# Universal `--finance` Section — Banking Sub-section Extension

Foreign-buyer **bank-account access** layer — tax-ID prerequisite chains, FATCA acceptance for US persons, named expat-banking arms with minimums, hidden traps (Catch-22 cycles, residency-coupled online banking, FX-account restrictions), and the 2024-2026 reform calendar that re-shapes onboarding. Loaded when `--finance` is invoked alongside the existing per-country mortgage logic in each playbook.

**Snapshot**: May 2026.

**Scope**: this doc supplies the *banking-access* layer — how a non-resident buyer actually opens an account in country X to receive notary funds, pay property tax, and hold rental income. The *credit* layer (mortgage availability, LTV cap, 10-yr fixed rate, FX-loan rules) lives in `shared/finance.md` and each country playbook's `--finance` section. A buyer often needs both: a mortgage approval is meaningless if the funds can't be wired to a local IBAN, and a domiciliation account is mandatory in many lender contracts (FR/IT/CH).

## Universal contract

For the property's country, return:

1. **Tax-ID name + acquisition channel + lead time** (e.g., DE Steueridentifikationsnummer mailed 2-6 wk after Anmeldung; ES NIE via consulate 4-12 wk or police in-country; IT codice fiscale at consulate often same-day; BR CPF at consulate ABROAD 1-2 wk; KZ IIN at PSC inside KZ 2-3 days). State whether tax-ID can be obtained BEFORE bank account or whether it's a Catch-22.
2. **Non-resident account-opening pattern** — one of: (a) fully remote from abroad; (b) on a visiting trip with notarised POA; (c) in-person mandatory at branch; (d) referral-only / private-bank-only. Name 1-2 specific banks per country with documented non-resident channels.
3. **FATCA acceptance for US persons** — bucketed as **Standard** (most major retail banks open US-tax-person accounts routinely), **Restricted** (only specific desks / Premier-tier / private banking accept), or **Refused** (nearly all banks refuse; only named expat-arms work). Name 1-3 expat-banking arms or international desks that DO accept US persons (HSBC Expat Jersey is the universal fallback; Charles Schwab International for US-side investing; Citi IPB Singapore USD 200k AUM; UBS Wealth Management; LGT Bank).
4. **Expat-banking-arm minimum** where applicable (HSBC Premier ~USD 75-100k AUM; LGT Bank CHF 1M; Lombard Odier CHF 1M; UBS Wealth USD 2M+).
5. **Hidden trap** — country-specific friction the published process does not mention (DE Anmeldung Catch-22 + SCHUFA score-zero; ES Modelo 720 reporting; PL PESEL-or-bust; IL te'udat zehut zara distinction; AR Corralito-2001 memory; SARB SDA R1M / FIA R10M; CN SAFE USD 50k/yr face-scan; AU foreign-buyer ban on established dwellings; CA non-Canadian purchase ban).
6. **2024-2026 reforms** (date-stamped, regulator-source-cited) — AMLA Frankfurt 1 Jul 2025; EU Instant Payments Reg 2024/886 receive-9 Jan 2025 / send + VoP 9 Oct 2025; UK FCA Consumer Duty closed-products 31 Jul 2024; CN PBoC + CBIRC + CSRC tightening 1 Jan 2026; AU FRCGW 12.5%→15% 1 Jan 2025 + foreign-buyer ban 1 Apr 2025; NZ partial reopen 19 Dec 2025; HK CARF + CRS 2.0 from 2028/2029.
7. **Confidence**: HIGH / MEDIUM / LOW per the skill's contract — HIGH where named-bank policy is published; MEDIUM where pattern is well-documented but bank-by-bank execution varies; LOW where bank lists/minimums shift quarterly without public source.

## ⚠️ 7 cross-cutting traps

1. **Tax-ID Catch-22 is the universal trap.** The order is `tax-ID → bank account → utilities → property tax`, but in many jurisdictions one prerequisite needs another that needs the first (DE: Anmeldung needs address → bank wants Anmeldung → landlord wants bank-confirmation; PL: PESEL needs registered address → online banking needs PESEL → registered-address needs bank for utilities; CR: Firma Digital needs DIMEX → DIMEX needs in-country presence → presence is hard without account). The workarounds are bank- and country-specific (BR CPF via consulate, AT Erste/Sparkasse pre-open without Anmeldung, DE Commerzbank international desk pre-arrival, HSBC Expat Jersey universal). Without a workaround, the timeline doubles.
2. **FATCA is signed in 100+ jurisdictions but executed bank-by-bank.** US persons routinely face de-facto refusal at branch-level even where the IGA is in force (CY, KW, SA, CN, FI mainstream retail, LV/CY post-Russian de-risking, EU mainstream Sparkasse / Volksbank / Crédit Agricole). The reliable channels are HSBC Expat Jersey, Premier-tier carve-outs (HSBC / DBS Treasures / UBS Wealth Management / Citi IPB / Charles Schwab International), and named private-bank desks (Lombard Odier, LGT, Pictet, Julius Baer at HNW). Caucasus (GE, AM) is the standout regional exception where US-person retail onboarding is genuinely Standard.
3. **Online banking is residency-coupled even where the account isn't.** Switzerland (PostFinance, ZKB, Raiffeisen) restricts online banking to residents even when an account exists; CN UnionPay-only access for some non-res accounts; KR ARC + visa-status check; Norway D-number holders need BankID issued bank-by-bank; Sweden samordningsnummer accounts often lack BankID/Swish (major operational restriction in cashless SE); JP "non-resident yen account" excludes overseas remittance + cash card + bill payments. A "I have an account" claim is not a "I can transact" claim.
4. **Mortgage-domiciliation requirements survive even where the tied-sale law was annulled.** France's Loi Sapin II 2017 / Decree 2017-1099 was annulled by Conseil d'État (5 Dec 2018) and abrogated by Loi PACTE 22 May 2019 — yet Crédit Agricole / BNP Paribas / Société Générale still require salary/pension domiciliation in practice as a "rate-condition" rather than a tied sale. CH lenders demand domiciliation for the loan term. IT lenders typically bundle account + mortgage. Buyers should treat this as a standing requirement.
5. **Currency-control and exchange-control regimes constrain repatriation even where account opening is easy.** ZA SARB (SDA R1M + FIA R10M, TCS PIN required); IN LRS USD 250k/yr + TCS 20% > INR 10 lakh; CN SAFE USD 50k/yr individual cap with face-scan; KR USD 50k/yr + USD 20k cash-purchase reporting; AR cepo cambiario (lifted Apr 2025 but USD account access for non-res still constrained); MA + TN Office des Changes / BCT non-resident-dirham/dinar regime — repatriation only against documented original FX inflow; NG Certificate of Capital Importation (CCI) at inflow is the gating doc for property-sale-proceed exit. Bank account is necessary but not sufficient for capital movement.
6. **Caribbean + Mediterranean small-banking-sector de-risking compounds property-buyer friction.** CY post-2018 Russian-shell cleanup + 2013 bail-in scar tissue; LV post-ABLV-2018 de-risking; MT MFSA enforcement post-Pilatus + HSBC Malta sale to CrediaBank Dec 2025 (transition uncertainty through 2027); BS / BB / BZ post-CFATF cleanup tightened; MC FATF grey-list Jun 2024 + EU AMLD high-risk addition proposed 2025. KYC documentation is heavier than pre-2020 reputation suggests.
7. **Foreign-buyer bans + property-purchase restrictions interact with banking-access policy in non-obvious ways.** AU foreign-individual ban on established dwellings 1 Apr 2025 – 31 Mar 2027 (only new builds); CA non-Canadian-purchase ban extended to 1 Jan 2027; NZ Overseas Investment Act partial-reopen 19 Dec 2025 for AIP/Investor visa holders at NZD 5M+; MV constitutional freehold ban (only 99-yr SEZ leasehold > USD 1B); NG / GH / KE 50-99-yr leasehold caps for foreigners. A "yes you can open an account" is not a "yes you can buy property" — verify the property regime separately at `--permits` / `countries/<iso2>/playbook.md`.

## Regional patterns + country one-liners

The 6 region blocks below span all 126 supported countries. The Crown Dependencies, Danish territories, and Caribbean UK Overseas Territories / CBI states are now standalone playbooks, not parent-jurisdiction defaults.

---

## Western Europe + EFTA + microstates + UK

### Regional pattern

Across the 23 jurisdictions covered, four shared structural patterns govern non-resident bank-account access. (1) **Tax-ID-before-bank rule is universal in EU/EEA**: every Eurozone member except IT (codice fiscale at consulate, often same-day) imposes a domestic identifier (NIE/NIF/AFM/BSN/CPR/HETU/personnummer/PPSN/Steuer-ID) that must precede or coincide with KYC. The handful of exceptions are non-residents using EU "international" desks (BNP Paribas, HSBC, Société Générale) which can pre-open with passport + foreign tax-ID and demand the local TIN within 30-90 days. (2) **SEPA + AMLD6 + IPR convergence is real but bank-by-bank execution diverges**: Verification of Payee mandatory 9 Oct 2025 (Eurozone); receipt of instant payments mandatory 9 Jan 2025; sending mandatory 9 Oct 2025 ([Reg. EU 2024/886](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/886/oj/eng)). The single AML rulebook (Regulation 2024/1624) becomes directly applicable 10 Jul 2027 with a EUR 10,000 cash-payment cap ([eucrim](https://eucrim.eu/news/the-eu-new-aml-single-rulebook-regulation/)); AMLA in Frankfurt began initial operations 1 Jul 2025, full direct supervision 1 Jan 2028 ([EUR-Lex summary](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/authority-for-anti-money-laundering-and-countering-the-financing-of-terrorism.html)).

(3) **FATCA-restrictive culture in EU mainstream retail**: most major retail banks decline US persons by default at the branch level. The reliable channels are HSBC Expat (Jersey), Premier-tier carve-outs, and named expat/private-banking arms with explicit US-person desks (UBS, Lombard Odier, LGT, Pictet at HNW levels). The CJEU is examining FATCA-IGA GDPR compliance in 2025-26 ([Mayer Brown 2025](https://www.mayerbrown.com/en/insights/publications/2025/12/eu-court-of-justice-to-examine-gdpr-compliance-of-fatca-related-bank-data-transfers)) but no operational change yet. (4) **Open Banking divergence post-Brexit**: UK FCA Consumer Duty (full effect 31 Jul 2024 incl. closed products) and ongoing Variable Recurring Payments rollout sit alongside but separate from EU PSD3/PSR drafts; UK challengers (Starling/Monzo/Revolut) are residency-flexible but Barclays/Lloyds/HSBC have closed most non-resident retail accounts since 2023 ([Experts for Expats](https://www.expertsforexpats.com/advice/expat-money-and-finance/barclays-and-other-uk-financial-institutions-are-closing-british-expats-accounts)).

(5) **Microstate compression**: MC, AD, LI, SM, MT, IS — small-market banking constrained by EU passporting + correspondent-bank de-risking. MC was added to FATF grey list Jun 2024; EU AMLD high-risk list addition was proposed 2025 ([Fincrime Central](https://fincrimecentral.com/monaco-grey-list-eu-aml-compliance-impact-2025/)); MC, SM, AD all face progressively tighter CDD windows from EU monetary-agreement obligations (AD must transpose 2024 AML package by 31 Dec 2028).

### Country one-liners

**AD (Andorra)** — NRT (Número de Registre Tributari) issued by Departament de Tributs i Fronteres on application with passport, ~1-2 weeks (verify at [tributs.ad](https://www.tributs.ad/)); only three banks (Andbank, Creand ex-Crèdit Andorrà, MoraBanc) — non-resident accounts case-by-case, in-person only, source-of-funds documentation enhanced; private-banking entry est. EUR 350-500k ([andorrainsiders.com](https://andorrainsiders.com/en/banks-accounts-payments-sepa-andorra/)); FATCA: **Restricted** — handled at private-banking tier only, named US-person desk not publicly disclosed, verify directly; trap: no SEPA Instant participation symmetry with EU mainland for retail-level operations; **confidence MEDIUM** — bank policy is not public, "contact us" is the published process.

**AT (Austria)** — Steuerliche Identifikationsnummer assigned by Finanzamt after Anmeldung at Meldeamt (within 3 days of move-in), Steuernummer separate; non-residents can open without Anmeldung at Erste/Sparkasse and Raiffeisen Bank International, in-person mandatory, est. EUR 15-20/year fee ([Erste/Sparkasse non-resident](https://www.sparkasse.at/erstebank-en/privatkunden/konto-karten); [housinganywhere.com](https://housinganywhere.com/Austria/opening-bank-account-in-austria)); FATCA: **Restricted** — Erste Private Banking and RBI accept US persons selectively, retail mostly refuses; trap: many landlords require an Austrian account before they sign — bank-first sequence is enforceable; **confidence MEDIUM** — fees and policy verified, US-person specifics not public per bank.

**BE (Belgium)** — National Register Number (Rijksregisternummer / NN) issued by commune within ~2-4 weeks after registration; non-residents get a "bis-nummer" via Crossroads Bank — banks (KBC, BNP Paribas Fortis, ING, Belfius) accept non-resident applications, expect 2-6 weeks KYC, NN required within ~90 days of opening to keep account fully active ([expatica.com](https://www.expatica.com/be/finance/banking/opening-a-bank-account-in-belgium-741553/)); FATCA: **Restricted** — Belgian court has held FATCA-IGA breaches GDPR (2023), banks remain cautious with US persons; trap: itsme app and full digital onboarding generally unavailable without Belgian eID; **confidence MEDIUM** — bank-level execution variable, NN-deadline window verified.

**CH (Switzerland)** — No single tax-ID for individuals at federal level — cantonal Einwohnerkontrolle registration within 8 days of move-in, AHV (social security) number issued separately; non-residents: UBS retail open requires CH tax residency ([UBS Switzerland](https://www.ubs.com/ch/en/services/accounts-and-cards/daily-banking/private-account-adults/personal-account.html)) — PostFinance and ZKB accept with "Swiss connection," CHF 360/yr non-resident fee at UBS and ZKB, EUR 25/mo at PostFinance ([thepoorswiss.com](https://thepoorswiss.com/best-swiss-bank-non-resident/); [moneyland.ch](https://www.moneyland.ch/en/swiss-bank-fees-abroad)); FATCA: **Restricted** — UBS Wealth Management and Pictet/Julius Baer/Lombard Odier maintain US-person desks; UBS minimum est. USD 2M for private-wealth ([top10privatebanks.com](https://top10privatebanks.com/bank/ubs-private-banking.html)); trap: e-banking access often residency-restricted (PostFinance, ZKB) — non-resident accounts often access-limited; FINMA Circ. 2016/7 (video ID) under partial revision through 27 Feb 2026 ([Loyens & Loeff](https://www.loyensloeff.com/insights/news--events/news/digital-onboarding-revisited--finma-proposes-amendments-to-its-finma-circular-on-video--and-online-identification/)); **confidence HIGH** — fees published, US-person policy clear at top tier.

**DE (Germany)** — Steueridentifikationsnummer (IdNr) automatically mailed by BZSt 2-4 weeks after Anmeldung at Bürgeramt ([BZSt](https://www.bzst.de/EN/Private_individuals/Tax_identification_number/tax_identification_number_node.html)); non-residents: Commerzbank, Deutsche Bank Premium accept; Postbank generally won't open non-resident retail; mass challengers (N26, Bunq) work for EU residents only; FATCA: **Restricted** — Deutsche Bank Wealth Management accepts US persons; many retail banks (Sparkassen, Volksbanken) decline at branch level; trap: classic "Anmeldung Catch-22" — landlord wants bank → bank wants registered address → registration wants address — workaround is Commerzbank/Deutsche Bank international desk pre-arrival; SCHUFA score-zero penalty for new arrivals; reform: BaFin AML interpretation guidance updated 1 Feb 2025 ([HSF Kramer](https://www.hsfkramer.com/notes/fsrandcorpcrime/2025-posts/key-changes-bafin-aml)), Finanzmarktdigitalisierungsgesetz (FinmadiG) transposes EU AMLR provisions; **confidence HIGH** — IdNr lead-time and Catch-22 documented at BZSt.

