **BS**: BREA (Bahamas Real Estate Association) — mandatory licensing under the Real Estate (Brokers and Salesmen) Act; typical 6% seller-paid on improved property, 10% on raw land (industry-reported); HG Christie + Damianos Sotheby's + Coldwell Banker Lightbourn dominate; BS$ pegged 1:1 USD; lawyer-driven.
- **BB**: BEAVA (Barbados Estate Agents and Valuers Association) voluntary; typical 5-7% seller-paid + 17.5% VAT on commission (industry-reported); Caribbean MLS + Better Homes Realty + Terra Caribbean; BB$ pegged 2:1 USD.
- **BZ**: BAREA (Belize Association of Real Estate Agents) voluntary — Belize introduced the Real Estate Industry Act 2022 establishing a Real Estate Industry Board (BREIB), licensing now in early enforcement phase; typical 6-7% seller-paid (industry-reported); large USD-cash expat market on Ambergris Caye + Placencia + Hopkins; BZ$ pegged 2:1 USD.
- **KY**: **CIREBA (Cayman Islands Real Estate Brokers Association) operates a genuine regulated broker MLS** at cireba.com — the standout in the region; most listings syndicate to it and CIREBA publishes market statistics (US$1.074bn / 852 transactions in 2025, broker-cited). Commission is a **CIREBA-set sliding scale, ~5–7% seller-paid** (some sources cite a 4–10% band by sale type; **commission has drawn local "price-fixing"/antitrust scrutiny — Cayman Compass 2023–24**), with the **vendor paying both the listing and buyer's-agent fees** under the standard CIREBA listing agreement (industry-reported — *do not confuse with the 7.5% sub-CI$2m stamp duty, a separate government tax*). **No statutory agent-licensing law found** — CIREBA membership is the de-facto gate but voluntary; verify the absence at gov.ky. English common law; **Torrens-style registered title** (Registered Land Act 2018 Revision) — lawyer-driven, USD-denominated (CI$ pegged). Dual agency operates within CIREBA's broker network; buyer's-agent representation available via CIREBA members.
- **BM**: **Licensed-agent regime — Real Estate Brokers' Licensing Act 2017 (in force 2 Oct 2017, replacing the 1976 Act)**, supervised by the **Superintendent of Real Estate**; brokers + agents must hold a licence (broker fee ~$635, agent ~$105) and register with the **Financial Intelligence Agency (FIA)** for AML under the Proceeds of Crime (AML/ATF) Regulations 2008. **Commission standard ~5% seller-paid** per the **Bermuda Chamber of Commerce Real Estate Division** handbook guideline (one month's rent for 1yr+ rentals) — negotiable; **buyer representation via a written Buyer's Agency Agreement** (industry-reported). **No MLS** — Coldwell Banker Bermuda, Sinclair Realty, Rego, JBM Realty + JamesEdition luxury syndication serve as substitutes; Bermuda publishes **ARV (rental value), not a sale-price index**. English common law; registered title under LTRA 2011 (mid-transition). Note the **Alien Landholding Licence** acquisition gate (~6% for PRC holders) sits ABOVE the agent layer.
- **TC**: **TCREA (Turks & Caicos Real Estate Association) operates a broker MLS** at tcrea.com — a centralized database of most (not all) agent-listed properties; TCREA also **sets the commission scale: ~6% on developed property / ~10% on raw land, seller-paid** (industry-reported, TCREA-set). **Christie's International Real Estate and Turks & Caicos Sotheby's International Realty are the dominant brokerages**; agents are **AML-regulated as DNFBPs** (KYC + source-of-funds + STRs) but **no dedicated statutory agent-licensing law was found** (general business-licensing regime applies) — verify with gov.tc. English common law; **Torrens-style registered title** (Registered Land Ordinance Ch. 9.01) — materially lower title-risk; USD legal tender, lawyer-driven. Grace Bay (Provo) is the premium corridor.
- **VG**: **Largely unregulated brokerage — no agent-licensing regime beyond the general trade-licence applicable to all businesses** (per O'Neal Webster / Smiths Gore guidance). **Commission ~6–8% seller-paid** (some sources cite up to ~10%; industry-reported). **MLS coverage is partial and varies by agent** — an "MLS BVI" exists (mlsbvi.com) but is not universal; **ask whether your agent has MLS access**. Dominant brokerages: **Coldwell Banker BVI, Christie's International Real Estate BVI (CIRE), BVI Sotheby's International Realty, Smiths Gore, Engel & Völkers** + JamesEdition luxury syndication (all secondary/seller-controlled). English common law; registered-land "Instrument of Transfer"; small, illiquid, USD-firm high-end market. **No government price index.**
- **KN**: **Voluntary/unregulated brokerage — no statutory agent-licensing body found**; market reference is seller-controlled listing platforms. **Commission ~6% (negotiable; customarily seller-paid)** per the playbook's transaction-cost detail; legal/conveyancing ~1–2% (not statutory). **No MLS** — St. Kitts Realty, Christophe Harbour Real Estate (SE-Peninsula master-planned resort), 7th Heaven Properties, fvrentals serve as the practical reference (all secondary). English common law; **dual title system** (unregistered Deed vs registered Certificate of Title) — confirm which the parcel sits under. Small-island, USD-firm for CBI/expat stock (local stock may be EC$-priced, peg 2.70). **Aliens Land Holding Licence (~10%)** gate above the agent layer, **waived for CBI-approved purchases**. No government price index.
- **AG**: **Voluntary/unregulated brokerage — no statutory agent-licensing body found** (the Non-Citizens Land Holding Regulation Act CAP. 293 governs the *buyer's* licence, NOT agent licensing). **Commission ~5–7% seller-paid** (industry-reported, per Antigua Estates seller guide + brokerage consensus). **No MLS** — TheLatinvestor, Antigua Estates, brokerage direct + JamesEdition luxury syndication (all secondary aggregator/seller-controlled). English common law; **Torrens-style registered title** (Registered Land Act No. 17 of 1975) on Landfolio — in-office search at the Land Registry Department (legalaffairs.gov.ag); no public online search. **Trap — Barbuda communal/leasehold tenure**: a "freehold" Barbuda listing may not reflect transferable title. **"Antigua, Guatemala" data-contamination trap** in aggregators — exclude Guatemala figures. **CBI route (US$300k real estate, 5-yr hold)** is a major buyer channel. No government HPI.
- **LC**: **Voluntary/unregulated brokerage — no statutory agent-licensing body found**; the **Alien Landholding Licence (Aliens (Licensing) Act Cap. 15.37)** gate dominates the transaction for non-nationals (waived on CBI-approved projects). **Commission seller-paid (buyer pays nothing for the agent); ~5% is the practitioner norm but a precise statutory/published rate was not confirmed — `verify with the instructed conveyancer`** (industry-reported). **No true MLS** — Terra Caribbean, Realty St. Lucia, St. Lucia Homes, Golden Hour Group + an "mls.lc" portal name (a listing portal, not a regulated MLS). Hybrid legal system (Civil Code + common law); **final appeal now the CCJ since 20 Jul 2023** (Privy Council abolished); ECSC superior court. USD-firm for NW luxury (Cap Estate / Rodney Bay); local stock EC$-priced (peg 2.70). CBI Authorised-Agent filing is mandatory for the citizenship route. No government HPI.
- **GD**: **Voluntary/unregulated brokerage — a "Grenada Board of Realtors" is referenced as a voluntary body but no statutory agent-licensing law was confirmed — `verify`**. **Commission ~5% of price + 15% VAT, seller-paid** (industry-reported, consistent across C21 Grenada / Copal / multiple conveyancing firms). **No MLS** — Century 21 Grenada (C21), Copal Real Estate, Terra Caribbean + advisory aggregators (all seller/aggregator tier). English common law; **deeds-registration (NOT Torrens) title** under Deeds & Land Registry Act Cap. 79 (good-title search reduced 60→30yr in Sept 2019); final appeal to the UK Privy Council (CCJ rejected at 2018 referendum). USD-quoted (XCD pegged 2.70). **A Grenada-admitted attorney must prepare conveyancing (no DIY).** Heavy acquisition-tax stack for non-CBI foreign buyers (~10% PTT + ~10% ALHL); **ALHL waived on CBI-approved real estate**. No government HPI.
- **TT**: **Real-estate agent commission: data not publicly available — verify per agency** (the playbook captures no verified standard rate this pass — do NOT assume the regional ~5% Caribbean norm transposes). English common law; **conveyancing is attorney-handled — there is NO separate notary profession** (attorneys handle Deeds of Conveyance / RPA Certificates of Title); buyer attorney/conveyancing fees are likewise `verify per engagement letter` (commonly a % of price + 12.5% VAT, no verified scale). **Two parallel land-registration systems are both live**: Old-Law / common-law **deeds registration** is the majority (**~75–80% of land**, *per the law-firm Fitzwilliam Stone estimate — not a hard statistic*), with NO state title guarantee — so a buyer **cannot rely on a single authoritative title-register lookup; an attorney must trace the Chain of Title** — alongside an RPA/**Torrens** Certificate-of-Title minority. **No MLS** — **Terra Caribbean** (also the most-cited domestic brokerage market report — quote with date + "per brokerage report"), Massy Realty, RE/MAX T&T, Veridian, Fitzwilliam Stone (all agency/seller-controlled or aggregator). Real-estate agents + attorneys are **FIU-supervised** for AML/source-of-funds. Foreign buyers pay **in hard currency through an authorised dealer** (FIA s.10) regardless of whether the listing is TTD- or USD-quoted. **"One residential parcel only" is realtor guidance, NOT statute** — not in the Foreign Investment Act text reviewed; verify before relying. **Tobago is stricter** — ALL foreign land acquisition needs a licence regardless of size (Foreign Investment (Tobago Land Acquisition) Order 2007, eff. 16 Feb 2007). Buyer's-agent representation not documented. (Agent economics unpublished — Confidence LOW.)