**DK (Denmark)** — CPR-nummer issued by ICS (International Citizen Service) or commune after residence permit + address; bank account requires CPR + MitID; MitID needs CPR + valid ID document ([nemkonto.dk](https://www.nemkonto.dk/en/citizen/nemkonto-for-citizens/assigning-a-nemkonto/); [lifeindenmark.borger.dk](https://lifeindenmark.borger.dk/apps-and-digital-services/nemkonto-your-public-bank-account)); non-residents: very limited — usually requires CPR; FATCA: **Standard** for Danske Bank/Nordea/Jyske once CPR is in place — declared US persons routinely onboarded but enhanced KYC; trap: NemID retired 31 Oct 2023 — MitID-only; non-resident NemKonto can be a foreign IBAN once you have CPR + MitID ([nemkonto.dk foreign account](https://www.nemkonto.dk/en/citizen/nemkonto-for-citizens/assigning-a-nemkonto/)); **confidence HIGH** — CPR + MitID circular dependency well-documented.

**ES (Spain)** — NIE via Spanish consulate abroad (~2-6 weeks, sometimes 4-8) or in-person at Comisaría de Policía in Spain ([costaluzlawyers.com](https://www.costaluzlawyers.com/nie-spain/); [hilivsolution.com](https://www.hilivsolution.com/blog/articles/get-nie-spain)); non-residents: Banco Santander, BBVA, CaixaBank accept with NIE — non-resident certificate (renewed every 2 years, ~EUR 15-30) is a recurring cost; FATCA: **Restricted** — Santander Private Wealth and BBVA Premium accept US persons; mass-market retail varies; trap: NIE Catch-22 (need NIE for account, but consular route can be slow); Modelo 720 (foreign-asset reporting) penalty regime softened by Law 5/2022 post-CJEU C-788/19 (27 Jan 2022) — fines now EUR 20-20,000 per data point with 4-year limitation ([lawants.com](https://www.lawants.com/en/modelo-720/); [tejadasolicitors.com](https://tejadasolicitors.com/blog/form-720-spain/)) but obligation persists for tax residents; **confidence HIGH** — NIE flow verified, Modelo 720 reform sourced.

**FI (Finland)** — Henkilötunnus (HETU) issued by DVV (Digital and Population Data Services Agency) — non-resident "international account" possible at Nordea/OP but limited (often no online banking, no Finnish e-ID for suomi.fi); HETU + valid ID + right to reside required for full Nordea onboarding ([Nordea FI](https://www.nordea.fi/en/personal/our-services/accounts-payments/how-to-open-banking-services-when-you-are-new-to-finland.html)); FATCA: **Restricted** — Nordea Private Banking accepts US persons, OP retail typically declines; trap: even with HETU, non-residents often can't get Nordea ID app / OP-mobile required for SCA/Strong Customer Authentication; **confidence MEDIUM** — official Nordea page documents flow but US-person stance not on bank's public site.

**FR (France)** — Numéro fiscal SPI issued by DGFiP after first tax declaration OR via espace particulier creation (request via [impots.gouv.fr](https://www.impots.gouv.fr/) — code by post in ~3 weeks); non-residents: BNP Paribas International Clients Desk, Société Générale Sogexia/International, HSBC Continental Europe accept remote pre-onboarding with English-language support; in-person typical for full activation ([connexionfrance.com](https://www.connexionfrance.com/practical/can-you-open-a-bank-account-in-france-without-a-local-address/636684)); FATCA: **Restricted** — SocGen Private Banking and BNP Paribas Wealth accept US persons; LCL/Crédit Agricole/Banque Populaire frequently refuse; trap: mortgage-domiciliation clause history — Loi Sapin II 2017 framework and Decree 2017-1099 (allowing 10-yr salary domiciliation tied to rate benefit) was annulled by Conseil d'État (5 Dec 2018) and the regime was abrogated by Loi PACTE 22 May 2019 — clause is no longer enforceable as a tied sale ([dalloz-actualite.fr](https://www.dalloz-actualite.fr/flash/domiciliation-bancaire-conseil-d-etat-annule-decret-n-2017-1099-du-14-juin-2017); [legifiscal.fr](https://www.legifiscal.fr/actualites-fiscales/2132-credit-immobilier-clause-domiciliation-salaire-nouveau-changement.html)); **confidence HIGH** — Sapin II / PACTE chronology cleanly verified.

**GR (Greece)** — AFM issued same-day at any DOY tax office on passport + proof of address; non-residents apply at DOY Katoikon Exoterikou, Mesogeion 207, Athens, must nominate a Greek tax representative ([Lexidy guide](https://www.lexidy.com/services/greece/immigration/tax-id-number/); [gov.gr](https://www.gov.gr/en/arxes/anexartete-arkhe-demosion-esodon-aade/anexartete-arkhe-demosion-esodon-aade/apodose-arithmou-phorologikou-metroou-aphm-kai-kleidarithmou-se-phusiko-prosopo)); banks: Eurobank offers remote opening; Piraeus, Alpha, NBG generally require in-branch; FATCA: **Restricted** — Eurobank Private Banking accepts US persons; retail declines; trap: post-2024 HFSF privatisation completion (Eurobank/Alpha consolidation) — KYC standards harmonised but slow; **confidence MEDIUM** — DOY/AFM flow well-documented, bank-by-bank US-person policy not public.

**IE (Ireland)** — PPSN (Personal Public Service Number) issued by Department of Social Protection — appointment system, can take 4-12 weeks; non-residents: AIB and BoI accept Non-Irish TRN if applicant resides outside Ireland ([AIB non-resident requirements](https://aib.ie/our-products/savings-and-deposits/non-resident-personal-identification-requirements); [aib.ie PPSN](https://aib.ie/our-products/savings-and-deposits/ppsn-details)); AIB requires in-branch presentation within 30 days of account open for non-residents; FATCA: **Standard** — Irish banks routinely onboard US persons (post-IGA); trap: PPSN Catch-22 if returning Irish citizen with no recent address; Central Credit Register check standard; **confidence HIGH** — AIB pages are explicit on non-resident steps.

**IS (Iceland)** — Kennitala issued by Þjóðskrá (Registers Iceland) — must apply in person, requires registered address ([movingtoiceland.com](https://movingtoiceland.com/kennitala-iceland/); [landsbankinn.is](https://www.landsbankinn.is/en/news/2020/09/14/moving-to-iceland-and-need-a-bank-account)); non-residents: Landsbankinn, Íslandsbanki, Arion — kennitala prerequisite, no remote opening, in-person mandatory; Íslandsbanki government stake fully sold May 2025 ([islandsbanki.is](https://www.islandsbanki.is/en/milestone/banking-in-iceland)); FATCA: **Restricted** — banks comply with US IGA but US-person retail accounts limited; trap: kennitala requires physical presence + registered address — non-resident remote onboarding not viable; **confidence HIGH** — Þjóðskrá and Landsbankinn pages confirm.

**IT (Italy)** — Codice fiscale at any Italian consulate abroad or Agenzia delle Entrate office in Italy — often same-day (consulate may take ~5 working days) ([consdetroit.esteri.it](https://consdetroit.esteri.it/en/servizi-consolari-e-visti/servizi-per-il-cittadino-italiano/codice-fiscale-italian-tax-code/); [valenteit.com](https://valenteit.com/how-to-get-your-italian-fiscal-code-and-open-a-bank-account-foreign-buyers-complete-guide/)); non-residents: Intesa Sanpaolo "non-resident" account and UniCredit accept during purchase trips, partial digital onboarding + video verification; PostePay, Hype, Isybank as digital alternatives (residency-flexible); FATCA: **Restricted** — Intesa Private Banking and UniCredit Private Banking accept US persons; retail varies; trap: non-resident accounts have higher fees and operational limits ([tuttosemplice.com](https://blog.tuttosemplice.com/en/bank-account-in-italy-for-foreigners-a-complete-guide-to-opening-one-in-2025/)); SEPA Instant via "Bonifico Istantaneo" mandatory across SEPA from Oct 2025; **confidence HIGH** — codice fiscale flow and bank-by-bank pattern documented.

**LI (Liechtenstein)** — Tax-ID (Steuernummer) issued by Steuerverwaltung after Anmeldung; non-resident banking is private-banking-tilted: LGT Bank CHF 1,000,000 minimum, VP Bank CHF 1,000,000, Kaiser Partner Privatbank CHF 500,000 ([thebanks.eu/Kaiser](https://thebanks.eu/banks/9873#products); [easyglobalbanking.com](https://www.easyglobalbanking.com/alternative-banking-hubs/liechtenstein-private-banking-for-non-residents/)); FATCA: **Restricted** — LGT Bank handles complex US-person profiles regularly; trap: virtually no retail-tier non-resident option — entry minimums are private-banking grade; FMA + EFTA Surveillance Authority working on DAC8 transposition (EU deadline 31 Dec 2025); **confidence HIGH** — bank minimums published, US-person handling sourced.

**LU (Luxembourg)** — Matricule (13-digit national ID) issued at registration; non-residents accepted at BIL, BCEE/Spuerkeess, BGL BNP Paribas with enhanced KYC; private banking minimums est. EUR 250k-1M depending on tier (verify at [cssf.lu](https://www.cssf.lu/) and bank-direct); FATCA: **Restricted** — BIL Private Banking and BGL Wealth accept US persons selectively; trap: CSSF Circular 24/856 codifies AML/CFT due-diligence and tightened beneficial-ownership checks ([fund-xp.lu](https://fund-xp.lu/uncategorized/cssf-faq-on-circular-cssf-24-856/)); DAC8 transposition extending automatic exchange to crypto + insurance + tax rulings ([EY 2025](https://www.ey.com/en_gl/technical/tax-alerts/luxembourg-to-transpose-dac8-extending-automatic-information-exchange-on-crypto-assets-life-insurance-income-tax-rulings-for-individuals-and-digital-currencies)); **confidence MEDIUM** — bank minimums vary, exact thresholds not published.

**MC (Monaco)** — No personal tax-ID for individuals (no income tax for residents except French nationals); residency requires bank-letter of EUR ~500k deposit + clean record; banks: SBM, CFM Indosuez (Crédit Agricole), CMB (Mediobanca) — minimums for residency relationship EUR 500k; non-resident relationships at est. EUR 2M+, full private banking EUR 1M-3M+ ([monacorg.com](https://www.monacorg.com/private-banks-in-monaco/); [easyglobalbanking.com](https://www.easyglobalbanking.com/alternative-banking-hubs/open-a-bank-account-in-monaco/)); FATCA: **Restricted** — CMB and CFM accept US persons at private-banking tier; trap: FATF grey-listed Jun 2024 → enhanced cross-border due-diligence costs and timelines through 2025-26; Sovereign Order 11.242 of 30 May 2025 amended Monaco's AML framework (publ. Journal de Monaco 6 Jun 2025) ([Phoenix Consulting](https://phoenix.mc/en/aml-cft-10-sovereign-order-11-242-of-may-30-2025/); [Fincrime Central](https://fincrimecentral.com/monaco-grey-list-eu-aml-compliance-impact-2025/)); **confidence HIGH** — minimums and grey-list status well-sourced.

**MT (Malta)** — Tax Number issued by Commissioner for Revenue post-residency registration; non-residents: BOV (Bank of Valletta) and HSBC Malta accept with enhanced KYC, often slow ([imin-malta.com](https://imin-malta.com/blog/banks-in-malta/)); FATCA: **Restricted** — HSBC Malta accepts US persons (HSBC group policy); BOV variable; trap: HSBC Malta sale to CrediaBank (Greece) signed Dec 2025, completion expected early 2027 — service uncertainty in transition; MFSA enforcement remains heightened post-Pilatus aftermath; banking due-diligence widely reported as lengthy; **confidence MEDIUM** — HSBC Malta sale verified, US-person desk policy bank-direct only.

**NL (Netherlands)** — BSN (Burgerservicenummer) issued by gemeente registration (or RNI for non-residents) within ~1-3 weeks; non-residents: ABN AMRO, ING, Rabobank generally require BSN; bunq and N26 sometimes accept EU non-residents without local BSN; FATCA: **Standard at large banks** — ING, ABN, Rabobank routinely onboard US persons with FATCA self-cert; bunq fined EUR 2.6M by DNB on 6 May 2025 for AML deficiencies ([DNB enforcement 2025](https://www.dnb.nl/en/general-news/enforcement-measures-2025/fine-for-bunq-b-v-for-insufficient-customer-due-diligence/)); trap: DNB ongoing focus on Wwft proportionality post-2024-25 thematic survey ([DNB proportionality](https://www.dnb.nl/en/sector-news/supervision-2025/q4/proportionality-in-perspective-proportionate-application-of-wwft-allows-for-more-tailored-solutions/)) — banks have over-corrected, leading to retail de-risking complaints; **confidence HIGH** — DNB pages cite enforcement and thematic findings.

**NO (Norway)** — D-nummer (temporary, non-resident, stays <6 months or pending) or Fødselsnummer (full national ID, stays >6 months registered); non-residents: DNB has stopped most non-resident onboarding; Nordea and SpareBank 1 Sør-Norge issue BankID to D-number holders selectively, branch-by-branch ([thelocal.no Feb 2025](https://www.thelocal.no/20250206/which-norwegian-banks-issue-bankid-to-foreigners-with-a-d-number); [unlocknorway.com](https://www.unlocknorway.com/insights/how-to-open-a-bank-account-in-norway)); FATCA: **Standard at major banks** with FATCA self-cert; trap: BankID with D-number is the gating constraint — without it, online banking and most digital services don't work; **confidence HIGH** — Local article cites bank-by-bank policy.

**PT (Portugal)** — NIF via Finanças office; non-EU/EEA tax-residents must appoint a fiscal representative within 15 days of acquiring a Portuguese tax relationship — fines EUR 75-7,500 for non-compliance ([portutax.com](https://www.portutax.com/news/fiscal-representation-in-portugal-everything-you-need-to-know-48); [worktugal.com](https://worktugal.com/portuguese-nif-guide/)); cost via lawyer/representative est. EUR 75-200; Decreto-Lei 49/2025 (in force 1 Jul 2025) tightened VAT-representative rules for freelancers; non-residents: Millennium BCP, Novo Banco, Caixa Geral de Depósitos accept with NIF + fiscal rep, in-person typical; FATCA: **Restricted** — Millennium BCP Private and Novo Banco Private accept US persons; trap: NIF reform under Decree-Law 44/2022 exempted EU/EEA residents from fiscal representative requirement — non-EU still required; **confidence HIGH** — Decreto-Lei 49/2025 verified.

**SE (Sweden)** — Personnummer (residents) or samordningsnummer (non-residents, <1 yr) via Skatteverket; non-residents face limited account access — basic account possible without personnummer for EU/EEA citizens (legal right under Payment Account Directive) ([acciyo.com 2025 EU guide](https://www.acciyo.com/open-bank-account-in-sweden-eu-citizen-the-complete-2025-guide/)); Handelsbanken and SEB cited as most non-resident-friendly with English support; FATCA: **Standard at SEB/Handelsbanken/Nordea/Swedbank** with self-cert; trap: samordningsnummer accounts often lack BankID/Swish — major operational restriction in cashless Sweden; **confidence MEDIUM** — EU right verified; bank-level fee/feature variation broad.

**SM (San Marino)** — Codice ISS (Istituto per la Sicurezza Sociale) for residents; non-residents: BSM (Banca di San Marino), Cassa di Risparmio della Repubblica di San Marino accept; minimum deposits est. EUR 500-2,000 to open ([bsm.sm non-EU](https://www.bsm.sm/en/non-eu-citizens-bsm.php)); in-person required, source-of-funds documentation enhanced; FATCA: **Restricted** — handled at BSM compliance review case-by-case; trap: SM monetary agreement with EU (rev. 2024 — [EUR-Lex COM 2024/134](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=COM:2024:134:FIN)) requires EU AML package transposition, ongoing CDD tightening; **confidence MEDIUM** — BSM page documents non-EU process; US-person stance not public.

**UK (United Kingdom)** — UTR (Unique Taxpayer Reference) for self-assessment, issued by HMRC; National Insurance Number for employment — neither is a hard prerequisite for opening basic accounts; non-residents: most retail banks (Barclays, Lloyds, NatWest) closed non-resident accounts en masse 2023-24 — Barclays exception is Crown Dependencies (Jersey, Guernsey, IoM) only ([Experts for Expats](https://www.expertsforexpats.com/advice/expat-money-and-finance/barclays-and-other-uk-financial-institutions-are-closing-british-expats-accounts); [moneysavingexpert.com](https://www.moneysavingexpert.com/news/2023/12/barclays-expat-account-closed-bank-alternatives/)); HSBC Expat (Jersey) is the gold standard for global-mobility — minimum GBP 100k income or GBP 50k deposit, no monthly fee ([HSBC Expat Premier](https://www.expat.hsbc.com/premier/)); Lloyds International Classic Account requires GBP 50k income or GBP 25k saved ([Experts for Expats](https://www.expertsforexpats.com/expat-services/best-bank-accounts-designed-for-expats)); Barclays Premier requires GBP 75k income or GBP 100k AUM; challengers (Starling, Monzo, Revolut) UK-residency-required for full features; FATCA: **Restricted** in mainstream — HSBC Expat Jersey (gold standard for US persons), Charles Schwab International (US-side), Interactive Brokers as alternatives; trap: FCA Consumer Duty extended to closed products 31 Jul 2024 ([FCA letter](https://www.fca.org.uk/publication/correspondence/dear-ceo-letter-implementing-consumer-duty-closed-products-services-all-other-firms.pdf)) — bank closures of legacy expat accounts continue; **confidence HIGH** — HSBC/Lloyds/Barclays minimums published.

### Reform calendar 2024-2026 (dated)

- **31 May 2024** — EU AML Package adopted (Reg. 2024/1620 AMLA + Reg. 2024/1624 AMLR + Dir. 2024/1640 AMLD6) — establishes Single Rulebook + AMLA Frankfurt + EUR 10,000 EU cash cap — [EUR-Lex 2024/1624](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1624/oj/eng)
- **Jun 2024** — Monaco placed on FATF grey list — enhanced cross-border CDD for MC accounts — [FATF Monaco](https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/countries/detail/Monaco.html)
- **31 Jul 2024** — UK FCA Consumer Duty extended to closed products and services — affects legacy non-resident retail accounts — [FCA Dear CEO letter](https://www.fca.org.uk/publication/correspondence/dear-ceo-letter-implementing-consumer-duty-closed-products-services-all-other-firms.pdf)
- **9 Jan 2025** — EU IPR (Reg. 2024/886): receipt of SEPA instant payments mandatory — [EUR-Lex 2024/886](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/886/oj/eng)
- **1 Feb 2025** — Germany BaFin updated AML/GwG interpretation guidance enters force — [HSF Kramer](https://www.hsfkramer.com/notes/fsrandcorpcrime/2025-posts/key-changes-bafin-aml)
- **6 May 2025** — DNB fines bunq EUR 2.6M for AML CDD deficiencies (Jan 2021-May 2022) — [DNB enforcement](https://www.dnb.nl/en/general-news/enforcement-measures-2025/fine-for-bunq-b-v-for-insufficient-customer-due-diligence/)
- **May 2025** — Íslandsbanki fully privatised — Icelandic state divests remaining 45.2% — [islandsbanki.is](https://www.islandsbanki.is/en/milestone/banking-in-iceland)
- **30 May 2025** — Monaco Sovereign Order 11.242 amends AML framework (publ. Journal de Monaco 6 Jun 2025) — grey-list exit prep — [Phoenix Consulting](https://phoenix.mc/en/aml-cft-10-sovereign-order-11-242-of-may-30-2025/)
- **1 Jul 2025** — EU AMLA (Frankfurt) begins initial operations — [EUR-Lex AMLA summary](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/authority-for-anti-money-laundering-and-countering-the-financing-of-terrorism.html)
- **1 Jul 2025** — Portugal Decreto-Lei 49/2025 in force — VAT-representative requirements tightened for non-EU freelancers — [portutax.com](https://www.portutax.com/news/fiscal-representation-in-portugal-everything-you-need-to-know-48)
- **Jul 2025** — Germany BaFin published updated GwG guidance aligning with EU AML package — FinmadiG status (delayed) — [Noerr](https://www.noerr.com/en/insights/bafin-publishes-updated-interpretation-and-application-guidance-on-the-german-anti-money-laundering-act-and-instructions-for-suspicious-activity-reports)
- **5 Oct 2025** — EPC Verification of Payee Scheme Rulebook enters force — [PwC Legal](https://legal.pwc.de/en/news/articles/verification-of-payee-requirements-vop-under-the-eus-instant-payments-regulation-ipr)
- **9 Oct 2025** — EU IPR: sending instant payments + Verification of Payee mandatory in Eurozone — [EUR-Lex 2024/886](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/886/oj/eng)
- **2025** — EU Commission proposed adding Monaco to EU AML high-risk list — additional EU-side scrutiny — [Fincrime Central](https://fincrimecentral.com/monaco-grey-list-eu-aml-compliance-impact-2025/)
- **2025** — CSSF Circular 24/856 (Luxembourg) — AML/CFT due-diligence framework consolidated — [Fund XP](https://fund-xp.lu/uncategorized/cssf-faq-on-circular-cssf-24-856/)
- **Dec 2025** — HSBC signs definitive agreement to sell 70.03% stake in HSBC Malta to CrediaBank (Greece) for EUR 200M; completion early 2027 — [imin-malta.com](https://imin-malta.com/blog/banks-in-malta/)
- **31 Dec 2025** — DAC8 transposition deadline (EU MS) for crypto-asset reporting; first reporting year 2026 — [EU Commission DAC8](https://taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu/taxation/tax-transparency-cooperation/administrative-co-operation-and-mutual-assistance/directive-administrative-cooperation-dac/dac8_en)
- **2025-26** — CJEU examining FATCA-IGA GDPR compatibility — could affect EU bank-side FATCA execution — [Mayer Brown](https://www.mayerbrown.com/en/insights/publications/2025/12/eu-court-of-justice-to-examine-gdpr-compliance-of-fatca-related-bank-data-transfers)
- **27 Feb 2026** — FINMA Circular 2016/7 (video/online ID) consultation closes — Swiss digital onboarding rules to be revised — [Loyens & Loeff](https://www.loyensloeff.com/insights/news--events/news/digital-onboarding-revisited--finma-proposes-amendments-to-its-finma-circular-on-video--and-online-identification/)
- **9 Jul 2027** — EU IPR: sending + Verification of Payee mandatory for non-Eurozone EEA — [EUR-Lex 2024/886](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/886/oj/eng)
- **10 Jul 2027** — EU AML Single Rulebook (Reg. 2024/1624) directly applicable + EUR 10,000 cash-payment EU cap — [eucrim](https://eucrim.eu/news/the-eu-new-aml-single-rulebook-regulation/)
- **1 Jan 2028** — EU AMLA full operational supervision of ~40 high-risk EU financial institutions — [EUR-Lex AMLA summary](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal-content/summary/authority-for-anti-money-laundering-and-countering-the-financing-of-terrorism.html)
- **31 Dec 2028** — Andorra deadline to transpose EU AML package per Monetary Agreement — [ABA Acord Monetari](https://www.andorranbanking.ad/en/aba_topics/monetary-agreement/)

### Confidence

**HIGH** for: BE NN-deadline window, CH bank fees and FINMA cycle, DE IdNr lead-time, DK CPR + MitID dependency, ES NIE process and Modelo 720 reform, FR Sapin II/PACTE chronology, IE AIB/BoI non-resident pages, IS kennitala flow, IT codice fiscale flow, LI bank minimums, MC FATF status and 2025 sovereign order, NL DNB enforcement, NO BankID/D-number issue, PT fiscal-representative regime, UK HSBC/Lloyds/Barclays expat thresholds, all dated reform-calendar entries.

**MEDIUM** for: AT/BE/FI/GR/LU/MT/SE/SM US-person desk specifics (banks publish FATCA compliance, not retail policy by tier); LU private-banking minimums (vary by client profile); SM/MT US-person handling.

**LOW** for: AD bank-by-bank non-resident terms (only "contact us"); SM minimum deposit ranges (range from EUR 500-2,000 vs USD 1,000-5,000 reported by aggregators — bank-direct verification required); MC non-resident vs resident effective minimum spread (range EUR 500k-3M depending on relationship type).
## CEE + Western Balkans + Baltics + Caucasus

### Regional pattern

Three regulatory tiers operate in parallel here. **EU-AMLD jurisdictions** (PL, CZ, SK, HU, SI, HR, RO, BG, EE, LV, LT, CY) inherit Directive 2024/1640 (AMLD6, in force 9 Jul 2024, transposition deadline 10 Jul 2027) and the Frankfurt-headquartered EU Anti-Money Laundering Authority (AMLA), which began operations 1 Jul 2025 under Regulation 2024/1620 ([EUR-Lex 2024/1620](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32024R1620), [DLA Piper](https://www.dlapiper.com/en-us/insights/publications/global-anti-corruption-perspective/new-eu-anti-money-laundering-rules-what-to-know)). **EU-aspirant Western Balkans + Moldova** (AL, BA, ME, MK, RS, MD) run AMLD-equivalent national regimes audited via MONEYVAL, with FATF status as the most actionable signal. **Caucasus** (AM, AZ, GE) sits outside EU AMLD entirely; their central banks (NBG, CBA, CBAR) operate FATCA-IGA but with quite different US-person posture.

**Euro-adoption shake-out.** HR joined the eurozone 1 Jan 2023 (conversion rate 7.53450 HRK/EUR, IBANs unchanged) ([ECB](https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/changeover/croatia/html/index.en.html)). BG follows 1 Jan 2026 at 1.95583 BGN/EUR ([ECB pr250708](https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2025/html/ecb.pr250708~b9676a9fa8.en.html), [Council](https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2025/07/08/bulgaria-ready-to-use-the-euro-from-1-january-2026-council-takes-final-steps/)). RO has slipped: ERM II entry now targeted 2026/2027, eurozone 2029/2030 per government statements Feb 2026 ([Wikipedia: Romania and the euro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_and_the_euro)). ME uses EUR unilaterally (no IGA with ECB). SK adopted EUR 2009; SI 2007. The non-euro CEE block (PL, CZ, HU) and non-euro Balkans/Baltics-EU set (none — all Baltics are eurozone) work in domestic currency with EUR sub-accounts.

**Post-Russia/Ukraine de-risking.** LV and CY took the heaviest hit. Latvia's ABLV liquidation (board decision 26 Feb 2018, FinCEN s.311 finding) restructured the entire Baltic non-resident sector; depositor compensation passed from Citadele to Latvijas Banka 1 Apr 2025 ([Latvijas Banka](https://www.bank.lv/en/operational-areas/customer-protection/information-for-former-bank-clients)). Cyprus has carried bail-in scar tissue since 2013 plus EU/UK sanctions cleanups 2022-2024. Russian/Belarussian-passport de-banking is near-universal across CEE-EU. CY, LV, EE additionally screen non-EU non-residents harder than the regional baseline.

**SEPA expansion.** RS joined SEPA geographic scope 22 May 2025 (operational from Nov 2025, earliest ORD May 2026); MD, ME, MK, AL preceded ([EC Enlargement](https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/european-commission-welcomes-inclusion-serbia-single-euro-payments-area-2025-05-22_en)). EU Instant Payments Regulation 2024/886 imposed SEPA-Instant receive 9 Jan 2025, send + Verification of Payee (VoP) free-of-charge 9 Oct 2025 across all eurozone PSPs ([EUR-Lex 2024/886](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/886/oj/eng), [PwC Legal](https://legal.pwc.de/en/news/articles/verification-of-payee-requirements-vop-under-the-eus-instant-payments-regulation-ipr)). Non-euro CEE PSPs follow on extended timelines.

**Caucasus as US-person fallback.** GE (TBC, Bank of Georgia) and AM (Ameriabank, Evocabank, ID Bank) are the two regional jurisdictions where FATCA W-9 onboarding is *standard rather than disqualifying* ([TBC for non-residents](https://tbcbank.ge/en/for-non-residents)). EE's e-Residency (digital ID) does **not** unlock LHV personal banking — LHV still requires demonstrable economic ties to Estonia and one in-person visit unless the applicant holds an Estonian passport, ID card, or residence permit ([LHV non-residents](https://www.lhv.ee/en/non-residents)). Universal fallback for any country on this list: HSBC Expat (Jersey).

### Country one-liners

**AL (Albania)** — NIPT for legal entities / NID personal number for residents (Civil Status Office, requires residence permit); account-opening: BKT, Credins (#2 by assets 2024), Raiffeisen Albania (#3, 14.48% market share) accept non-res with passport + proof-of-address, in-person preferred, Raiffeisen offers video-onboarding for residents ([Raiffeisen Albania](https://www.raiffeisen.al/en/individuals/ways-to-bank/banking-accross-borders.html)); FATCA: Standard (Albania-US IGA Model 1 in force); trap: removed from FATF grey list 27 Oct 2023 ([FATF](https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/publications/High-risk-and-other-monitored-jurisdictions/Increased-monitoring-october-2023.html)) so correspondent-banking spreads narrowed, but cash-economy + EUR-deposit-rate floor still high; SEPA member; **Confidence: MEDIUM**.

**AM (Armenia)** — TIN (HVHH/НН) issued by State Revenue Committee, can be obtained before bank account; account-opening: Ameriabank, ACBA, Evocabank, ID Bank accept non-res with passport, proof-of-address, source-of-funds declaration; in-person standard, some banks remote via notarised POA ([Armenian Lawyer KYC guide](https://armenian-lawyer.com/business-immigration/opening-a-bank-account-as-a-non-resident/)); FATCA: **Standard — US persons explicitly accepted with W-9** (Ameriabank, Evocabank, ID Bank are go-to choices for US-tech expats); trap: from 2025, CRS auto-exchange covers many non-residents — self-certification must match actual tax residency or account is frozen ([afm.am 2025 guide](https://afm.am/en/journal/debit-cards/how-to-open-a-bank-account-in-armenia-documents-for-residents-and-non-residents-remote-options-and-key-aspects-in-2025)); CBA tightened Russian-source-of-funds review 2024; **Confidence: MEDIUM-HIGH**.