### MENA / Gulf (AE, IL, MA, EG, QA, SA, TN, JO, OM, BH, KW, LB)

The MENA / Gulf real-estate agency landscape splits cleanly between **regulated GCC markets with broker licensing under recent reform-era statutes** and **informal Levant / North Africa markets with voluntary association membership and no statutory enforcement**. The regulated tier — UAE (RERA Dubai under Law 85/2006 + ADREC Abu Dhabi), Saudi Arabia (REGA under Law 10/1442 of 2021, post-Vision 2030 reform), Qatar (REA under Law 6/2014 + MoJ oversight), Bahrain (RERA Bahrain under Law 27/2017 — not to be confused with Dubai RERA), Oman (licensed under Royal Decree 86/2008, MoH oversight), and Israel (mandatory broker licensing under *חוק המתווכים במקרקעין* 1996 + exam administered by the Ministry of Justice) — requires brokers to pass a competency exam, hold a license, and disclose dual-agency. The informal tier — Morocco (voluntary FNAIM Maroc), Tunisia (voluntary CNICT), Egypt (no national licensing — thin agent market dominated by developer sales reps in New Capital + 6 October City), Jordan (voluntary GAM + JREA association), Kuwait (voluntary; **non-GCC foreigners cannot own real estate under Decree-Law 74/1979** — gates the entire buyer market), and Lebanon (post-2019 banking-crisis informal market, USD-cash transactions dominant) — has no licensing regime, leaving buyers exposed to undisclosed dual-agency and seller-controlled listings.

**Three structural features distinguish MENA from Western markets**: (1) **Developer-agent dominance off-plan** — UAE Dubai off-plan sales (Emaar, DAMAC, Nakheel, Sobha) flow through developer-employed sales reps at on-site pavilions, not third-party brokers; SA Vision 2030 mega-projects (NEOM, Diriyah Gate, AlUla, Red Sea Project) have dedicated developer sales teams. (2) **Buyer's-agents are virtually absent** outside an emerging UAE HNW cross-border segment serving European/Asian/American buyers acquiring Dubai/Abu Dhabi assets. (3) **Cash-USD foreign-buyer markets** in EG (Form 4 declaration), LB (post-crisis), and TN bypass formal agent channels entirely. Always **verify broker license numbers directly with RERA / REGA / REA / Israeli broker registry** before signing — informal "agents" without licenses are common even in regulated markets.

- **AE**: RERA Dubai under Law 85/2006 (Dubai Land Department oversight) + ADREC Abu Dhabi (DMT — Department of Municipalities and Transport) + Trakhees in DWC/JAFZA free zones; broker license requires RERA training course + exam; typical **2% commission buyer-paid (industry-reported, Dubai market norm)** on top of 4% Dubai Land Department transfer fee; **Property Finder + Bayut + Dubizzle** dominant portals; **DEVELOPER-AGENT DOMINANCE off-plan** — Emaar/DAMAC/Nakheel/Sobha sales reps at on-site pavilions; cross-border HNW buyer's-agents emerging; dual-agency legal with written disclosure; exclusivity contracts ("Form A") common.
- **IL**: *חוק המתווכים במקרקעין* (Real Estate Brokers Law) 1996 — mandatory licensing, exam, and registration with Ministry of Justice broker registry; Bar of Real Estate Brokers (לשכת המתווכים) professional body; typical **2% each side + 17% VAT (industry-reported)**; **Yad2** + Madlan + Komo portals; dual-agency legal with written disclosure; exclusivity contracts ("בלעדיות") commonly 6 months.
- **MA**: voluntary FNAIM Maroc (Fédération Nationale des Agents Immobiliers); **no statutory licensing**; typical **2.5% each side (industry-reported)**; **Mubawab + Avito.ma + Sarouty** portals; dual-agency unregulated — high undisclosed-conflict risk; buyer's-agents virtually absent.
- **EG**: **no national licensing regime**; thin third-party agent market — most transactions via developer sales reps (New Capital, 6 October City, New Cairo) or informal samasra (سماسرة); **OLX Property + Aqarmap + Bayut Egypt + Property Finder Egypt**; foreign buyers transact USD-cash via Form 4 CBE declaration; commission norms not standardized — 2.5-5% reported; very high informal-market risk.
- **QA**: REA (Real Estate Regulatory Authority) under Law 6/2014 + Ministry of Justice oversight; broker license required; typical **2.5% buyer-paid (industry-reported)**; **Property Finder Qatar + Qatar Living + Saakin**; foreign ownership restricted to designated freehold zones (Pearl, Lusail, West Bay Lagoon).
- **SA**: REGA (Hayʾat al-Aqar al-Aam — General Real Estate Authority) under Law 10/1442 (2021) + Vision 2030 reform; broker license under Fal (فال) platform; typical **2.5% commission buyer-paid (industry-reported)**; **Bayut SA + Aqar.fm + Wasalt**; **mega-project developer sales reps dominant for NEOM / Diriyah Gate / AlUla / Red Sea Project / Qiddiya**; non-Saudi ownership restricted (Premium Residency holders + GCC nationals exceptions).
- **TN**: voluntary CNICT (Chambre Nationale des Intermédiaires en Commerce et Tourisme); no statutory licensing; **Mubawab Tunisia + Tayara + Menzili** portals; thin agent market; foreign-buyer Governor approval required (4-6 months).
- **JO**: voluntary GAM (Greater Amman Municipality) registry + JREA (Jordan Real Estate Association); no statutory licensing exam; **OpenSooq + Aqar.jo + Bayut Jordan**; commission norms 2-3% each side (industry-reported).
- **OM**: licensed under Royal Decree 86/2008 — Ministry of Housing oversight; broker license required; **OpenSooq + Dubizzle Oman + Property Finder Oman**; foreign ownership restricted to ITC (Integrated Tourism Complex) zones.
- **BH**: **RERA Bahrain (NOT same as Dubai RERA)** under Law 27/2017 — Real Estate Regulatory Authority of Bahrain; broker license + escrow account requirements; **Property Finder Bahrain + Bayut Bahrain**; foreign freehold ownership permitted in designated areas (Amwaj, Reef Island, Seef, Juffair, Bahrain Bay).
- **KW**: **voluntary — no licensing regime**; **non-GCC foreigners CANNOT own real estate under Decree-Law 74/1979** — effectively gates the entire foreign-buyer market; **OpenSooq + 4Sale + Bayut Kuwait**; commission 2% each side reported (industry-reported).
- **LB**: post-2019 banking-crisis informal market; no functional licensing enforcement; **OLX Lebanon + Property Finder Lebanon**; **USD-cash transactions dominant** (lollar/fresh-dollar distinction critical); foreign-buyer Decree 11614/1969 + reciprocity rule still nominally applies — verify with notary; very high informal-market risk.