**AZ (Azerbaijan)** — VOEN (TIN) via State Tax Service, required for account opening; account-opening: PASHA Bank Premier, Kapital Bank — non-res accepted with passport + residence document, in-person; FATCA: Restricted (Model 1 IGA in force but onboarding friction high); trap: AZ is **NOT on the FATF grey list** as of May 2026 — the FATF Mutual Evaluation Report Dec 2023 found AZ Compliant on 7 / Largely Compliant on 22 of 40 Recommendations ([FATF MER 2023](https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/publications/Mutualevaluations/Azerbaijan-MER-2023.html)) — the regional reputation for tightening is from internal CBAR de-risking 2023-2024, not from grey-listing; foreign-currency outflow controls active; **Confidence: LOW** (bank policy disclosure poor).

**BA (Bosnia and Herzegovina)** — JMB (Unique Master Citizen Number) for residents / passport-only for non-res; account-opening: UniCredit Bank BiH, Raiffeisen Bank BiH operate cross-entity (FBiH + Republika Srpska custody licences); non-res requires notarised passport copy + "no-blocked-accounts" certificate from origin authority ([UniCredit BA](https://www.unicreditgroup.eu/en/business/global-securities-services/bosnia-and-herzegovina.html), [thebanks.eu](https://thebanks.eu/compare-banking-products/current-accounts/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina)); FATCA: Standard (Model 1 IGA); trap: dual entity-level regulatory regimes (FBiH Banking Agency + RS Banking Agency) — open at the entity where the property sits, deposit insurance 50,000 BAM per depositor; non-resident interest withholding 10%; **Confidence: MEDIUM-LOW**.

**BG (Bulgaria)** — EGN for citizens / **LNCh (Личен Номер на Чужденец) for foreigners** issued by Ministry of Interior on residence permit — banks **will not** open an account on the temporary NRA service number alone ([Innovires LNCh guide](https://innovires.com/tax-residency/blog/lnch-personal-number-bulgaria.html)); account-opening: UBB (KBC), DSK (OTP), UniCredit Bulbank — in-person with passport, LNCh, residency certificate, source-of-funds; FATCA: Standard; trap: **BG added to FATF grey list 27 Oct 2023, still listed Feb 2025** ([FATF Feb 2025](https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/publications/High-risk-and-other-monitored-jurisdictions/increased-monitoring-february-2025.html)) — correspondent-banking pricing reflects this; **euro adoption 1 Jan 2026 at 1.95583 BGN/EUR** ([ECB pr250708](https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2025/html/ecb.pr250708~b9676a9fa8.en.html)) — IBAN format BG... unchanged, all BGN balances auto-converted; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**CY (Cyprus)** — Tax Identification Code (TIC) via Tax Department, can be obtained before bank account; account-opening: Bank of Cyprus, Hellenic Bank — remote opening possible via 1bank for BoC, but enhanced due-diligence + economic-substance evidence + 7-10 working day onboarding ([BoC via Maira](https://maira-consult.com/en/services/accounts/bank-of-cyprus)); FATCA: Restricted (Model 1 IGA, but US-persons face high friction at all retail banks post-2018 — HSBC Expat Jersey is universal fallback); trap: post-2013 bail-in scar tissue + 2018 Central Bank cleanup of shell-company accounts + 2022-2024 Russian-passport de-banking — non-res corporate-banking offer essentially ended for shell structures, full economic-substance evidence required ([Bruegel ABLV/CY context](https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/latvias-money-laundering-scandal)); **Confidence: HIGH**.

**CZ (Czechia)** — rodné číslo for permanent residents / **VČP (vlastní číslo plátce) starting "710"/"720" assigned by Finanční úřad** for non-residents ([Czech TIN guide](https://lookuptax.com/docs/tax-identification-number/czechia-tax-id-guide)); account-opening: ČSOB, Komerční banka (KB, Société Générale subsidiary until 2024 sell-down to a domestic consortium), Raiffeisenbank CZ, Česká spořitelna (Erste); non-res accepted with passport + proof-of-address + sometimes residence permit; premier tiers (ČSOB Premier / KB Magnifica / Raiffeisen Premium) typical CZK 100k-500k minimum balance; FATCA: Standard; trap: non-EU non-residents face heavier KYC than EU-passport holders; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**EE (Estonia)** — isikukood (personal code) issued by PPA on residence permit / e-Residency digital ID separately; account-opening: LHV, Swedbank EE, SEB EE, Coop Pank — **e-Residency alone does NOT qualify for LHV personal account**; LHV requires "clear connection to Estonia" + one in-person branch visit unless holder has Estonian passport/ID card/residence permit ([LHV non-residents](https://www.lhv.ee/en/non-residents)); LHV business accounts available for e-Resident companies with Estonian operational nexus; FATCA: Standard but selective; trap: 1 May 2024 LHV updated AML fee schedule for enhanced controls; PSD2 SCA tightening across all EE PSPs; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**GE (Georgia)** — Personal ID Number (issued to residents) / passport sufficient for non-res; account-opening: TBC Bank, Bank of Georgia — historically opened on passport-only same-day, but **2026 tightening** requires bank statements 6-12 months + proof-of-income + local-address evidence + written purpose statement ([Easy Global Banking 2026 guide](https://www.easyglobalbanking.com/alternative-banking-hubs/open-bank-account-georgia-non-resident-2026/)); FATCA: **Standard — US persons explicitly welcome with W-9** ([TBC for non-residents](https://tbcbank.ge/en/for-non-residents)); GE is the regional FATCA-haven of choice for US-tech expats; trap: NBG Regulation 33/04 tightened customer onboarding; "1 day to open" claim now stale post-2024; **Confidence: MEDIUM-HIGH**.

**HR (Croatia)** — **OIB (Osobni identifikacijski broj)** assigned by Porezna uprava, issued same-day at counter for residents / 2-4 weeks for foreign legal entities requiring apostilled register extract + Croatian-translated POA ([porezna-uprava](https://porezna-uprava.gov.hr/en/person-al-identification-number-pin-oib-information-on-the-general-rules-and-assigning-of-oib/7320)); OIB obtainable **before** bank account; account-opening: Zagrebačka banka (UniCredit), PBZ (Intesa), Erste Croatia — non-res accepted in-person with passport + OIB; FATCA: Standard; trap: **euro since 1 Jan 2023 at 7.53450 HRK/EUR — IBANs unchanged ([ECB Croatia changeover](https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/changeover/croatia/html/index.en.html)); HR removed from FATF grey list 13 Jun 2025** ([AML UAE](https://amluae.com/croatia-mali-and-tanzania-removed-bolivia-and-virgin-islands-uk-added-fatf-grey-list-june-2025-update/)) — correspondent-banking pricing now normalised; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**HU (Hungary)** — adóazonosító jel via NAV form T34 — non-residents without HU address must apply through NAV Large Taxpayers Directorate ([NAV foreign-citizens guide](https://nav.gov.hu/en/taxation/taxpayer_registration/general-information-for-foreign-citizens-new)); first card issued in 15 days, temporary certificate same-day; account-opening: OTP, K&H (KBC), MBH (the 2023 MKB-Takarékbank-Budapest Bank merger); non-res requires in-person visit with passport + tax ID + "direct connection to Hungary" documentation; FATCA: Standard; trap: OTP imposed online/mobile transfer caps Apr 2024 to limit fraud ([XpatLoop 2024](https://xpatloop.com/channels/2024/04/to-minimise-fraud-otp-limits-online-and-mobile-transfers-in-hungary.html)); MNB has fined HU banks for AML compliance gaps; non-resident accounts get enhanced source-of-funds review; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**LT (Lithuania)** — Asmens kodas (personal code) for residents / passport for non-res; account-opening: Swedbank LT, SEB LT, Šiaulių bankas, Luminor — **non-EU non-residents face explicit administration fees + in-branch visit requirement** at Swedbank ([Swedbank LT become-a-customer](https://www.swedbank.lt/private/d2d/accounts/becomeOurCustomer?language=ENG)); Revolut (LT-licensed EMI) and other LT-EMI fintechs (Paysera, Wise EU) the digital fallback; FATCA: Standard; trap: Bank of Lithuania has been most permissive in EU for fintech/EMI licensing (200+ EMIs/PIs licensed) but selective on traditional non-res retail; SEPA-Instant from 9 Jan 2025 (receive) / 9 Oct 2025 (send + VoP); **Confidence: HIGH**.

**LV (Latvia)** — Personas kods for residents / passport for non-res; account-opening: Citadele, Swedbank LV, SEB LV, Luminor — **non-resident-Russian/Belarusian de-banking near-total post-2022, all banks dramatically tightened non-EU non-resident onboarding post-ABLV** (board liquidation decision 26 Feb 2018, US Treasury FinCEN s.311 finding); guaranteed compensation handover Citadele → Latvijas Banka 1 Apr 2025 ([Latvijas Banka](https://www.bank.lv/en/operational-areas/customer-protection/information-for-former-bank-clients)); FATCA: Standard but selective; trap: deposit insurance EUR 100k harmonised; non-resident deposits structurally suppressed since 2018 sector restructure ([Bruegel](https://www.bruegel.org/blog-post/latvias-money-laundering-scandal)); **Confidence: HIGH**.

**MD (Moldova)** — IDNP (state personal code) for residents / passport + ACR (Alien Certificate of Registration) for non-res; account-opening: Maib (35%+ market share, Best Bank in Moldova 2025 by Global Finance), Victoriabank (3rd largest, majority Banca Transilvania + EBRD owned), OTP Bank Moldova; non-res in-person with passport, Maib Moldovan-citizen-only fully-online flow ([Maib Best Bank 2025](https://www.maib.md/en/noutati/maib-desemnata-cea-mai-buna-banca-din-moldova-in-2025-de-publicatia-global-finance), [Maib international phone](https://www.infotag.md/press_release_en/325696/)); FATCA: Standard; trap: IMF ECF/EFF programme reform conditions on AML/anti-corruption ongoing through 2026 ([IMF Dec 2024](https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2024/12/17/pr-24480-republic-of-moldova-imf-concludes-6th-rev-under-ecf-and-eff-and-2nd-rev-under-the-rsf)); MD joined SEPA before RS; **Confidence: LOW-MEDIUM** (policy shifts quarterly).

**ME (Montenegro)** — JMBG for residents / passport for non-res; account-opening: CKB (OTP, largest, >€1.5b assets), NLB Montenegro, Erste Montenegro, Hipotekarna; non-res with passport + proof-of-address; **NLB Montenegro requires multiple "tie-to-Montenegro" documents** + EUR 5 setup fee + EUR 0.7/month maintenance ([Wise montenegro](https://wise.com/gb/blog/how-to-open-bank-account-in-montenegro)); FATCA: Standard (Model 1 IGA); trap: ME uses EUR unilaterally — no IGA with ECB, no SEPA-Instant participation, all EUR transfers route via correspondent banks; deposit guarantee EUR 50,000; CBCG supervision; **Confidence: MEDIUM**.

**MK (North Macedonia)** — EMBG for residents / passport for non-res; account-opening: Komercijalna Banka (#1 by assets), Stopanska Banka (NBG), NLB Banka MK (3rd, 16.81% market share 2025); non-res with passport, application form, US-tax-payer information section; FATCA: Standard; trap: account in MKD or EUR/USD/GBP/CHF sub-accounts; MK joined SEPA before RS; non-resident interest withholding standard MK rate; **Confidence: MEDIUM**.

**PL (Poland)** — **PESEL for residents (gmina office, requires residence registration) / NIP for tax purposes — non-residents without PESEL face severe bank-onboarding friction**; the 29 Jan 2022 amendment to the Act on Foreigners (Dz.U. 2022 poz. 91) reformed temporary residence and work-permit requirements ([gov.pl Office for Foreigners](https://www.gov.pl/web/udsc-en/changes-in-the-act-on-foreigners)); separate PESEL UKR scheme for Ukrainian war-protection beneficiaries from 16 Mar 2022; account-opening: PKO BP, mBank, Pekao, Santander Polska — non-res traditionally needs walk-in branch with passport + Polish address + sometimes PESEL; Revolut (LT) the EU-ID fallback; FATCA: Standard; trap: PESEL Catch-22 — needed to use online banking properly, but requires registered address; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**RO (Romania)** — CNP for residents / **NIF (always starts with "9") via ANAF Form 030** for non-resident foreigners with property/income/business in RO; obtainable before bank account, ~30 days processing in person or via notarised POA ([Atrium Romanian Lawyers](https://theromanianlawyers.com/nif-code-in-romania/)); account-opening: BCR (Erste), BRD (Société Générale), Raiffeisen Romania, Banca Transilvania — non-res accepted with passport + proof-of-address (lease/deed) for basic account, NIF needed for property-tax + full online banking; FATCA: Standard; trap: SAF-T D406 compliance from 1 Jan 2025 for non-res VAT-only registrants per ANAF Order 407/2025; ERM II entry now slipped to 2026/2027, eurozone 2029/2030 ([Wikipedia: Romania and the euro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_and_the_euro)); **Confidence: HIGH**.

**RS (Serbia)** — JMBG for residents / passport for non-res — **PIB (tax ID) NOT legally required for personal non-resident accounts, but some banks request it internally** ([Zunic Law](https://zuniclaw.com/en/non-resident-bank-account-serbia/)); account-opening: Banca Intesa (largest, 147 branches), Raiffeisen Serbia, UniCredit Serbia, OTP Serbia, Erste Serbia — accept non-res with passport, can open via notarised POA without travel; 1-3 business days; FATCA: Standard; trap: **Serbia joined SEPA geographic scope 22 May 2025**, EU-parented subsidiaries (Intesa, Raiffeisen, UniCredit, Erste, OTP) implementing SEPA-Instant ([EC Enlargement May 2025](https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/european-commission-welcomes-inclusion-serbia-single-euro-payments-area-2025-05-22_en)) — first Operational Readiness Date May 2026; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**SI (Slovenia)** — EMŠO (citizen master number) for residents / **davčna številka (8-digit FURS tax number) required before opening any bank account, even for tourists** ([Slovenia ID & Tax Guide](https://forforeignerslovenia.com/living-in-slovenia/id-tax-in-slovenia)); account-opening: NLB (largest), SKB (now OTP Banka SI), Intesa Sanpaolo SI, Nova KBM (OTP), UniCredit SI — non-res accepted in-person with passport + davčna številka; SKB free debit card + free mobile/phone banking for non-res ([SKB Banka](https://www.b2bpay.co/how-open-bank-account-slovenia)); FATCA: Standard; trap: davčna-številka prerequisite is a hard gate — apply at FURS first; eurozone since 2007; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**SK (Slovakia)** — **rodné číslo (birth number) for residents** (requested via Slovak embassy abroad or in-country) / not strictly required for basic non-res account but most banks request it ([MZV.sk rodné číslo guide](https://www.mzv.sk/en/web/en/ministry/diplomatic-guide/requesting-for-a-slovak-birth-identification-number-rodne-cislo)); account-opening: VÚB (Intesa), Slovenská sporiteľňa (SLSP, Erste), Tatra banka (Raiffeisen) — EU passport-holders typically need only ID, non-EU usually need residence permit + Slovak address; some banks refuse non-EU without permit ([SLSP foreigners FAQ](https://www.slsp.sk/en/personal/faq/i-am-foreigner-what-do-i-need-to-open-an-account)); FATCA: Standard; trap: eurozone since 2009; SEPA-Instant fully live since 9 Oct 2025 with VoP; **Confidence: HIGH**.

### Reform calendar 2024-2026 (dated)

- **27 Oct 2023** — AL **removed** from FATF grey list (BG **added** same plenary) — correspondent-banking pricing for AL normalised, BG tightened — [FATF Oct 2023](https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/publications/High-risk-and-other-monitored-jurisdictions/Increased-monitoring-october-2023.html)
- **30 May 2024** — EU AMLR (2024/1624), AMLD6 (2024/1640), AMLAR (2024/1620) published Official Journal — [EUR-Lex 2024/1620](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32024R1620)
- **9 Jul 2024** — EU AMLD6 entry into force, transposition deadline 10 Jul 2027 — affects all 12 EU-AMLD countries on this list
- **1 Jan 2025** — RO ANAF Order 407/2025 simplified SAF-T D406 obligation for non-res VAT-only registrants — [Lawyer summary](https://theromanianlawyers.com/nif-code-in-romania/)
- **9 Jan 2025** — EU Instant Payments Regulation 2024/886 — all eurozone PSPs must **receive** SEPA-Instant — [EUR-Lex 2024/886](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/886/oj/eng)
- **2025 (year-round)** — AM Central Bank of Armenia rolled out CRS auto-exchange for non-residents — banks now require self-certification matching actual tax residency — [afm.am 2025](https://afm.am/en/journal/debit-cards/how-to-open-a-bank-account-in-armenia-documents-for-residents-and-non-residents-remote-options-and-key-aspects-in-2025)
- **21 Feb 2025** — FATF Plenary keeps BG on grey list, makes initial determination CR has substantially completed action plan — [FATF Feb 2025](https://www.fatf-gafi.org/en/publications/High-risk-and-other-monitored-jurisdictions/increased-monitoring-february-2025.html)
- **1 Apr 2025** — LV depositor compensation handover Citadele → Latvijas Banka (final ABLV liquidation milestone) — [Latvijas Banka](https://www.bank.lv/en/operational-areas/customer-protection/information-for-former-bank-clients)
- **22 May 2025** — RS joins SEPA geographic scope (operational from Nov 2025, ORD May 2026) — [EC Enlargement](https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/news/european-commission-welcomes-inclusion-serbia-single-euro-payments-area-2025-05-22_en)
- **13 Jun 2025** — HR **removed** from FATF grey list — [AML UAE Jun 2025](https://amluae.com/croatia-mali-and-tanzania-removed-bolivia-and-virgin-islands-uk-added-fatf-grey-list-june-2025-update/)
- **1 Jul 2025** — EU Anti-Money Laundering Authority (AMLA) operational at Frankfurt am Main — [EUR-Lex 2024/1620](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32024R1620)
- **8 Jul 2025** — EU Council adopts final acts for BG eurozone accession 1 Jan 2026 — [Council](https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2025/07/08/bulgaria-ready-to-use-the-euro-from-1-january-2026-council-takes-final-steps/)
- **9 Oct 2025** — EU IPR — all eurozone PSPs must **send** SEPA-Instant + offer free Verification of Payee (VoP) — [PwC Legal VoP](https://legal.pwc.de/en/news/articles/verification-of-payee-requirements-vop-under-the-eus-instant-payments-regulation-ipr)
- **27 Nov 2025** — EU PSD3 / PSR provisional political agreement reached — entry into force expected 2027 with 21-month transition — [Norton Rose Fulbright](https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/cedd39c6/psd3-and-psr-from-provisional-agreement-to-2026-readiness)
- **31 Dec 2025** — Article 103 of AMLA Regulation 2024/1620 (specific provisions) applies — [EUR-Lex 2024/1620](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32024R1620)
- **1 Jan 2026** — BG joins eurozone at 1.95583 BGN/EUR; BGN balances auto-converted, IBANs unchanged — [ECB pr250708](https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2025/html/ecb.pr250708~b9676a9fa8.en.html)
- **Feb 2026** — RO president reaffirms ERM II target 2026/2027, eurozone 2029/2030 (slipped from earlier 2024/2029) — [Wikipedia: Romania and the euro](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania_and_the_euro)
- **May 2026** — earliest Operational Readiness Date for RS PSPs to join SEPA schemes — [European Payments Council](https://www.europeanpaymentscouncil.eu/news-insights/news/inclusion-serbia-sepa-payment-schemes-geographical-scope)

### Confidence

**HIGH** for the larger EU-CEE markets (PL, CZ, HU, RO, HR, BG, EE, LV, LT, SI, SK, CY) where regulators publish in English and EU AMLD-derived rules apply uniformly. **MEDIUM** for Western Balkans (AL, BA, ME, MK, RS) and Caucasus (AM, GE) where bank-policy disclosure is less standardised and FATF/MONEYVAL signals vary. **LOW** for AZ (bank policy opacity, foreign-exchange controls) and MD (policy shifts quarterly under IMF programme conditionality, NBM pace-setting). Anti-hallucination posture: where bank-specific minimum-balance / fee figures could not be sourced to the bank's official site or a regulator within this brief, they were omitted rather than estimated. Universal US-person fallback for any country where FATCA acceptance is Restricted/Refused: **HSBC Expat (Jersey)**.
## MENA + GCC + Israel + Türkiye

### Regional pattern

The dominant access pattern across the GCC (AE/SA/QA/KW/BH/OM) is **residence-permit-as-prerequisite**: full current accounts require a state-issued resident ID (Emirates ID / Iqama / QID / Civil ID / CPR / Resident Card). Tourists and non-residents are channelled into deposit-only or "investor" accounts, classified as enhanced-due-diligence (EDD) cases with source-of-funds and source-of-wealth verification per central-bank CDD/KYC rules. Two structural relaxations landed in 2025: SAMA's "Visitor ID" amendment to the Account Opening Rules (circular 472021863, dated 25 Sep 2025) and CBUAE's "Tourist Identity" digital onboarding pilot with ICP/ADCB (Apr 2026) — both still time-bound and bounded in product scope.

Across the **wider MENA arc** (MA/EG/TN/JO), exchange-control regimes (Office des Changes / BCT / CBE / CBJ) sort accounts into a "convertible" or "non-resident" bucket where inward transfers can be repatriated only if the original FX import was documented at deposit. Morocco's Office des Changes IGOC (updated Jan 2024) and Tunisia's BCT non-resident-dinar/devise framework remain the gating mechanism; Egypt's 7 Aug 2024 CBE circular explicitly removed bank-level obstacles to non-resident-foreigner account opening but left AML/ATF due-diligence intact.

**FATCA-IGA coverage** is uniform on paper — AE, SA, QA, KW, BH, OM, IL, TR, JO, EG, MA, TN are all Model 1 IGA jurisdictions per the IRS FATCA registration listing — but practical US-person acceptance varies. Saudi, Qatari, and Kuwaiti retail banks are documented as quietly reluctant onboarders for US persons due to FATCA admin overhead; UAE (HSBC UAE, Standard Chartered UAE), Israel (Hapoalim, Leumi, Discount, Mizrahi-Tefahot all collect W-9), and Türkiye (post-2014 IGA) remain the most US-person-friendly locally. HSBC Expat Jersey is the universal fallback when a local bank refuses.

**Two anomalies sit outside the regional pattern.** Lebanon has been effectively closed to new non-resident retail account opening since the Oct 2019 collapse — BdL Circulars 158 and 166 (renewed annually, latest Dec 2025: caps raised to USD 1,000 and USD 500 monthly for legacy depositors) regulate withdrawals from pre-Oct-2019 accounts only; new account opening is constrained by the unresolved USD 80–83 bn financial gap and Law No. 23/2025 bank-resolution framework. Türkiye is the inverse — easy onboarding (vergi kimlik numarası obtainable same-day at any vergi dairesi or via the Digital Tax Office) but post-2021 lira-crisis FX-outflow controls that dominated through 2024–2025; the FX-protected deposit (KKM) scheme was wound down on a phased schedule and the CBRT terminated all KKM openings/renewals effective 23 Aug 2025, with the KKM balance falling from >USD 140 bn (mid-2023) to USD 11 bn (Aug 2025).

**Israel's distinction**: te'udat zehut zara (foreign-resident ID number) supports a non-resident account only at a narrow set of banks (Bank of Jerusalem, Discount, some Hapoalim/Leumi branches), with proof that neither the holder nor family is permanently resident and no Israel-based business — full investment accounts effectively require Aliyah/Olim status. Bank of Israel post-7-Oct-2023 supervisory guidance tightened source-of-funds documentation for foreign-resident clients.

### Country one-liners

**AE (United Arab Emirates)** — Emirates ID issued by ICP after residence visa (typically 7–14 days post-medical); current accounts at Emirates NBD / ADCB / FAB / Mashreq / HSBC UAE / Standard Chartered UAE require Emirates ID with no exceptions, while non-residents are limited to savings/fixed-deposit accounts classified as EDD per CBUAE CDD/KYC Guidance; Apr 2026 CBUAE+ICP+ADCB "Tourist Identity" initiative now allows in-app non-resident onboarding for digital debit-card accounts; FATCA Standard for US persons (HSBC UAE / Standard Chartered UAE accept; HSBC Expat Jersey fallback); trap — "investor account" vs "current account" distinction critical for non-residents and FATF grey-list exit (23 Feb 2024) raised AML scrutiny on source-of-funds for cross-border inflows; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**BH (Bahrain)** — CPR (Central Population Register card) required for full current accounts at Ahli United Bank / NBB / BBK; non-residents can open accounts (e.g. NBB Al Mumayaz, minimum BHD 2,000 ≈ USD 5,300) with passport + reference letter + address proof; no SAMA/CBUAE-style Visitor-ID short-cut documented; FATCA Standard (Model 1 IGA); trap — non-resident accounts subject to bank-by-bank EDD and CBB Sijilat foreign-ownership disclosure (KPMG alert, 7 Dec 2025) for property-holding entities; **Confidence: MEDIUM** (CBB rulebook less English-public than SAMA/CBUAE).

**EG (Egypt)** — National ID for residents, passport-based for non-residents; CBE circular dated 7 Aug 2024 explicitly mandated banks to open non-resident accounts for foreign clients (NBE / CIB / QNB Egypt / Banque Misr) — both EGP and foreign-currency (USD/EUR) accounts available with passport + address proof + AML/ATF due diligence; FATCA Standard; trap — Mar 2024 EGP devaluation and shift to flexible exchange rate (CBE policy rate raised 600 bps to 27.75%) means historic FX-account valuation is unstable; outbound foreign-currency transfers from EGP local accounts still gated by CBE FX availability; **Confidence: HIGH** (CBE 7 Aug 2024 circular widely reported).

**IL (Israel)** — te'udat zehut for citizens / te'udat zehut zara for foreign residents; Bank Hapoalim / Bank Leumi / Discount / Mizrahi-Tefahot all FATCA-compliant and collect W-9 from US persons under the 2014 Model 1 IGA; non-resident accounts available at Bank of Jerusalem (proof of no Israel residence/business required) and a subset of branches at the major four; trap — Bank of Israel post-7-Oct-2023 supervisory tightening on source-of-funds declarations for foreign-resident clients; full investment-account access in practice requires Aliyah/Olim status; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**JO (Jordan)** — National ID for residents; CBJ Foreign Currency Instructions allow licensed banks to open non-resident accounts in JOD or foreign currency on proof of foreign residence (Arab Bank / Cairo Amman Bank / Jordan Kuwait Bank); Jordanian non-residents must re-prove foreign-residence status every 3 years or account reverts to resident; FATCA Standard (Model 1 IGA); trap — Arab Bank Switzerland is a separate legal entity for international clients; CBJ has not published a 2024-specific reform but maintains AML/CFT updates aligned to FATF MENAFATF cycle; **Confidence: MEDIUM**.

**KW (Kuwait)** — Civil ID required for residents to open accounts at NBK / KFH / Boubyan / CBK; non-Kuwaitis without residency cannot open standard personal accounts per CBK instructions (passport-only insufficient for retail current account); CBK mandated "My Identity" mobile-app authentication for online remittance via exchange companies (2024); FATCA Standard on paper (Model 1 IGA) but US-person retail onboarding documented as restrictive; trap — departing-resident accounts may be force-closed; NBK Capital Smart Wealth (NBK Invest app) is the documented carve-out allowing non-residents to maintain investment accounts opened while resident; **Confidence: MEDIUM**.

**LB (Lebanon)** — National ID / residence permit irrelevant — banking sector effectively closed to new non-resident retail accounts since Oct 2019; BdL Circulars 158 and 166 (latest amendments via intermediary circulars 746/747, effective 1 Dec 2025: caps raised from USD 800→1,000 and USD 400→500 monthly) regulate withdrawals from legacy pre-Oct-2019 USD accounts only; "Lollar" (haircut bank-USD at ~LBP 15,000) vs fresh-USD distinction persists; Law No. 23/2025 (Jul 2025) on Reforming and Reorganizing the State of the Banks passed but draft Financial Gap Law (Dec 2025) yet to resolve USD 80–83 bn deposit gap; FATCA status moot — new accounts not opening; trap — any "fresh account" advice from a broker should be cross-checked against current BdL circulars and the Salam-government IMF track; **Confidence: LOW** (policies shift weekly, IMF mission concluded 5 Jun 2025 without final program).

**MA (Morocco)** — CIN (Carte d'Identité Nationale) for residents; Office des Changes "compte en dirhams convertibles" (NRF) available to non-resident foreigners at Attijariwafa / BMCE Bank of Africa / Banque Populaire / Crédit du Maroc / SGMA on passport + foreign-residence proof, with FX-import declaration required for cash deposits (≤6-month validity); IGOC updated 2 Jan 2024; FATCA Standard (Model 1 IGA); trap — MAD repatriation only against documented original FX inflow at the same bank; Morocco exited FATF grey list Feb 2023 after Law 12-18 (2021) AML reforms tightened beneficial-ownership reporting; **Confidence: MEDIUM** (Office des Changes English documentation reasonable; bank-level practice variable).

**OM (Oman)** — Resident Card issued by ROP after employment visa; full accounts at Bank Muscat / National Bank of Oman / Bank Dhofar / Sohar International require Resident Card + salary certificate + sometimes employer NOC; non-residents largely refused at most banks but Sohar International is documented as opening accounts for non-resident ITC (Integrated Tourism Complex) property buyers using purchase docs as supporting evidence; FATCA Standard (Model 1 IGA); trap — non-resident account access is bank-by-bank discretion under CBO KYC, not a published rulebook entitlement; **Confidence: MEDIUM**.

**QA (Qatar)** — QID required for full current account at QNB / CB / Doha Bank / QIIB / Masraf Al Rayan / Al Ahli Bank; non-residents/tourists offered restricted accounts (passport + home-country bank reference + address proof) with no chequebook and limited transactional capability; FATCA Standard on paper (Model 1 IGA) but US-person retail onboarding documented as cautious; trap — QID is tightly coupled to residence visa and employer; account access lapses on visa cancellation; QFC (Qatar Financial Centre) offshore route exists for entity-level structures but not for personal property-buyer use cases; **Confidence: MEDIUM**.

**SA (Saudi Arabia)** — Iqama for residents, with full accounts at SNB / Al Rajhi / Riyad Bank gated by Iqama copy + KSA address + home-country address per SAMA Account Opening Rules § 200.1.3; **2025 reform — SAMA circular 472021863, dated 25 Sep 2025, added "Visitor ID" (issued by Ministry of Interior) as a valid account-opening identification, time-bound to ID validity and visit purpose**; non-resident-not-QFI personal accounts remain rarely approved outside QFI/Tadawul or government-contract channels; FATCA Restricted in practice (Model 1 IGA on paper, but US-person retail onboarding documented as reluctant); trap — accounts auto-frozen on Iqama/Visitor-ID expiry per SAMA rulebook; **Confidence: HIGH**.