### East Asia (JP, SG, HK, KR, TW, MO, CN)

East Asia is the most heavily regulated buyer-agency landscape in the world, with **statutory commission caps in five of seven jurisdictions** (JP, KR, HK, TW practice ceiling, plus SG self-regulated). Japan's Real Estate Brokerage Act 1952 (宅地建物取引業法) sets a hard MLIT cap of **3% + ¥60,000 + consumption tax per side** for transactions over ¥4M — both buyer and seller can be charged the full statutory amount independently, making JP one of the few markets where buyers routinely pay a brokerage fee directly. Korea's Licensed Real Estate Agent Act applies a **sliding statutory cap (0.4–0.9% by price band)** to both buyer and seller, recalibrated periodically by the Ministry of Land. Hong Kong's EAA (Cap 511) requires individual license + exam + CPD; commissions are commercially negotiated at ~1% each side and **dual agency is explicitly legal** if disclosed. Taiwan operates a two-tier license system (不動產經紀人 + 營業員) under the 1999 Brokerage Management Act with a **6% combined cap by industry custom** (typically 4% seller + 2% buyer). Singapore's CEA mandates RES/REA exams and prescribed contracts; resale customarily splits 1% buyer + 2% seller. China's 房产中介 licensing under MOHURD has been disrupted by the **2023–2025 commission crackdown**: Beijing and Shanghai regulators forced Lianjia (the dominant chain) to cut commissions from ~2.7% to ~2% and shift more cost to sellers. Macao mirrors HK's framework via CTM oversight but with a thinner formal market. Portal dominance is extreme: Suumo/Athome (JP), PropertyGuru/99.co (SG), Centaline/Midland/Centa-Map (HK), Naver Real Estate/Zigbang (KR), 591.com.tw (TW, near-monopoly), Lianjia/Anjuke/58.com (CN).

- **JP**: Real Estate Brokerage Act 1952 (宅地建物取引業法); **statutory cap 3% + ¥60,000 + 10% consumption tax per side** under MLIT regulation for transactions >¥4M (sliding bands below: 4% +¥20k for ¥2–4M, 5% for <¥2M); Suumo + Athome + LIFULL Home's + Rakumachi; both sides typically pay full statutory commission; written 専属専任媒介契約 (exclusive listing agreement) common, max 3-month term by statute.
- **SG**: CEA under Estate Agents Act 2010; mandatory RES/REA exams + CEA registration + CPD; typical **1% buyer + 2% seller** for resale (HDB resale 1%+1% common); PropertyGuru + 99.co + EdgeProp + SRX; **prescribed Estate Agency Agreement** mandatory; dual-agency disclosure required.
- **HK**: EAA under Estate Agents Ordinance Cap 511; license (Salesperson + Estate Agent tiers) + exam + mandatory CPD; typical **1% each side** (industry-reported); Centaline + Midland + Ricacorp + Hong Kong Property; Centa-Map data; **dual agency legal with written consent** under Practice Regulation.
- **KR**: 공인중개사 under Licensed Real Estate Agent Act (공인중개사법); **statutory sliding cap by price band** — sale: 0.4% (<200M KRW) up to 0.9% (>1.5B KRW negotiable); jeonse/wolse separate schedule; Naver Real Estate + Zigbang + Hogangnono + Dabang; jeonse 전세 lump-sum lease creates distinct broker dynamics.
- **TW**: Real Estate Brokerage Management Act 1999 (不動產經紀業管理條例); two-tier license — 不動產經紀人 (broker, exam-qualified) + 營業員 (salesperson, training-qualified); **typical 4% seller + 2% buyer (industry-reported)**, 6% combined ceiling by custom; 591.com.tw dominant + Yungching + Sinyi.
- **MO**: framework similar to HK via CTM (Conselho dos Trabalhadores Imobiliários) oversight; small market; typical 1% each side (industry-reported); local agencies + HK chains active.
- **CN**: 房产中介 licensing under MOHURD (住房和城乡建设部); **Lianjia (链家) + Ziroom + 58.com + Anjuke + Beike (贝壳) platform**; **2023–2025 commission crackdown** by Beijing/Shanghai/Shenzhen housing authorities forced Lianjia commission from ~2.7% (2.2% seller + 0.5% buyer) down to ~2% with seller bearing more; off-plan dominated by developer in-house sales.

### Southeast Asia + South Asia + Pacific (TH, ID, MY, VN, PH, KH, IN, LK, MV, PK, VU)

This region splits sharply between **mandatory-licensing regimes (MY, PH, VN, IN)** and **voluntary-association regimes (TH, ID, KH, LK, MV)**. Malaysia's BOVAEA (Board of Valuers, Appraisers, Estate Agents and Property Managers) under the Valuers, Appraisers, Estate Agents and Property Managers Act 1981 enforces a **statutory maximum 3% commission under the Seventh Schedule** — one of the cleanest licensing regimes in Asia. The Philippines' RA 9646 (Real Estate Service Act 2009) requires PRC-licensed PRBRES (real estate brokers) with mandatory board exam; unlicensed practice is a criminal offense. India's RERA (Real Estate Regulation and Development Act 2016) mandates **state-level agent registration** — implementation varies sharply: Maharashtra (MahaRERA) and Karnataka are robust; several northeastern states still have weak enforcement. Vietnam's new **Real Estate Business Law 29/2023/QH15 effective 1 Jan 2025** tightens broker certification and developer transparency. Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, and Maldives all operate **voluntary professional associations** with weak enforcement — buyer protection rests heavily on individual due diligence. **Off-plan/developer-direct sales dominate** in TH (Phuket, Pattaya, Bangkok condos), KH (Phnom Penh, Sihanoukville), VN (Ho Chi Minh, Da Nang), and PH (Manila, Cebu) — developer in-house teams typically work seller-paid 5–8% commission with no buyer representation. India is uniquely disrupted by **NoBroker's flat-fee model** (₹1,999–₹9,999) which has materially compressed the traditional 1–2% commission in Bangalore, Mumbai, Pune, and Delhi NCR. Foreign-buyer gates layer onto everything: TH 49% condo quota, PH 40% condo + land ban, MV foreigners only via leasehold tourism, ID Hak Pakai constraint, VN 30% per-building foreign cap.