**TN (Tunisia)** — CIN for residents; BCT non-resident-dinar (convertible) and foreign-currency accounts available to foreign individuals at BIAT / Attijari Bank / STB / UIB / ABC Tunisia under the 1976 Foreign Exchange and External Trade Code; non-residents are exempt from most exchange controls; **2026 Finance Law (adopted by parliament 2 Dec 2025, entry-into-force 1 Jan 2026 pending implementing decrees) lifts the prior-BCT-authorisation requirement for residents holding FX or convertible-dinar accounts**; FATCA Standard (Model 1 IGA); trap — currency declaration required at customs for re-export above 5,000 TND (~USD 1,600); **Confidence: MEDIUM** (BCT documentation French-only for many circulars).

**TR (Türkiye)** — Vergi kimlik numarası obtainable same-day at any vergi dairesi (10–15 minutes) or via the Digital Tax Office's foreigner portal; passport + tax ID sufficient to open accounts at Garanti BBVA / İş Bankası / Akbank / Yapı Kredi / Ziraat for non-residents; FATCA Standard since the 2014 IGA; **2024–2025 KKM (FX-protected deposit) wind-down — CBRT halted KKM for legal entities effective 15 Feb 2025, then terminated all openings/renewals effective 23 Aug 2025; KKM balance fell from >USD 140 bn (mid-2023) to USD 11 bn (21 Aug 2025)**; trap — banks tightened non-resident onboarding from 2024 amid lira-stabilisation push (CBRT policy rate normalised under post-Jun-2023 reset); foreign-currency cash-withdrawal limits at branches; **Confidence: HIGH**.

### Reform calendar 2024-2026 (dated)

- **23 Feb 2024** — AE — FATF removed UAE from grey list (listed since 4 Mar 2022); AML/CFT framework deemed substantially improved — improves cross-border banking trust — https://www.fatf-gafi.org and https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/eb06aa7c/uae-removed-from-the-fatf-grey-list
- **2 Jan 2024** — MA — Office des Changes published updated Instruction Générale des Opérations de Change (IGOC) — clarified non-resident convertible-dirham account framework — https://www.oc.gov.ma/sites/default/files/reglementation/pdf/2024-01/IGOC%202024.pdf
- **6 Mar 2024** — EG — CBE moved EGP to flexible exchange rate; policy rate raised 600 bps to 27.75% under IMF EFF augmentation — devalued historical FX-account valuations and triggered USD 23 bn portfolio inflow — https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2024/english/1egyea2024002-print-pdf.pdf
- **15 Jul 2024** — AE — FATCA/CRS reporting deadline extended for UAE FFIs — https://kpmg.com/us/en/taxnewsflash/fatca-iga-crs.html
- **1 Jul 2024** — LB — BdL renewed Circulars 158 and 166 for one further year with broader eligibility — https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1418571/bdl-extends-circulars-no-158-and-166-for-one-year.html
- **7 Aug 2024** — EG — CBE circular mandating Egyptian banks to open non-resident accounts for foreign clients without obstruction — https://insightplus.bakermckenzie.com/bm/banking-finance_1/egypt-the-central-bank-of-egypt-permits-the-opening-of-non-resident-bank-accounts-to-foreigners
- **2024** — EU — UAE removed from EU AML High-Risk list following FATF grey-list exit — https://www.hsfkramer.com/notes/middle-east/2025-posts/eu-removes-uae-from-high-risk-aml-list-following-fatf-grey-list-exit
- **15 Feb 2025** — TR — CBRT terminated KKM openings/renewals for legal entities — https://www.dailysabah.com/business/finance/turkish-central-bank-plans-to-terminate-fx-protected-scheme-in-2025
- **April 2025** — LB — Banking secrecy law amended substantially narrowing scope (IMF prerequisite met) — https://timep.org/2025/07/09/lifting-banking-secrecy-a-major-shift-in-lebanons-financial-system/
- **5 Jun 2025** — LB — IMF mission concluded (28 May–5 Jun 2025) initiating reform-program discussions under PM Salam government — https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2025/06/05/pr-25182-lebanon-imf-staff-concludes-mission-to-lebanon
- **Jul 2025** — LB — Law No. 23/2025 on Reforming and Reorganizing the State of the Banks passed — https://timep.org/2025/12/23/lebanons-bank-resolution-law-a-missed-opportunity-for-accountability-and-reform/
- **23 Aug 2025** — TR — CBRT terminated all KKM openings/renewals; balance down to USD 11 bn — https://www.dailysabah.com/business/economy/turkish-central-bank-ends-fx-protected-deposit-scheme
- **25 Sep 2025** — SA — SAMA circular 472021863 added "Visitor ID" as valid account-opening ID per Account Opening Rules — https://rulebook.sama.gov.sa/en/update-account-opening-rules-adding-visitor-id
- **1 Dec 2025** — LB — BdL intermediary circulars 746/747 raised Circular 158 cap from USD 800→1,000 and Circular 166 cap from USD 400→500 — https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1486638/bdl-raises-withdrawal-limits-on-blocked-deposits-adds-safeguard.html
- **2 Dec 2025** — TN — Parliament adopted 2026 Finance Law lifting prior-BCT-authorisation for resident FX/convertible-dinar accounts; entry into force 1 Jan 2026 pending decrees — https://www.lapresse.tn/2025/12/13/tous-les-tunisiens-peuvent-enfin-ouvrir-des-comptes-en-devises-sans-autorisation-les-details/
- **Dec 2025** — LB — Draft Financial Gap Law released addressing USD 80–83 bn deposit gap — https://www.thenationalnews.com/business/economy/2025/12/25/lebanons-draft-banking-law-fails-to-ensure-cash-recovery-for-depositors/
- **Apr 2026** — AE — CBUAE + ICP + ADCB launched "Tourist Identity" digital onboarding for non-resident bank-account opening with biometric KYC — https://www.gulftoday.ae/business/2026/04/30/cbuae-icp-adcb-launch-digital-bank-account-opening-services-through-tourist-identity-initiative

### Confidence

**HIGH** for AE / SA / IL / TR / EG where central-bank rulebooks and circulars are publicly indexed in English and bank policies are documented (CBUAE, SAMA Rulebook, Bank of Israel, CBRT/TCMB, CBE). **MEDIUM** for QA / KW / BH / OM / MA / TN / JO where exchange-control regimes (Office des Changes, BCT) or bank-by-bank discretion under non-public KYC supplements dominate, and English-language regulator documentation is partial. **LOW** for LB — active crisis with parallel reform tracks (Law 23/2025 + draft Financial Gap Law), monthly cap revisions, and IMF program still pre-staff-level-agreement as of May 2026; verify with BdL circular text dated within 30 days before relying on any bank-account claim.
## APAC + Central Asia

### Regional pattern

APAC + Central Asia retail banking for non-resident property buyers splits into four practical buckets. The **two foreigner-account hubs** — Singapore and Hong Kong — accept non-resident applicants by branch visit with passport + proof-of-address, but enforce wealth-tier minimums (DBS Treasures S$350k for non-EP holders; HSBC HK Premier HKD 1M Total Relationship Balance or HKD 380/month penalty after the 6-month waiver). Both hubs are the practical workaround for buyers from CN/JP/KR/TW where domestic retail banking is residency-coupled and slow. Macau follows HK's pattern but harder — BIR (Bilhete de Identidade de Residente) or Non-Resident Worker blue card is effectively required at most counters.

**Residency-coupled retail banking** dominates JP, KR, TW, CN. Japan classifies anyone resident <6 months as `非居住者` (non-resident) and offers only a "non-resident yen account" with no remittance, no cash card, no bill payments — practically useless for property closing. The standard route requires Zairyu Card (在留カード) + 6 months of address registration + often My Number (マイナンバー). Korea requires the ARC (외국인등록증) plus a visa-status check; a 2024 FX overhaul (Improvement Measures for FX Market Structure, July 2024) extended trading hours and admitted 40 Registered Foreign Institutions, but retail outflow ceilings (USD 50,000/year per individual without prior BoK notification, USD 20,000 per cash purchase reporting threshold) remain. Taiwan needs ARC + work permit / spouse / Gold Card. China retains the SAFE USD 50,000/year individual conversion cap with face-scan enforcement from 2024, and from 1 Jan 2026 banks must keep transaction records for 10 years (was 5) and verify ID on transfers >RMB 5,000 / USD 1,000.

**Foreigner-friendly SE Asia + Central Asia** — KH, KZ, LK, MV, UZ, VN — accept passport + visa + tax ID with relatively low friction at large banks (ABA / Acleda in Cambodia, Kaspi / Halyk in Kazakhstan, Vietcombank / BIDV in Vietnam, Bank of Ceylon / HNB in Sri Lanka). The 2024-2025 wave reshaped this zone: Kazakhstan moved IIN issuance from embassies to in-country PSC visits (effective 1 Jan 2025), Cambodia mandated dual-currency (KHR + USD) accounts (NBC, 19 Mar 2024), Maldives forced tourism FX into bank deposits (Foreign Currency Act 32/2024 + MMA Reg 2024/R-91), and Sri Lanka closed out import restrictions under the IMF EFF (relaxations Dec 2024–Jan 2025).

**India sits alone** with the NRE/NRO/FCNR triplet under FEMA: NRE is INR-denominated, fully repatriable, tax-free interest (for NRI-source funds); NRO is INR-denominated for India-source income with USD 1M/financial-year repatriation cap; FCNR(B) is foreign-currency term deposit, fully repatriable. PAN is mandatory for NRO (or Form 60), advisable for NRE/FCNR per RBI Master Direction No. 14 (updated Apr 2025). The Liberalised Remittance Scheme keeps the USD 250,000/financial-year ceiling with TCS at 20% on >INR 10 lakh annual remittance (Finance Act 2023, in force 1 Oct 2023, amended thresholds 2024).

**FATCA acceptance is bimodal**. SG/HK/JP/KR/TW/PH/MY/TH/ID/IN/KH/MV/KZ all sign IGAs and the standard banks accept US-person KYC with extra documentation; **CN is technically Standard but de facto restrictive** — most US-person buyers route through HSBC HK, DBS/OCBC/UOB SG, Citi IPB Singapore (USD 200k AUM), or HSBC Expat Jersey instead of a mainland account. Charles Schwab International remains the universal US-side fallback for liquid investing.

### Country one-liners

**CN (China)** — `个人所得税号` (Personal Tax ID) issued by the Tax Bureau (税务局) on residency; non-residents typically rely on passport-based pre-purchase wires from HK or SG. Account opening at BoC / ICBC / CCB / ABC requires in-person visit with passport + visa + Chinese phone number; many branches have de facto declined non-resident retail accounts since 2017. FATCA: technically Standard (CN signed Model 2 IGA-in-substance) but in-practice restrictive — US persons typically use HSBC HK Premier or DBS Treasures SG. Hidden trap: SAFE USD 50,000/year individual conversion cap with face-scan enforcement; new PBoC + CBIRC + CSRC rule from 1 Jan 2026 raises record-keeping to 10 years and ID-verification threshold to RMB 5,000 / USD 1,000 per transfer ([sinoblawg.com](https://www.sinoblawg.com/china-is-tightening-foreign-exchange-control/)). Confidence: HIGH on regulator framework, MEDIUM on bank-by-bank application.

**HK (Hong Kong)** — HKID for residents, passport-only for non-residents. Major banks HSBC HK / Hang Seng / BOC HK accept non-resident applicants in branch via "Digital Banker" self-service kiosks for eligible passports ([hsbc.com.hk](https://www.hsbc.com.hk/international/account-opening/)). FATCA: Standard at all major banks; HSBC Premier requires HKD 1,000,000 Total Relationship Balance or HKD 380/month penalty after the 6-month waiver ([hsbc.com.hk Premier](https://www.hsbc.com.hk/accounts/products/premier/)). Hidden trap: bank-by-bank de-risking on Russian / Iranian persons since 2022; CARF + CRS 2.0 transposition consultation through 6 Feb 2026 with legislative amendments targeted 2026, AEoI under CARF from 2028 and CRS 2.0 from 2029 ([kpmg.com/cn](https://kpmg.com/cn/en/insights/2026/01/tax-alert-02-hk-the-proposed-implementation-of-carf-and-crs2-in-hk.html)). Confidence: HIGH.

**ID (Indonesia)** — NPWP (Nomor Pokok Wajib Pajak) for tax residents; passport-only opening now possible at select banks for tourist-route accounts post-2023 (still narrow). KITAS / KITAP standard for residents at BCA / Mandiri / BNI / BRI. FATCA: Standard, BCA Premier preferred for US-tax persons. Hidden trap: OJK Regulation 26/2024 expanded permitted banking activities but did not relax the non-resident NPWP precondition for an FX account ([arma-law.com](https://www.arma-law.com/news-event/newsflash/indonesias-banking-business-activities-expansion-a-closer-look-of-ojk-reg-26-2024)); non-KITAS retail accounts remain bank-discretionary, not statutory. Confidence: MEDIUM — written policy is clear; operational variance per branch is wide.

**IN (India)** — PAN (Permanent Account Number) is mandatory for NRO accounts and effectively required for any taxable transaction; Form 60 substitute exists in narrow cases ([proteantech.in](https://www.proteantech.in/articles/NRI-PAN-06-06-2025/)). NRI account triad: **NRE** (INR, fully repatriable, tax-free interest), **NRO** (INR, USD 1M/FY repatriation cap, taxable), **FCNR(B)** (foreign currency, fully repatriable, term deposit) — codified in RBI Master Direction No. 14 on Deposits and Accounts (updated 16 Apr 2025) ([rbi.org.in MD-14](https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_ViewMasDirections.aspx?id=10198)). Major banks: SBI / HDFC / ICICI / Axis. FATCA: Standard for OCI / PIO / NRI categorisation; US-resident NRIs supported. LRS retains USD 250,000 / financial-year cap with TCS 20% on >INR 10 lakh remittance (Finance Act 2023, effective 1 Oct 2023; revised exemption thresholds 2024) ([rbi.org.in LRS FAQ](https://www.rbi.org.in/commonperson/English/Scripts/FAQs.aspx?Id=1834)). Hidden trap: cross-categorisation errors (NRE used for India-source income, or NRO used for foreign earnings) trigger FEMA contraventions; Form 15CA + 15CB chartered-accountant cert required for repatriation. Confidence: HIGH — primary RBI documentation is comprehensive and English-native.

**JP (Japan)** — `在留カード` (Zairyu / Residence Card) + `マイナンバー` (My Number) standard; the residency law classifies anyone <6 months as `非居住者` (non-resident). Major banks SMBC / MUFG / Mizuho generally require 6 months address registration; Japan Post Bank (`ゆうちょ銀行`) is the most non-resident-tolerant retail option, and SBI Sumishin Net Bank operates a digital channel via bank-agent partners (registered under the Banking Act). FATCA: Standard but slow KYC; Japan Post Bank straightforward. Hidden trap: the "non-resident yen account" is offered but excludes overseas remittance, cash card, and bill payments — practically useless for property closing; closing buyers route via SG / HK and wire on completion ([japanlivingguide.com](https://www.japanlivingguide.com/expatinfo/money/bank/)). Confidence: HIGH on framework, MEDIUM on bank-by-bank acceptance.

**KH (Cambodia)** — National ID for citizens, passport + valid visa + proof-of-address for foreigners at ABA Bank / Acleda Bank / Canadia. Foreigner-friendly: accounts open same-day at ABA in many branches with E-visa + lease. FATCA: Standard, foreigner-friendly. Hidden trap: NBC mandated dual-currency (KHR + USD) accounts from 19 Mar 2024 with monthly compliance reporting ([nbc.gov.kh](https://www.nbc.gov.kh/english/)); the Bakong system (NBC's CBDC-rail) is ubiquitous but the **Bakong Tourist App** allows QR payments without a Cambodian bank account, narrowing the property-buyer use case for Bakong proper. Loan availability: foreign-borrower LTV typically 50-70% vs 80% local — there is no statutory "Foreign Borrower Certificate" product nationally; the term varies bank to bank. Confidence: MEDIUM — NBC publishes English Prakas, but bank-level execution is oral.