- **TH**: voluntary REBA (Real Estate Broker Association of Thailand); no statutory licensing; typical **3–5% seller-paid (industry-reported)**, up to 5–7% off-plan condo developer; DDproperty + Hipflat + Thailand-Property + FazWaz; condo developer-agent dominant Phuket/Pattaya/Hua Hin/Bangkok; **49% foreign-quota condo gate** drives developer steering.
- **ID**: AREBI (Asosiasi Real Estate Broker Indonesia) voluntary registration; typical **2–3% each side (industry-reported)** or 3–5% seller-paid; Rumah123 + Lamudi + 99.co Indonesia + OLX Property; **Hak Pakai foreign-buyer constraint** (PP 18/2021 Pasal 52: 30 + 20 + 30 yr on state / HPL land; max 30 yr renewable by deed over Hak Milik) limits direct ownership.
- **MY**: **BOVAEA mandatory under Valuers, Appraisers, Estate Agents and Property Managers Act 1981**; **statutory max 3% under Seventh Schedule** of the Act; iProperty + PropertyGuru MY + EdgeProp MY + Mudah; MM2H program (revised 2024) for foreign buyers; written REA contract standard.
- **VN**: Real Estate Business Law 66/2014/QH13 superseded by **Law 29/2023/QH15 effective 1 Jan 2025**; broker certificate (chứng chỉ môi giới) mandatory; typical **2% commission (industry-reported)**, often seller-paid; Batdongsan + Nhatot + Alonhadat + Cafeland; off-plan developer-direct dominant HCMC/Da Nang.
- **PH**: **PRBRES under RA 9646 (Real Estate Service Act 2009) + PRC board exam**; mandatory licensing; typical **3–5% seller-paid (industry-reported)**, up to 5–8% off-plan; Lamudi + DotProperty + Hoppler + Carousell PH; **40% condo foreign-quota + constitutional land ban** gates everything.
- **KH**: voluntary CVEA (Cambodian Valuers and Estate Agents Association); thin formal market; condo developer-agent dominant Phnom Penh + Sihanoukville + Siem Reap; typical 3% (industry-reported); **foreigners only buy strata-title above ground floor**.
- **IN**: **RERA state-level under Real Estate (Regulation and Development) Act 2016**; agent registration mandatory in each state with project (MahaRERA, K-RERA, etc. — implementation varies); typical **1–2% each side OR 2% seller-paid (industry-reported)**; MagicBricks + 99acres + Housing.com + **NoBroker (flat-fee ₹1,999–₹9,999 disrupting traditional commission)**.
- **LK**: voluntary IPMASL (Institute of Professional Marketing Asset of Sri Lanka); thin market; lankapropertyweb + ikman + Lamudi LK; typical 3% (industry-reported); foreigners restricted to leasehold + condo above 4th floor.
- **MV**: voluntary, no formal licensing regime; resort developer-direct primarily; **foreign land ban — only 99-year leasehold tourism investment** under Tourism Act; minimal secondary market.
- **PK**: **No statutory agent-licensing regime was located this pass — verify** (note: an "ARAB MLS"-style aggregator and law-firm blogs surface foreign-buyer claims — e.g. a "300 sqm cap", an Islamabad bar, a "$2,000 Property Purchase Permit" — that the playbook flags as **single/secondary-aggregator, NOT primary-corroborated**; do not treat as fact). Conveyancing is **provincial** (Registration Act 1908 + Transfer of Property Act 1882) and rests on the **mutation (*intiqal*) entry in the Record of Rights (*fard*/*jamabandi*) — a presumptive record, NOT a Torrens guaranteed title** — verify both mutation and registration. **Agent commission: data not publicly available — verify per agency** (the playbook publishes no rate). **Zameen.com** is the dominant listing platform (asking-price index, seller-controlled) + Graana + Lamudi PK; **no MLS in the regulated sense**. Two structural traps drive the buyer experience more than the agent: **(1) the DC-rate / FBR-valuation / market-rate gap** — registered deed values are structurally understated, so never treat a single listing or deed figure as the true market price; **(2) file vs allotment vs possession** — a "file" (allotment right in an undeveloped scheme) is a riskier asset than a possessed, mutated, registered plot. Buyer's-agent representation not documented. (Agent economics unpublished — Confidence LOW.)
- **VU**: **Leasehold-only market — freehold does NOT exist** (the 1980 Constitution Ch. 12 vests all land permanently in indigenous custom owners; a foreigner can only hold a **registered lease**, ≤75-yr ceiling, under the Land Leases Act [Cap 163]) — **a price buys the REMAINING LEASE TERM, not perpetual title; years-remaining is the single most important number**. The transaction is **conveyancing-lawyer-driven** (lease assignment, Lessor's Consent to Transfer, and on certain leases Minister of Lands consent are not DIY). **No statutory agent-licensing regime was located — verify** (real-estate agents / conveyancing fall under the AML/CFT regime via the Financial Intelligence Unit; CBI-driven AML scrutiny is high). **Agent commission: data not publicly available — verify per agency** (the playbook publishes no rate; legal fees are an `est. ~0.5–1%` of price, secondary). No MLS — **First National Real Estate Vanuatu** + Island Property / Alliance / Properstar are the agency channels; **supply is thin** (Properstar showed ~13–17 active house listings nationwide in 2025), so a single outlier listing skews any "average". Buyer's-agent representation not documented. (Agent economics unpublished — Confidence LOW.)

### Sub-Saharan Africa (ZA, NG, KE, MU, CV, SC, GH, RW, NA, BW)

Sub-Saharan African buyer-side agency landscapes split sharply between two well-regulated outliers and a long tail of voluntary, fragmented markets. **South Africa** is the most mature: the **Property Practitioners Act 22 of 2019** came into operation on **1 February 2022** and replaced the Estate Agency Affairs Act 112 of 1976, replacing the EAAB with the **Property Practitioners Regulatory Authority (PPRA)** and making the **Fidelity Fund Certificate (FFC)** mandatory — no FFC, no commission claim and no court enforcement. **Kenya** is the other licensed regime, under the **Estate Agents Act Cap 533** with the **Estate Agents Registration Board (EARB)** issuing mandatory practising certificates. Everywhere else (NG, MU, CV, SC, GH, RW) operates on voluntary professional bodies — NIESV/REDAN in Nigeria, AAEM in Mauritius, GREDA in Ghana — meaning licensing is reputational rather than statutory and buyer recourse against rogue agents is weak. Commission custom is overwhelmingly **seller-paid single-side** (5–10% in NG/GH, 5–7.5% + 15% VAT in ZA, ~3% in KE), with Mauritius the regional exception at ~2% each side. **New-build/developer-agent dominance** is a defining feature in ZA gated estates, Lagos's Lekki/Ikoyi corridor, and Accra's East Legon/Cantonments — where the on-site sales arm is effectively the only channel and a buyer's-agent is rare. Diaspora USD-cash buyers in NG and GH and PDS/IRS-scheme foreign buyers in MU shape pricing well above local-affordability bands.

- **ZA**: **PPRA under Property Practitioners Act 22/2019 (effective 1 Feb 2022, replaced EAAA 1976)**; mandatory FFC + Code of Conduct; typical 5–7.5% seller-paid + 15% VAT (industry-reported); Property24 + Private Property + GumTree dominant, no true MLS; dual-agency permitted with disclosure; sole-mandate exclusivity contracts (typically 90 days) common; buyer's-agent niche but growing; new-build estate-agent dominance in gated developments (Steyn City, Waterfall, Val de Vie).
- **NG**: NIESV (Nigerian Institution of Estate Surveyors and Valuers) + REDAN voluntary; typical 5–10% seller-paid (industry-reported); PropertyPro NG + Nigeria Property Centre + Lamudi NG; Lekki/Ikoyi developer-agent dominant; large diaspora USD-cash foreign-buyer market; dual-agency unregulated; exclusivity contracts informal, side-deal risk high.
- **KE**: **EARB under Estate Agents Act Cap 533**; mandatory practising certificate; typical ~3% seller-paid (industry-reported); PropertyKenya + BuyRentKenya + Hauzisha; Karen/Lavington/Runda expat corridor; dual-agency legal with disclosure; sole-mandate exclusivity standard; buyer's-agent rare.
- **MU**: AAEM voluntary; typical ~2% each side (industry-reported); Lexpress Property + JeRefere; PDS/IRS/RES/Smart-City schemes foreign-buyer-friendly (USD 375k threshold for residency); developer-agent dominance on scheme units; dual-agency common; exclusivity weak.
- **CV**: voluntary, no licensing regime; thin formal market; CV Imobiliária + listings via Facebook groups; expat-driven (Sal/Boa Vista); developer-agent dominance on resort units; data not publicly available — verify on-island.
- **SC**: voluntary, no licensing regime; thin formal market; Property Seychelles + Seychelles Property Listing; foreign buyers require SIBA / sanction approval; developer-agent dominance on Eden Island; data not publicly available — verify with SIBA.
- **GH**: GREDA (Ghana Real Estate Developers Association) voluntary; typical 5–10% seller-paid (industry-reported); meQasa + Tonaton + Jiji Ghana; East Legon/Cantonments/Airport expat corridor; large diaspora USD-cash buyer market; new-build developer-agent dominance; exclusivity informal.
- **RW**: voluntary, no licensing regime; thin formal market; RDB (Rwanda Development Board) channel for foreign-investor projects; Property Finder Rwanda + Lamudi RW listings sparse; developer-agent dominance on Vision City / Kigali Heights; data not publicly available — verify with RDB.
- **NA**: **Roman-Dutch deeds system** (Deeds Registries Act 47 of 1937), structurally the ZA model — the transaction is **conveyancer-driven** (admitted Namibian legal practitioner lodges transfer at the Directorate of Deeds Registry), not agent-driven. **No statutory agent-licensing regime was located this pass** (estate agents ARE FIC-accountable institutions for AML/KYC under the Financial Intelligence Act 2012 — but that is not a competency-licensing regime; **verify any agent-board requirement at [gov.na](https://www.gov.na/)**). **Estate-agent commission: data not publicly itemised — verify per agency**; the playbook records it as **seller-paid by custom in comparable Roman-Dutch markets (confirm)** — do NOT assume the ZA 5–7.5% rate transposes. No MLS — Property24 NA + MyProperty NA + Househunter portals; Pam Golding / RE/MAX / Seeff are the agency channels (seller-controlled). NAD = ZAR at par. **Wire-fraud against cross-border buyers is a live regional risk** — verify the conveyancer's trust-account wire instructions verbally via an independently-sourced number (cf. the ZA *Hawarden v ENS* precedent). Buyer's-agent representation not documented. (2024-data structural context; agent economics not primary-sourced — Confidence LOW.)
- **BW**: **Roman-Dutch common-law deeds system** — **conveyancing-attorney-driven** (the Deeds Registry is the sole authoritative record of a registered sale; transfer is lodged via a conveyancer). **No statutory agent-licensing body was located this pass — verify**; conveyancing attorneys + banks run KYC / source-of-funds (Financial Intelligence Act regime — specific citation to be confirmed). **Agent commission: data not publicly available — verify per agency** (the playbook does not publish a rate; conveyancing-attorney fees are likewise `verify against a Law Society of Botswana tariff/quote`). No MLS — Property24 BW + local press (Mmegi, The Botswana Gazette); listings are BWP-priced (note the BWP crawling-band depreciation on conversion). **Freehold vs state-land-lease status materially affects saleability to non-citizens** — confirm tenure on the deed. Buyer's-agent representation not documented. (Agent economics genuinely unpublished — Confidence LOW.)

### Caucasus + Central Asia + Türkiye (GE, TR, AM, AZ, KZ, UZ)

This region splits between **Türkiye's licensed regime** and a long tail of voluntary markets shaped by post-2022 capital flight. Türkiye is the only fully regulated jurisdiction: the **Real Estate Trading Communiqué (Taşınmaz Ticareti Hakkında Yönetmelik) of 5 June 2018**, implementing Law 6585 (Retail Trade), introduced the mandatory **Yetki Belgesi (Authorisation Certificate)** issued by provincial Ministry of Trade directorates, and capped total brokerage at **4% of transaction value (2% buyer + 2% seller, plus 18/20% VAT)** — one of the few statutory commission caps globally. The **TVKB** (Turkish Real Estate Brokers Association) is the practitioner body; the **CBI scheme at USD 400k** drives a large foreign-buyer pipeline (Russian, Iranian, Iraqi, Gulf). **Georgia** has no licensing regime but became foreign-buyer-friendly after the **post-Feb 2022 Russian + Belarusian + IT-diaspora inflow** drove a Tbilisi/Batumi price boom; **MyHome.ge + SS.ge** dominate, with typical 3–5% seller-paid commission. The remaining four (AM, AZ, KZ, UZ) are voluntary, classified-portal-driven (List.am, bina.az, krisha.kz, OLX UZ), with thin formal agent markets, near-zero buyer's-agent availability, and reputational rather than statutory recourse. Astana and Almaty new-build complexes show developer-agent dominance.

- **GE**: voluntary, no licensing regime; **MyHome.ge + SS.ge dominant**; typical 3–5% seller-paid (industry-reported); **post-Feb-2022 Russian + Belarusian + IT-diaspora boom** drove Tbilisi/Batumi 2x price moves and foreign-buyer-friendly market; dual-agency unregulated; exclusivity weak; buyer's-agent niche.
- **TR**: **Yetki Belgesi license under Real Estate Trading Communiqué of 5 June 2018 (implementing Law 6585)**; TVKB practitioner body; **statutory 4% combined commission cap (2% buyer + 2% seller) + VAT** — one of few global statutory caps; Sahibinden + Hepsiemlak + Zingat + Emlakjet; CBI buyer market USD 400k+; dual-agency permitted with disclosure; exclusivity contracts permitted but enforcement weak; new-build/developer-agent dominance in Istanbul, Antalya, Bodrum CBI corridors.
- **AM**: voluntary, no licensing regime; **List.am dominant** (also general classifieds); thin formal agent market; typical ~3–5% seller-paid (industry-reported); buyer's-agent rare; data on commission norms not publicly available — verify with local notary.
- **AZ**: voluntary, no licensing regime; bina.az + arenda.az + tap.az; thin formal agent market; typical ~3% seller-paid (industry-reported); buyer's-agent rare; Baku new-build developer-agent dominant.
- **KZ**: voluntary, no licensing regime; **krisha.kz dominant + olx.kz**; typical 2–3% each side (industry-reported); large Astana/Nur-Sultan new-build complex pipeline (Esentai, Talan Towers); developer-agent dominance on new-build; dual-agency common; exclusivity weak.
- **UZ**: voluntary, no licensing regime; OLX UZ + udevon.uz; thin formal market; typical ~3% seller-paid (industry-reported); Tashkent new-build developer-agent dominant; buyer's-agent rare; data on commission norms not publicly available — verify on-ground.

---

## Country tables

The narrative above gives the regulatory + market architecture per region. The tables below give a one-line per-country summary, useful for at-a-glance comparison. For a transaction, the per-country playbook + the agent's published tariff (or association's recommended rate) is authoritative.