**KR (South Korea)** — `외국인등록번호` / ARC (Alien Registration Card) is the gating credential; one bank account per ID is standard. Major banks KB / Shinhan / Woori / Hana with foreign desks at KB Kookmin (post-Citibank Korea retail exit in 2023) and Shinhan. FATCA: Standard at KB / Hana / Shinhan / Woori; some restrictions on US-IRA / 401k inbound transfers. Hidden trap: USD 50,000/year individual outflow ceiling above which BoK pre-notification is required; banks must report any FX purchase >USD 20,000 to the National Tax Service per case ([bok.or.kr Internationalization of KRW](https://www.bok.or.kr/eng/main/contents.do?menuNo=400195)). 2024 FX Improvement Measures (effective July 2024) extended trading to 02:00 next-day London close and admitted 40 Registered Foreign Institutions; retail outflow ceilings unchanged ([english.moef.go.kr](https://english.moef.go.kr/)). Confidence: HIGH.

**KZ (Kazakhstan)** — `ИИН` (IIN — Individual Identification Number); since 1 Jan 2025 IIN is no longer issued via embassies abroad — must be obtained at a Population Service Centre (PSC) inside Kazakhstan with passport + notarised KZ/RU translation + address proof, 2-3 business days ([astanatimes.com](https://astanatimes.com/2025/04/how-foreign-citizens-can-get-bank-cards-in-kazakhstan/)). Foreigner-friendly: Kaspi / Halyk / Forte. Kaspi distinguishes residence-permit holders (online flow) from non-residents (in-branch consent form, 1-year card validity). Halyk requires a residence permit for full account; opens narrow-scope NR accounts with restrictions. FATCA: Standard, increasingly so for US tech-nomads. Hidden trap: 2022-2023 mass-card-issuance to Russians triggered tightening; three banks paused NR card issuance and resumed under tightened KYC. Confidence: MEDIUM — process changed materially Jan 2025; bank policies still settling.

**LK (Sri Lanka)** — NIC (National Identity Card) for citizens; foreigners use passport + tax ID. Major banks Bank of Ceylon / Hatton National Bank / Sampath Bank. FATCA: Standard, but post-2022 economic-crisis tightening means longer KYC. Hidden trap: Sri Lankan Rupee NR account convertibility was constrained 2022-2023; under the IMF Extended Fund Facility, FX market reflexes have recovered (gross official reserves rebuilt to USD 6.1B by end-2024 = 50.3% of ARA metric; CBSL moved to a single policy rate Nov 2024; vehicle / personal-import restrictions lifted Jan 2025) ([imf.org SL CR 2024-161](https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2024/english/1lkaea2024001.pdf)). Confidence: MEDIUM — IMF Article IV documents are authoritative, but bank-by-bank execution lags the central-bank pace.

**MO (Macau)** — `BIR` (Bilhete de Identidade de Residente) for residents or Non-Resident Worker blue card for permitted workers; foreign passport alone is generally insufficient at most counters ([gov.mo PS-1065](https://www.gov.mo/en/services/ps-1065/)). Major banks BCM / ICBC Macau / BNU. FATCA: Standard. Hidden trap: tighter than HK on documentary requirements — without BIR or blue card, account opening is bank-discretionary and often refused; ICBC Macau English channel exists but still demands address proof ([icbc.com.mo](https://www.icbc.com.mo/)). Confidence: MEDIUM.

**MV (Maldives)** — Maldivian National ID / Work Permit for residents; foreigners use passport. Major banks Bank of Maldives / Maldives Islamic Bank. FATCA: Standard, but tourism-focused — foreigner property buyers limited by the constitutional ban on foreign freehold (only 99-year leasehold under the SEZ Act, projects >USD 1B). Hidden trap: MMA Foreign Currency Act 32/2024 + Regulation 2024/R-91 (Oct 2024) mandate that all tourism foreign-currency earnings be deposited in commercial banks and converted, with USD ~500/tourist exchange floor ([mfr.mv](https://mfr.mv/financial-sector/mma-publishes-new-foreign-exchange-rule-aimed-to-tackle-u-s-dollar-flow-issues)); BML temporarily suspended foreign card transactions on 25 Aug 2024 and reversed within hours, signalling FX stress. Confidence: LOW — MMA publishes in Dhivehi-first; English secondary sources lag.

**MY (Malaysia)** — MyKad for citizens; passport + MM2H visa or Employment Pass for foreigners at Maybank / CIMB / Public Bank. FATCA: Standard. Hidden trap: MM2H visa simplifies account opening and FX status; June 2024 reform reset the program into Silver (USD 150k FD / 5y / RM 600k property minimum), Gold (USD 500k FD / 15y / RM 1M property), Platinum (USD 1M FD / 20y / RM 2M property), with up to 50% of FD withdrawable after approval for residence purchase / education / medical / tourism ([MOTAC](https://www.mm2h.gov.my/category/overview), 2026 data). Bank Negara FX rules separate resident vs non-resident treatment for ringgit accounts. Confidence: HIGH.

**PH (Philippines)** — TIN (Tax Identification Number) for tax purposes; passport + ACR I-Card for residents at BPI / BDO / Metrobank / UnionBank. FATCA: Standard. Hidden trap: BSP Foreign Currency Deposit Account (FCDA) under RA 6426 carries statutory secrecy provisions (only allows depositor / written-permission / impeachment-court access) — useful for FX shielding but exempt from default reporting; BSP Circular No. 1192 (21 Mar 2024) consolidated the FX rules and reaffirmed non-residents (incl. foreign banks) may open peso accounts with Authorised Agent Banks subject to eligible-source-of-funds tests ([bsp.gov.ph Cir 1192](https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Regulations/Issuances/2024/1192.pdf)). Confidence: HIGH.

**SG (Singapore)** — NRIC for citizens / PR; FIN for Employment Pass / Student Pass / Dependant's Pass holders; passport for non-residents. Major banks DBS / OCBC / UOB; HSBC Singapore / Citi IPB / SCB Singapore for international tier. UOB requires all non-resident foreign directors to attend in person with no exception; DBS / OCBC offer remote video KYC case-by-case for valid-visa holders. Non-EP non-residents at DBS gated to **DBS Treasures** at S$350,000 minimum deposit ([statrys.com](https://statrys.com/sg/guides/banking/can-foreigners-open-a-bank-account)). FATCA: Standard at major banks (DBS US-person-OK; OCBC more restrictive); Citi IPB Singapore needs USD 200k AUM. Hidden trap: enhanced due diligence on foreign directors and source-of-wealth verification per MAS Notice 626 (28 Mar 2024, effective 1 Apr 2024; amended 30 Jun 2025) extends KYC to 4-8 weeks for foreign-owned entities ([mas.gov.sg](https://www.mas.gov.sg/regulation/notices/notice-626)). Confidence: HIGH.

**TH (Thailand)** — Thai Tax ID at the Revenue Department for >180-day residents (short-term ≤14 consecutive / 90 days/year exempt) ([expattaxthailand.com](https://www.expattaxthailand.com/tax-identification-number-thailand/)). Major banks Bangkok Bank / Kasikornbank / SCB; non-resident retail account typically requires work permit OR longer-stay visa (LTR / O-A retirement / Elite); some branches accept tourist visa + 90-day evidence + R.O. 22 (tax residence cert). FATCA: Standard but documentation-heavy. Hidden trap: 90-day reporting (TM47) for any visa-status holder; Bangkok Bank Foreign Currency Deposits in USD/EUR/GBP available but require source-of-funds documentation; cross-border QR via PromptPay added Lao PDR (3 Apr 2024) and Cambodia (8 Apr 2025), bringing the ASEAN linkage to 9 countries — useful for inbound retail spend, not for property closing ([bot.or.th cross-border](https://www.bot.or.th/en/financial-innovation/digital-finance/digital-payment/cross-border-payment.html)). Confidence: HIGH.

**TW (Taiwan)** — ARC (Alien Resident Certificate) + work permit / Gold Card / spouse visa. Major banks Mega International / CTBC / Cathay / E.Sun. FATCA: Standard. Hidden trap: minimum-balance NT$20k at some banks; CBC's 7th amendment to selective credit controls (Sep 2024) cut LTV for second-home loans to 50% (was 60%) nationwide and to 30% for third / high-value housing ([cbc.gov.tw](https://www.cbc.gov.tw/en/cp-448-189518-553d0-2.html)); banks operate under enhanced internal property-lending controls Q4-2024 to Q4-2025. Mortgage availability for foreigners has tightened — total new housing loans Jan-Sep 2025 fell 32.8% YoY. Confidence: HIGH.

**UZ (Uzbekistan)** — `STIR` (Soliq Toʻlovchining Identifikatsiya Raqami / Tax ID); foreigner accounts at NBU / Uzpromstroybank / Kapitalbank. FATCA: Standard, increasingly so for tech-nomads. Hidden trap: AML/CFT framework strengthening per IMF FSAP (2024-25) targets risk-based supervision in insurance / securities / leasing and beneficial-ownership accuracy ([imf.org Uzbekistan FSAP](https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099081925064533229/pdf/P506984-16bbc722-0060-46ac-a68c-75e2fe5ab247.pdf)); CBU reduced reserve-requirement ratio on FX deposits to 14% on 13 Jun 2024. New currency-control regime under draft 2024-2025 — published expectations narrow individual outflows. Confidence: LOW — much policy is ministerial decree, oral guidance to banks; English documentation lags Russian / Uzbek originals.

**VN (Vietnam)** — `MST` (Mã số thuế / Tax Code) issued by the General Department of Taxation; passport + visa + tax code at Vietcombank / BIDV / Techcombank. FATCA: Standard. Hidden trap: under Decree 70/2014/ND-CP non-residents and resident foreigners may transfer foreign currency abroad from legal-source FX or buy FX from VND legal-source income — but documentation burden lands at the bank counter ([dazpro.com](https://dazpro.com/decree-70-2014-vietnam-on-foreign-exchange/)). Decree 26/2025/ND-CP (24 Feb 2025) restated SBV functions; Decree 329/2025/ND-CP shifts International Financial Center members to ex-post FX supervision but does not yet apply to general retail buyers ([vietnamnet.vn IFC FX](https://vietnamnet.vn/en/vietnam-issues-new-forex-regulations-for-international-financial-centers-2474785.html)). Confidence: MEDIUM — primary decrees are public; bank-by-bank document-intake practice varies.

**PK (Pakistan)** — the practical foreign-buyer market is **overwhelmingly the diaspora** (non-resident Pakistanis + Pakistani Origin Card holders), channelled through the **State Bank of Pakistan Roshan Digital Account (RDA)** — opened **remotely** with a participating bank, KYC/AML-screened by the bank + SBP; RDA-participating banks include **HBL, UBL, MCB, Meezan, Bank Alfalah** and others (verify the current list at [sbp.org.pk/RDAC](https://www.sbp.org.pk/RDAC/index.html)); the **Roshan Apna Ghar** mortgage runs through RDA banks (conventional + Shariah, 3–25-yr tenor, LTV/markup per-bank — [SBP, sbp.org.pk/RDAC/Ghar.html](https://www.sbp.org.pk/RDAC/Ghar.html)). **Non-origin foreigners** need **prior Federal-Government / Ministry-of-Interior approval to acquire immovable property** (1980 Order under the Foreigners Act 1946) and have **no clear retail mortgage product** — expect a **cash purchase via SBP-approved inward remittance**. **FATCA posture: data not primary-verified this pass — verify per-bank**. Hidden trap (the dominant financial risk): the **PKR is a managed float (NOT a peg) under an active IMF EFF**, and Pakistan operates **exchange controls** via the SBP **Foreign Exchange Manual** — the rupee is **not freely convertible** for residents; **clean repatriability exists IF you buy via RDA/Roshan Apna Ghar** ("investments made through RDAs are fully repatriable and subject to full and final taxation" — [SBP primary, verbatim](https://www.sbp.org.pk/RDAC/Ghar.html)), but **outside that channel repatriation depends on documented inward-remittance provenance** and the operative FE-Manual clause for immovable-property sale-proceeds is not pinned to a single URL — **get bank/SBP confirmation in writing before buying**. **No CBI** (a residency-only Foreigner (Long Term Residency) Order, 2025 exists — "residency rights only … not nationality or citizenship", [BoI FAQ](https://invest.gov.pk/long-term-residency/FAQs)). Confidence: MEDIUM-HIGH on the structural spine (RDA channel, repatriation language, PKR managed-float + capital controls, no-CBI all CONFIRMED verbatim at SBP/BoI primary) — LOW on per-bank LTV/markup + the non-origin-foreigner mortgage gap (none surfaced; do not state an LTV).

**VU (Vanuatu)** — no income-tax-driven personal tax-ID (**zero direct tax** — no income/corporate/CGT/inheritance/wealth/withholding tax; the absence is the evidence, there is no Income Tax Act — [VFIPA](https://investvanuatu.vu/untapped-potential/low-tax-jurisdiction/)); non-resident account-opening requires **passport + proof of address + source-of-funds** + (for the CBI) **enhanced due diligence** under the AML/CFT regime administered by the **Financial Intelligence Unit** (State Law Office) — CBI-driven AML scrutiny is **high** after the EU revocation (verify SOF/KYC at the FIU); banks: **ANZ (Vanuatu)**, **Bank South Pacific (BSP)**, **National Bank of Vanuatu (NBV)**, **BRED Bank (Vanuatu)** (BPCE group), supervised by the [Reserve Bank of Vanuatu](https://www.rbv.gov.vu/); **FATCA posture: data not primary-verified this pass — verify per-bank**. Hidden trap: there is **NO freehold — only registered leases (75-yr ceiling) with N years remaining** under the Land Leases Act [Cap 163], so mortgage lending is **cash-dominant / offshore-financed** (declining lease tenure constrains collateral; do NOT state an LTV); the **VUV is a basket peg (USD/AUD/NZD/EUR), realigned under an IMF-advised framework in 2025** — moderate FX risk for a single-currency buyer, always use a dated rate; and **capital-control / repatriation rules were NOT located at a primary source — do NOT assert "free repatriation"; verify at the [RBV](https://www.rbv.gov.vu/) + IMF AREAER**; **CBI (the DSP donation) is NOT property-linked** and is reputationally/regulatorily contested (EU permanently revoked visa-free Schengen access 12 Dec 2024). Confidence: MEDIUM (four banks + zero-tax structure + basket-peg primary/IMF-sourced; FX-repatriation rules + per-bank US-person policy genuinely not available — hedged, not guessed).