### Western Europe

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **FR** | 0 | 4-8% (5-6% modal) | seller (in mandat); economically buyer via price | Carte T (Loi Hoguet 1970) | no real MLS — SeLoger/LeBonCoin/portals | chasseur 2-3% | HIGH |
| **IT** | ~3% + 22% IVA | ~3% + 22% IVA | both sides (Art. 1755 c.c.) | REA registration (L. 39/1989); FIAIP/FIMAA voluntary | no MLS — Immobiliare.it/Idealista | n/a (rare) | HIGH |
| **ES** | 0 (resale) | 3-7% (5% modal costa) | seller (resale); developer-embedded (new-build) | RAICV/regional registers (CCAA-variable, no national licence since RD-l 4/2000) | no MLS — Idealista/Fotocasa | personal shopper 1-3% | HIGH |
| **PT** | 0 | 5-6% + 23% IVA | seller | AMI licence — IMPIC (DL 15/2013) | no MLS — Idealista.pt/Imovirtual | rare, 1-2% (industry-reported) | HIGH |
| **DE** | up to 3.57% incl. VAT | min 3.57% incl. VAT | split 50/50 max for owner-occupied (§§ 656a-d BGB, 23 Dec 2020) | § 34c GewO Maklererlaubnis | no MLS — ImmoScout24/Immowelt | rare; § 34c agent | HIGH |
| **AT** | up to 3% + 20% USt (cap) | up to 3% + 20% USt (cap) | both sides; Bestellerprinzip rentals only since 1 Jul 2023 | MaklerG + GewO § 117 | no MLS — willhaben/ImmoScout24.at | rare | HIGH |
| **CH** | 0 (typical) | 2-3.5% (GE/VD up to 5%) | seller; cantonal variation | cantonal trade laws; SVIT/USPI voluntary | no MLS — Homegate/ImmoScout24.ch | rare | MEDIUM (industry-reported) |
| **NL** | 1-2% (when EBA engaged) | 1-2% | each side pays own makelaar | no statutory licence since 2001; NVM/VBO/VastgoedPRO voluntary | Funda (NVM-fed, de facto MLS) | aankoopmakelaar 1-1.5% + 21% BTW | HIGH |
| **BE** | 0 | 3-3.63% incl. 21% BTW | seller | BIV/IPI mandatory (Loi 11 fév 2013) | no MLS — Immoweb/Zimmo | rare | HIGH |
| **LU** | 0 | 3% + 17% TVA | seller | autorisation d'établissement (Loi 2 sep 2011) | no MLS — AtHome.lu/Immotop | rare | MEDIUM (industry-reported) |
| **IE** | 0 (typical) | 1-2.5% + 23% VAT | seller; private treaty / tender | PSRA licence (Property Services Act 2011) | no formal MLS — Daft.ie + MyHome.ie | buying agent 1-2% (niche) | HIGH |
| **UK (E&W)** | 0 (typical) | 1-3% + 20% VAT | seller | no licence; EAA 1979 + CPRs 2008 + mandatory redress (TPO/PRS) | Rightmove + Zoopla + OnTheMarket (de facto) | buying agent 1-2.5% + VAT | HIGH |
| **GR** | ~2% + 24% FPA | ~2% + 24% FPA | both sides (L. 4072/2012) | GEMI registration; mesitis licence | no MLS — Spitogatos/XE.gr | rare | MEDIUM (industry-reported) |
| **MT** | 0-1% | 5% + 18% VAT | seller (mostly); buyer 1% in some models | REAct Cap. 615 (2020) — MCCAA Licensing Authority | no MLS — agency sites + propertymarket.com.mt | rare | MEDIUM (industry-reported) |
| **CY** | 0 | 3-5% + 19% VAT | seller; developer-embedded for off-plan | Real Estate Agents Law 71(I)/2010 — CREAA | no MLS — Bazaraki/Property.com.cy | rare | MEDIUM (industry-reported) |

### Western European microstates

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **LI** | ~3–3.9% (industry-reported) | rare | buyer if engaged | none mandatory; FIABCI / Govt registration voluntary | no | n/a | LOW |
| **MC** | ~3% (industry-reported, CIM scale) | ~3% (industry-reported, CIM scale) | both sides | voluntary CIM membership | no (CIM directory) | rare | LOW–MEDIUM |
| **AD** | 0% | 5% cap (statute) | seller only | mandatory AGIA registration (Llei 15 Dec 2000) | no (AGIA directory) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **SM** | 2–4% + VAT (industry-reported) | 2–4% + VAT (industry-reported) | both sides (Italian Civil Code Art. 1755 model) | none domestic; Italian-overflow agents | no (Italian portals) | rare | LOW |

### CEE / Baltics

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **CZ** | 0–5% (varies by region) | 0–5% (varies by region) | Prague split/buyer; Brno buyer; rest seller (industry-reported) | mandatory regulated trade — Zákon 39/2020 Sb. (3 Mar 2020) | no (Sreality + Bezrealitky) | rare | HIGH |
| **SK** | rare | 2–5% (industry-reported) | seller usual | none mandatory; NARKS voluntary licence | no (nehnutelnosti.sk + topreality.sk) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **PL** | 0–3% (industry-reported) | 2–4%, 3% common (industry-reported) | often both sides in Warsaw; seller-only at "good" agencies | none — Lex Gowin deregulated 9 May 2014 | no (Otodom + OLX) | rare | HIGH |
| **HU** | 0–2% (industry-reported, optional) | 1.5–5% + 27% VAT (industry-reported) | seller usually; buyer optional | mandatory state qualification 04164005 (since 1 Jan 2021) | no (ingatlan.com) | rare | HIGH |
| **RO** | 2–3% (industry-reported) | 2–3% (industry-reported) | often both sides | voluntary APAIR; RENII bill pending | no (Imobiliare.ro + Storia.ro) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **BG** | 0–3% (industry-reported) | 2–5%, 3% common (industry-reported) | both sides typical (Art. 51 Commerce Act) | none — Commercial Register only; NREA voluntary | no (imot.bg + bazar.bg) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **SI** | 0% (cannot charge non-engaging party) | 1–3% (industry-reported) | engaging party only (post-2025 ConCourt) | mandatory ZNPosr permit | no (Nepremicnine.net) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **EE** | rare | 3–5% (industry-reported) | seller usual | none mandatory; EKFL voluntary qualification | no (KV.ee + city24.ee) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **LV** | rare | 3–5% (industry-reported) | seller usual | none mandatory; LANIDA voluntary | no (ss.com + city24.lv) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **LT** | rare | 1.5–3% (industry-reported; 3% de-facto historical norm) | seller usual | none mandatory; LRTA voluntary (2015 cartel-fined) | no (aruodas.lt + skelbiu.lt) | rare | MEDIUM |
| **HR** | varies | varies (cap 6%) | both sides; cannot both be at maximum | mandatory HGK registry + professional exam | no (Njuškalo + Index Oglasi + Crozilla) | rare | HIGH |

### Nordics + Iceland

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **SE** | 0% | 2-5% | seller | FMI individual registration / Fastighetsmäklarlagen 2021:516 | Hemnet (~90%) | flat 5-15k SEK köpcoach | HIGH |
| **FI** | 0% | 4-5% incl. VAT | seller | LKV qualification / Välityslaki 1074/2000 | Etuovi + Oikotie | rare, hourly | HIGH |
| **NO** | 0% | 1.5-3.5% | seller | Eml. 2007 / Finanstilsynet — **neutral duty to both** | Finn.no | rare, ~10-25k NOK | HIGH |
| **DK** | 0% (advokat fee separate) | 1.5-3% | seller | LBK 1009/2014 / Erhvervsstyrelsen | Boliga + Boligsiden | købermægler/advokat 0.25-0.5% or flat | HIGH |
| **IS** | 0% | 1.5-2.5% + VAT | seller | Lög 70/2015 / FF | mbl.is + fasteignir.is | rare | HIGH |

### Western Balkans + Eastern Europe non-EU

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **RS** | 2-3% | 2-3% | both (split) | Ministry of Trade registry / Law 95/2013 + ≥15k EUR indemnity | 4zida + Halo Oglasi (no MLS) | bundled | MEDIUM |
| **ME** | 3% (coast 3-5%) | 3% | both (split) | voluntary association — no statute | nekretnine.me + realitica (no MLS) | bundled | LOW |
| **BA** | 3% | 3% | both (split) | entity-level fragmented; voluntary | nekretnine.ba + olx.ba (no MLS) | bundled | LOW |
| **MK** | 2-4% total | (split) | both (split) | voluntary | pazar3.mk + reklama5.mk (no MLS) | bundled | LOW |
| **AL** | 3% (coast up to 5%) | 3% | both (split) | voluntary | merrjep.al + Çelësi (no MLS) | bundled | LOW |
| **MD** | 2-4% total | (split) | both (split) | voluntary | 999.md + lara.md (no MLS) | bundled | LOW |

### Anglo non-EU + North America

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **CA** | ~2-2.5% (industry-reported) | ~2-2.5% (industry-reported) | seller (bundled, paid at closing) | provincial councils — RECA/RECO/OACIQ/RECBC | CREA national MLS (realtor.ca) | included in seller-paid split (rare standalone EBA fee) | HIGH |
| **AU** | n/a (advocate paid by buyer) | 1.6-3.5% (industry-reported) | seller pays listing agent; buyer pays advocate separately | state Estate Agents Acts (NSW Fair Trading, CAV, OFT QLD) | realestate.com.au + Domain | 1.6-2.5% or fixed fee (REBAA) | HIGH |
| **NZ** | n/a (rare) | 2.95-3.95% sliding + GST (industry-reported) | seller | REA Act 2008 + Real Estate Authority register | trademe.co.nz/property + realestate.co.nz | rare; negotiated when used | HIGH |
| **US** | post-reform negotiated (structure renegotiated; varies by state) | 2.5-3% (varies post-reform; industry-reported) | post-reform: buyer may pay own agent directly OR seller concedes via contract | state RE commissions + NAR (~1.5M members) | extensive MLS via broker IDX (Zillow/Redfin/Realtor.com) | 2-3% (negotiated post-reform) | HIGH |

### Latin America + Caribbean

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **MX** | 0 | 5-7% | seller | AMPI voluntary; **NO federal license** | EasyBroker partial + portals | 2-3% (expat coast) | HIGH |
| **BR** | 0 | 6% (5-8%) | seller | **CRECI mandatory** (Lei 6.530/1978) | ZAP + VivaReal + OLX portals | rare | HIGH |
| **AR** | 3-4% | 3-4% | both (split) | CUCICBA + provincial colleges (mandatory CABA) | Argenprop + Zonaprop + MercadoLibre | n/a (each-side norm) | MEDIUM |
| **CR** | 0 | 5-6% | seller | CCCBR voluntary | encuentra24 + Properati | 2-3% (Guanacaste expat) | HIGH |
| **PA** | 0 | 5% | seller | ACOBIR voluntary | encuentra24 + Compreoalquile | 2-3% (Pacific condos) | HIGH |
| **CO** | 0-2% | 3% | seller (+ optional buyer) | FEDELONJAS + Lonjas voluntary | Metrocuadrado + Finca Raíz | 1-2% rare | HIGH |
| **UY** | 3% | 3% | both | CIU voluntary | InfoCasas + MercadoLibre | n/a (each-side norm) | HIGH |
| **CL** | 2% | 2% | both | CChC + COPROCH voluntary | Portal Inmobiliario + TocToc | n/a (each-side norm) | HIGH |
| **PE** | 3% | 3% | both | FIABCI Peru + CDPE voluntary | adondevivir + urbania | n/a (each-side norm) | MEDIUM |
| **EC** | 3% | 3% | both | voluntary | PlusValía + Properati | n/a (each-side norm) | MEDIUM |
| **PY** | 0 | 3-5% | seller | voluntary | InfoCasas + ClasiPar | rare | MEDIUM |
| **DO** | 0 | 5% | seller | AEI voluntary | usado.com.do + Punta Cana RE Network | 2-3% (Punta Cana expat) | MEDIUM |
| **JM** | 0 | 5% (+15% GCT) | seller | RAJ voluntary + Real Estate Board oversight | Realtor.com.jm + Caribbean MLS partial | rare | MEDIUM |
| **BS** | 0 | 6% improved / 10% raw land | seller | **BREA mandatory** (Real Estate Brokers & Salesmen Act) | HG Christie + Damianos + Coldwell | rare | LOW |
| **BB** | 0 | 5-7% (+17.5% VAT) | seller | BEAVA voluntary | Caribbean MLS + Terra Caribbean | rare | LOW |
| **BZ** | 0 | 6-7% | seller | BAREA voluntary; BREIB licensing rolling out (Real Estate Industry Act 2022) | listing portals + agency-direct | 2-3% (Caye expat) | LOW |
| **KY** | 0 | ~5-7% (CIREBA sliding scale; 4-10% by type) | seller (pays both agents) | **CIREBA** broker-association (de-facto gate; no statutory law found) | **yes — CIREBA MLS** (cireba.com) | available via CIREBA members | MEDIUM |
| **BM** | 0 (or Buyer's Agency Agmt) | ~5% | seller | **licensed — Real Estate Brokers' Licensing Act 2017 + Superintendent of Real Estate + FIA AML** | no — Coldwell Banker / Sinclair / JamesEdition | rare (written Buyer's Agency Agmt) | MEDIUM |
| **TC** | 0 | ~6% developed / ~10% raw land (TCREA-set) | seller | DNFBP/AML-regulated agents; no dedicated statutory licence found | **yes — TCREA MLS** (tcrea.com, partial) | rare; Christie's + TCI Sotheby's dominate | MEDIUM |
| **VG** | 0 | ~6-8% (up to ~10%) | seller | none beyond general trade licence | partial — MLS BVI (mlsbvi.com), varies by agent | rare; Coldwell Banker / CIRE / Smiths Gore | LOW |
| **KN** | 0 | ~6% (negotiable) | seller | voluntary; no statutory body found | no — St. Kitts Realty + Christophe Harbour | rare | LOW |
| **AG** | 0 | ~5-7% | seller | voluntary; no statutory agent-licence (CAP.293 is buyer licence) | no — TheLatinvestor + Antigua Estates + JamesEdition | rare | LOW |
| **LC** | 0 | ~5% (industry-reported; verify) | seller | voluntary; no statutory body found; ALHL gate dominates | no — Terra Caribbean + Realty St. Lucia (mls.lc = portal) | rare | LOW |
| **GD** | 0 | ~5% + 15% VAT | seller | voluntary (Grenada Board of Realtors, unconfirmed); no statutory law verified | no — C21 Grenada + Copal + Terra Caribbean | rare | MEDIUM |
| **TT** | not published (verify per agency) | not published (verify per agency) | not published — verify | none located — verify; agents FIU-supervised for AML | no — Terra Caribbean + Massy Realty + RE/MAX TT (attorney-conveyanced; ~75–80% Old-Law deeds + RPA Torrens minority) | rare (not documented) | LOW |

### MENA / Gulf

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS / Portal | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **AE** | 2% | 0 | buyer | RERA Dubai (Law 85/2006) + ADREC AD + Trakhees free zones | Property Finder + Bayut + Dubizzle | rare; HNW cross-border only | HIGH |
| **IL** | 2% + VAT | 2% + VAT | both | mandatory broker law 1996 + MoJ exam | Yad2 + Madlan | rare | HIGH |
| **MA** | 2.5% | 2.5% | both | voluntary FNAIM Maroc | Mubawab + Avito.ma + Sarouty | absent | MEDIUM |
| **EG** | 2.5-5% | 2.5-5% | varies | none (no national licensing) | OLX Property + Aqarmap + Bayut Egypt | absent | LOW |
| **QA** | 2.5% | 0 | buyer | REA (Law 6/2014) + MoJ | Property Finder Qatar + Qatar Living + Saakin | absent | HIGH |
| **SA** | 2.5% | 0 | buyer | REGA (Law 10/1442, 2021) + Fal platform | Bayut SA + Aqar.fm + Wasalt | absent | HIGH |
| **TN** | 2-3% | 2-3% | both | voluntary CNICT | Mubawab Tunisia + Tayara + Menzili | absent | MEDIUM |
| **JO** | 2-3% | 2-3% | both | voluntary GAM + JREA | OpenSooq + Aqar.jo + Bayut Jordan | absent | MEDIUM |
| **OM** | 2.5% | 2.5% | both | licensed under RD 86/2008 + MoH | OpenSooq + Dubizzle Oman + Property Finder Oman | absent | MEDIUM |
| **BH** | 2% | 2% | both | RERA Bahrain (Law 27/2017) | Property Finder Bahrain + Bayut Bahrain | absent | HIGH |
| **KW** | 2% | 2% | both | voluntary (non-GCC foreigners barred under Decree-Law 74/1979) | OpenSooq + 4Sale + Bayut Kuwait | n/a (foreign buyers gated) | LOW |
| **LB** | 2-3% | 2-3% | both | informal post-2019 crisis | OLX Lebanon + Property Finder Lebanon | absent | LOW |

### East Asia

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS / portal | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **JP** | up to 3% + ¥60k + tax | up to 3% + ¥60k + tax | both | Real Estate Brokerage Act 1952 (宅建業法) — mandatory | Suumo + Athome + LIFULL Home's | rare (statutory fee covers it) | HIGH |
| **SG** | ~1% | ~2% | both (prescribed split) | CEA / Estate Agents Act 2010 — mandatory | PropertyGuru + 99.co + EdgeProp + SRX | rare | HIGH |
| **HK** | ~1% | ~1% | both | EAA / Cap 511 — mandatory | Centaline + Midland + Centa-Map | rare | HIGH |
| **KR** | 0.4–0.9% (statutory sliding) | 0.4–0.9% (statutory sliding) | both | 공인중개사법 — mandatory | Naver Real Estate + Zigbang + Hogangnono | rare | HIGH |
| **TW** | ~2% (industry-reported) | ~4% (industry-reported) | both | Brokerage Management Act 1999 — mandatory | 591.com.tw + Yungching + Sinyi | rare | HIGH |
| **MO** | ~1% (industry-reported) | ~1% (industry-reported) | both (negotiable) | CTM oversight (HK-aligned) | local + HK chains | rare | LOW |
| **CN** | ~0.5–1% (post-crackdown) | ~1.5–2% (post-crackdown) | both (seller-skewed since 2023) | MOHURD 房产中介 — mandatory | Lianjia + Beike + Anjuke + 58.com | rare | MEDIUM |

### Southeast Asia + South Asia

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS / portal | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **TH** | 0 | 3–5% (industry-reported) | seller | voluntary REBA | DDproperty + Hipflat + FazWaz | rare | MEDIUM |
| **ID** | ~2–3% (industry-reported) | ~2–3% (industry-reported) | both (or seller-only) | AREBI voluntary | Rumah123 + Lamudi + 99.co ID | rare | MEDIUM |
| **MY** | up to 3% (statutory) | up to 3% (statutory) | both (negotiable) | **BOVAEA / VAEAPM Act 1981 — mandatory** | iProperty + PropertyGuru MY + EdgeProp | rare | HIGH |
| **VN** | ~1% (industry-reported) | ~2% (industry-reported) | seller (mostly) | **Law 29/2023/QH15 — mandatory cert** | Batdongsan + Nhatot + Alonhadat | rare | MEDIUM |
| **PH** | 0 | 3–5% (industry-reported) | seller | **RA 9646 / PRC PRBRES — mandatory** | Lamudi + DotProperty + Hoppler | rare | HIGH |
| **KH** | 0 | ~3% (industry-reported) | seller | CVEA voluntary | Realestate.com.kh + IPS Cambodia | rare | LOW |
| **IN** | 1–2% (industry-reported) | 1–2% (industry-reported) | both (or seller-only) | **RERA state-level — mandatory** | MagicBricks + 99acres + Housing.com + NoBroker | rare (NoBroker flat ₹1,999–9,999) | MEDIUM |
| **LK** | 0 | ~3% (industry-reported) | seller | IPMASL voluntary | lankapropertyweb + ikman | rare | LOW |
| **MV** | 0 | developer-direct | developer | none (voluntary) | resort developer sites | n/a | LOW |
| **PK** | not published (verify per agency) | not published (verify per agency) | not published — verify | none located — verify (ARAB-MLS/blog foreign-buyer claims are secondary, uncorroborated) | no — Zameen.com + Graana + Lamudi PK (asking-price, seller-controlled) | rare (not documented) | LOW |
| **VU** | not published (verify per agency) | not published (verify per agency) | not published — verify | none located — verify (AML via FIU) | no — First National RE Vanuatu + Island Property + Properstar (thin supply ~13–17 nationwide 2025) | rare (not documented) | LOW |

### Sub-Saharan Africa

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS / dominant portal | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **ZA** | 0 | 5–7.5% + 15% VAT | seller | **PPRA mandatory FFC (PPA 22/2019, eff. 1 Feb 2022)** | Property24 + Private Property + GumTree | rare | HIGH |
| **NG** | 0 | 5–10% (industry-reported) | seller | NIESV + REDAN voluntary | PropertyPro NG + Nigeria Property Centre + Lamudi NG | rare | MEDIUM |
| **KE** | 0 | ~3% (industry-reported) | seller | **EARB mandatory (Estate Agents Act Cap 533)** | PropertyKenya + BuyRentKenya + Hauzisha | rare | HIGH |
| **MU** | ~2% | ~2% | both (split) | AAEM voluntary | Lexpress Property + JeRefere | uncommon | MEDIUM |
| **CV** | n/a | n/a | seller (custom) | voluntary | CV Imobiliária + Facebook | rare | LOW |
| **SC** | n/a | n/a | seller (custom) | voluntary | Property Seychelles | rare | LOW |
| **GH** | 0 | 5–10% (industry-reported) | seller | GREDA voluntary | meQasa + Tonaton + Jiji Ghana | rare | MEDIUM |
| **RW** | n/a | n/a | seller (custom) | voluntary | Property Finder RW + Lamudi RW (sparse) | rare | LOW |
| **NA** | n/a | not published (verify per agency) | seller (custom in Roman-Dutch markets — confirm) | none located; estate agents FIC-accountable for AML (not a competency licence) — verify | no — Property24 NA + MyProperty NA + Pam Golding/RE/MAX/Seeff | rare (not documented) | LOW |
| **BW** | n/a | not published (verify per agency) | not published — verify | none located — verify | no — Property24 BW + local press | rare (not documented) | LOW |

### Caucasus + Central Asia + Türkiye

| ISO | Buyer-side % | Seller-side % | Who pays | Licensing | MLS / dominant portal | EBA fee | Confidence |
|---|---:|---:|---|---|---|---:|---|
| **GE** | 0–3% | 3–5% (industry-reported) | seller (typically) | voluntary | MyHome.ge + SS.ge | rare | MEDIUM |
| **TR** | 2% | 2% | **both (statutory 4% combined cap, Communiqué 5 Jun 2018)** | **Yetki Belgesi mandatory** | Sahibinden + Hepsiemlak + Zingat + Emlakjet | rare | HIGH |
| **AM** | n/a | ~3–5% (industry-reported) | seller (custom) | voluntary | List.am | rare | LOW |
| **AZ** | n/a | ~3% (industry-reported) | seller (custom) | voluntary | bina.az + arenda.az + tap.az | rare | LOW |
| **KZ** | 2–3% | 2–3% (industry-reported) | both (split) | voluntary | krisha.kz + olx.kz | rare | LOW |
| **UZ** | n/a | ~3% (industry-reported) | seller (custom) | voluntary | OLX UZ + udevon.uz | rare | LOW |

---

## Cross-references

- **Notary / closing process**: see `shared/notary-process.md` for transaction-completion fees + procedural steps that follow agent involvement.
- **Sell-side liquidity + agent commission at exit**: see `shared/exit.md` for time-on-market + sell-side commission at the eventual sale.
- **Permits / building works after purchase**: see `shared/permits.md`.
- **Specialised property types** (off-plan / auction / probate): see `shared/property-types.md` for type-specific overlay templates that shape agent involvement.
- **Renovation / gîte-bnb / inheritance buyer journeys**: see `shared/journeys.md`.

## Confidence & maintenance

- **Confidence: HIGH** for FR/DE/UK/NL/IT/ES/PT/AT/IE/BE/SE/NO/DK/FI/IS/CZ/PL/HU/HR/US/CA/AU/NZ/JP/SG/HK/KR/TW/MY/PH/AE/IL/SA/QA/BH/KE/ZA/MX/BR/CR/PA/CO/UY/CL/TR — agent-association tariffs published or reform legislation traceable.
- **Confidence: MEDIUM** for CH/LU/GR/MT/CY/AD/SK/RO/BG/SI/EE/LV/LT/RS/AR/PE/EC/PY/DO/JM/MA/JO/OM/TN/CN/ID/VN/IN/MU/NG/GH/GE — partial primary-source coverage; commission figures industry-reported.
- **Confidence: LOW** for LI/MC/SM/ME/BA/MK/AL/MD/BS/BB/BZ/EG/KW/LB/MO/KH/LK/MV/CV/SC/RW/AM/AZ/KZ/UZ/NA/BW/PK/VU/TT — buyer-side commission data is anecdotal or (for NA/BW/PK/VU/TT) genuinely unpublished — the playbooks hedge agent economics as "data not publicly available — verify per agency" rather than asserting a rate, and no statutory agent-licensing regime was located for these five; treat as starting point, verify with local agents/conveyancer before transacting.

**Last verified**: 2026-05-08