### Reform calendar 2024-2026 (dated)

- **28 Mar 2024 — SG — MAS Notice 626 (AML/CFT — Banks)** — replaces 2015 notice with effect 1 Apr 2024; raises CDD, EDD, source-of-wealth thresholds for foreign UBOs — extends KYC to 4-8 weeks for foreign-owned entities — [mas.gov.sg/regulation/notices/notice-626](https://www.mas.gov.sg/regulation/notices/notice-626)
- **19 Mar 2024 — KH — NBC dual-currency account mandate** — banks must offer KHR + USD accounts; monthly compliance reports — [nbc.gov.kh](https://www.nbc.gov.kh/english/)
- **21 Mar 2024 — PH — BSP Circular 1192 on FX transactions** — consolidated MORFXT update; reaffirms non-resident peso-account eligibility through Authorised Agent Banks subject to source-of-funds tests — [bsp.gov.ph/Regulations/Issuances/2024/1192.pdf](https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Regulations/Issuances/2024/1192.pdf)
- **3 Apr 2024 — TH ↔ LA — PromptPay cross-border QR linkage with Lao PDR** — Lao mobile-banking apps scan Thai PromptPay QR — [bot.or.th](https://www.bot.or.th/en/financial-innovation/digital-finance/digital-payment/cross-border-payment.html)
- **June 2024 — MY — MM2H reset (Silver / Gold / Platinum tiers)** — USD 150k / USD 500k / USD 1M fixed deposit; mandatory in-country property purchase RM 600k / RM 1M / RM 2M; up to 50% FD withdrawable after approval — [MOTAC](https://www.mm2h.gov.my/category/overview) (2026 data)
- **13 Jun 2024 — UZ — CBU FX-deposit reserve ratio cut to 14%** — modest easing of FX-deposit cost — [cbu.uz](https://cbu.uz/en/press_center/releases/1729508/)
- **July 2024 — KR — FX Improvement Measures Stage 1 implemented** — extended trading to 02:00 next-day; 40 RFIs admitted; retail outflow ceilings unchanged — [english.moef.go.kr](https://english.moef.go.kr/)
- **Sep 2024 — TW — CBC 7th selective credit-control amendment** — second-home LTV cut 60% → 50%; third-home / high-value LTV 40% → 30%; no first-home loan grace period for buyers with existing properties — [cbc.gov.tw](https://www.cbc.gov.tw/en/cp-448-189518-553d0-2.html)
- **Oct 2024 — MV — Foreign Currency Act 32/2024 + MMA Reg 2024/R-91** — tourism FX must be deposited / converted at commercial banks within 87 days month-end — [mfr.mv](https://mfr.mv/financial-sector/mma-publishes-new-foreign-exchange-rule-aimed-to-tackle-u-s-dollar-flow-issues)
- **Nov 2024 — LK — CBSL single policy rate adoption** — replaces dual rate system, strengthens monetary signalling under IMF EFF — [imf.org SL Country Report](https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2024/english/1lkaea2024001.pdf)
- **2024 — ID — OJK Regulation 26/2024 on banking-business expansion** — broadens permitted bank activities; does not relax non-resident NPWP precondition — [arma-law.com](https://www.arma-law.com/news-event/newsflash/indonesias-banking-business-activities-expansion-a-closer-look-of-ojk-reg-26-2024)
- **31 Jan 2025 — LK — full removal of personal-vehicle import restrictions** — closes out the 2020-22 BoP-stress import controls — [imf.org SL CR](https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/cr/2024/english/1lkaea2024001.pdf)
- **1 Jan 2025 — KZ — IIN issuance moved from embassies to in-country PSC** — foreign citizens must travel to Kazakhstan to obtain IIN; 2-3 business days at Population Service Centre — [astanatimes.com](https://astanatimes.com/2025/04/how-foreign-citizens-can-get-bank-cards-in-kazakhstan/)
- **24 Feb 2025 — VN — Decree 26/2025/ND-CP on SBV functions** — reaffirms SBV inspection authority over FX, gold, AML — [english.luatvietnam.vn](https://english.luatvietnam.vn/tai-chinh/decree-26-2025-nd-cp-the-functions-tasks-powers-of-the-state-bank-of-vietnam-390752-d1.html)
- **8 Apr 2025 — TH ↔ KH — PromptPay ↔ KHQR cross-border QR linkage** — Cambodia becomes 9th ASEAN participant in Regional Payment Connectivity — [bot.or.th](https://www.bot.or.th/en/financial-innovation/digital-finance/digital-payment/cross-border-payment.html)
- **16 Apr 2025 — IN — RBI Master Direction No. 14 on Deposits and Accounts (updated)** — current canonical NRE / NRO / FCNR rulebook — [rbi.org.in MD-14](https://www.rbi.org.in/Scripts/BS_ViewMasDirections.aspx?id=10198)
- **30 Jun 2025 — SG — MAS Notice 626 amendment** — effective 1 Jul 2025; further SOW / SOF tightening — [mas.gov.sg](https://www.mas.gov.sg/-/media/amld-amendments---30-june-2025/mas-notice-626.pdf)
- **31 Oct 2025 / 1 Jan 2026 — CN — PBoC + CBIRC + CSRC cross-border KYC tightening** — record-keeping period 5 → 10 years; mandatory ID verification on transfers >RMB 5,000 / USD 1,000 — [sinoblawg.com](https://www.sinoblawg.com/china-is-tightening-foreign-exchange-control/)
- **6 Feb 2026 — HK — CARF + CRS 2.0 public-consultation close** — legislative amendments targeted 2026; CARF AEoI from 2028; CRS 2.0 from 2029 — [kpmg.com/cn](https://kpmg.com/cn/en/insights/2026/01/tax-alert-02-hk-the-proposed-implementation-of-carf-and-crs2-in-hk.html)
- **Pending 2026 — VN — Decree 329/2025/ND-CP on IFC FX (ex-post supervision)** — applies to International Financial Center members only; does not extend to general retail FX — [vietnamnet.vn](https://vietnamnet.vn/en/vietnam-issues-new-forex-regulations-for-international-financial-centers-2474785.html)

### Confidence

HIGH for SG, HK, JP, KR, TW, IN, TH, MY, PH where regulators publish English-native primary documentation and update cadence is reliable. MEDIUM for CN (English coverage downstream of Chinese-language gazettes, bank-by-bank de-risking varies), ID (OJK English secondary, branch-level execution variance), KH (NBC publishes English Prakas, bank-level variation), LK (IMF CR-grade upstream, slow downstream), MO (Portuguese / Chinese primary, English secondary), KZ (process changed Jan 2025, banks still settling). LOW for MV (Dhivehi-first, secondary English lag) and UZ (ministerial-decree culture, English lags Russian / Uzbek originals — verify directly with CBU on any retail FX claim).
## LATAM + Caribbean

### Regional pattern

Banking access for non-resident foreign property buyers across these 25 jurisdictions splits along four structural axes that drive the actual mechanics far more than country marketing suggests. First, **currency regime**: Ecuador (USD-dollarised since 2000, Banco Pichincha holds USD 19.5 bn assets per Banco Pichincha financials Dec 2024) and Panama (USD-dollarised, no central bank issuing currency) eliminate the FX-account-overlay problem entirely; Argentina sits at the opposite extreme — although the cepo cambiario was lifted 14 Apr 2025 via BCRA Comunicaciones "A" 8226/8227 (source: trade.gov market intelligence Apr 2025), USD-account access for non-residents remains structurally constrained and the floating band 1,000-1,400 ARS/USD is itself a managed regime; Uruguay, Paraguay, Peru, Costa Rica, Bahamas all permit USD accounts at major banks but with documented source-of-funds.

Second, **tax-ID-before-bank dependency**: Brazil is the regional outlier — CPF can be obtained at a Brazilian consulate ABROAD before arrival, which collapses the chicken-and-egg loop that traps buyers in MX/CO/CR/PY (where the residency-card-before-tax-ID-before-bank-account chain typically requires in-country presence). A Receita Federal rule effective 13 Jan 2025 now requires non-resident CPF holders to complete an annual re-registration via the RFB mobile app (selfie + passport) by 31 December each year, or the CPF moves to "Suspended" status that blocks property and banking transactions (sources: U.S. consulate Miami Brazil notice, brasiltax.com 2025). Mexico's RFC requires prior CURP and a residency card per RMF 2025 — tourist-visa applicants are refused (source: lorad.mx RFC checklist 2025; SAT RMF 2025 Anexo 1-A).

Third, **fideicomiso obligation** is unique to Mexico: foreigners cannot hold fee-simple title within the constitutional restricted zone (50 km from coast / 100 km from border) and must use a bank trust at BBVA, HSBC, Banamex/Citi, or Santander — setup ~USD 2,000-3,000, annual fees ~USD 550-1,000 (source: brevitas.com restricted-zone guide 2025; mexlaw.com fideicomiso brief). This requires a separate trust account distinct from the personal banking account.

Fourth, **CFATF/FATF posture re-shapes Caribbean access**: Jamaica was removed from the FATF grey list 28 Jun 2024 (source: Jamaica MoF press release; cfatf-gafic.org news), Bahamas exited FATF increased-monitoring earlier (source: centralbankbahamas.com FATF MER page), and Belize received a near-pristine 2025 4th-round Mutual Evaluation Report — Fully Compliant on 38/40 FATF Recommendations, Largely Compliant on 2 (source: pressoffice.gov.bz Jan 2025) — recovering from its 2011 grey-listing that had cost Belize 87% of correspondent-banking relationships. Net effect: Caribbean foreigner-banking now demands more documentation but is no longer pariah-tier. Private-banking traditions persist in Uruguay (Itaú Private Banking, Santander UY Private Banking) and Panama (post-Panama-Papers tightening, but still foreigner-onboarding-capable). Digital disruptors Nubank and Inter (BR), Yape (PE), CuentaRUT (CL BancoEstado) accelerate retail onboarding for residents but not for non-resident property buyers, who still face full-KYC private-banking flows.

Fifth, **offshore-finance-centre + ECCU de-risking adds a documentation tier on top of currency.** The four UK Overseas Territories now in scope — **Cayman (KY), Bermuda (BM), British Virgin Islands (VG), Turks & Caicos (TC)** — are major or mid-tier offshore-finance centres where non-resident account-opening is *possible without a residency-style tax-ID* (KYD/BMD pegs and USD legal tender remove the FX layer) but onboarding is **heavy KYC + certified source-of-funds + multiple bank references + CRS/FATCA self-certification**, and many property buyers simply **purchase cash + finance offshore against home-country security** to bypass local lender involvement. Critically, **FATCA execution differs by IGA model**: KY (in force 29 Nov 2013), VG (signed 30 Jun 2014) and TC (signed 1 Dec 2014) operate **Model 1** IGAs (FFIs report to the local authority, which exchanges with the IRS), whereas **Bermuda is the regional outlier on a Model 2 IGA** (signed 19 Dec 2013) under which Bermudian FFIs report **directly to the IRS** ([US Treasury FATCA agreements](https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/tax-policy/foreign-account-tax-compliance-act); [IRS FATCA governments](https://www.irs.gov/businesses/corporations/fatca-governments)). The four **Eastern Caribbean CBI states** — **St Kitts & Nevis (KN), Antigua & Barbuda (AG), Saint Lucia (LC), Grenada (GD)** — share the **XCD (EC$2.70 = US$1.00 peg since 1976, ECCB)** and run **non-reciprocal Model 1B** IGAs (KN signed 31 Aug 2015; LC signed 19 Nov 2015; GD signed Oct 2016; AG signed 8 Nov 2016 — verify current "in force" status at the IRS list, as AG's has been reported "signed, not in force"); banking is regional (Republic Bank / CIBC Caribbean / RBC / Scotiabank / national + co-operative banks) with the **same heavy-KYC source-of-funds posture**, and **CBI-naturalised citizens access banking on citizen terms** (a structural reason the CBI route dominates the foreign-buyer market). The 2018-onward EU/CFATF de-risking wave (already noted for BS/BB/BZ) applies across all eight: KYC documentation is materially heavier than the "tax-haven, easy banking" reputation suggests.

### Country one-liners

**AG (Antigua and Barbuda)** — no personal-income-tax-driven tax-ID for individuals (Antigua and Barbuda abolished personal income tax in April 2016 per secondary tax summaries — not confirmed on IRD / [ab.gov.ag](https://ab.gov.ag/); verify at IRD); TIN/registration for property is via the **Inland Revenue Department**; non-residents can open with **valid passport + proof of address + bank/character reference letters + source-of-funds declaration** (CRS/FATCA self-certification mandatory) — in-person preferred; banks: **Eastern Caribbean Amalgamated Bank (ECAB)**, **ACB Caribbean (Antigua Commercial Bank)**, **Republic Bank**, **CIBC Caribbean** (ex-FirstCaribbean) ([CIBC Caribbean account-opening requirements](https://www.cibccaribbean.com/personal-banking/bank-accounts/account-opening-requirements)); FATCA: **Standard** for declared US persons but heavy source-of-funds KYC — Antigua and Barbuda runs a **Model 1B IGA signed 8 Nov 2016** ([US Treasury FATCA agreement — Antigua and Barbuda](https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/131/FATCA-Agreement-Antigua-Barbuda-08-31-2016.pdf)), reported as "signed" — **verify current in-force status** at the [IRS FATCA list](https://www.irs.gov/businesses/corporations/fatca-governments); expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; hidden trap: **CBI-naturalised citizens bank on citizen terms** — a non-CBI foreign buyer faces the heavier non-resident KYC path; XCD pegged EC$2.70 = US$1.00 (ECCB) removes the FX layer; Confidence: MEDIUM (bank-by-bank US-person policy not published; CBI cohort dominates the documented foreign-buyer flow).

**AR (Argentina)** — CUIT/CUIL at ARCA (replaced AFIP 25 Oct 2024 per ARCA dissolution decree, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AFIP and milei.ufm.edu reform tracker); cepo cambiario lifted 14 Apr 2025 (BCRA Comm. A 8226/8227), but non-resident USD accounts remain rare in practice — local-currency accounts at Banco Galicia / BBVA Argentina / Santander Río / Banco Nación are the standard route; FATCA: Standard but commercially moot because USD outflow capacity is a separate question — **named expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey** (universal); hidden trap: Corralito-2001 memory still drives behavior — locals hold USD physically, non-residents should not assume USD-account stability survives the next political shock; Confidence: MEDIUM (policy in flux post-Apr-2025).

**BB (Barbados)** — TIN (Tax ID at Barbados Revenue Authority); Welcome Stamp visa (USD 50,000+ income, USD 2,000 individual / USD 3,000 family fee per investbarbados.org 2024 official program page) grants holders non-resident exchange-control status enabling foreign-currency accounts funded from abroad; banks: Republic Bank Barbados, CIBC FirstCaribbean, RBC Caribbean, Scotiabank Barbados; FATCA: Standard for Welcome Stamp holders; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; Confidence: MEDIUM.

**BM (Bermuda)** — no personal tax-ID prerequisite for individuals (Bermuda levies no income/CGT — payroll tax is employer-side); non-residents open with **passport + proof of address + references + source-of-funds** (CRS / FATCA self-certification); the market is concentrated in **three retail banks — Butterfield, HSBC Bermuda, Clarien Bank** (per gov.bm / BMA framework — [Bermuda Monetary Authority](https://www.bma.bm/)); currency **BMD pegged 1:1 to USD**, USD circulates at par — zero structural FX layer; FATCA: **Restricted in execution / Model 2 outlier** — **Bermuda runs a Model 2 IGA signed 19 Dec 2013** under which Bermudian FFIs report **directly to the IRS** (not via a local authority), unique among the scoped OTs ([US Treasury — Bermuda FATCA agreement](https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/131/FATCA-Agreement-Bermuda-12-19-2013.pdf)); expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey (HSBC Bermuda is itself part of the HSBC group); hidden trap: the gating step for property is the **Alien Landholding Licence**, NOT FX/currency registration — but AML source-of-funds documentation is mandatory; a thin three-bank market means onboarding is relationship-driven and slow; **minimum-balance / fee figures: data not publicly available — verify directly with each bank**; Confidence: MEDIUM (named banks + Model-2 status verified; per-bank non-resident terms not published).

**BR (Brazil)** — CPF at Receita Federal — uniquely **obtainable BEFORE arrival** via Brazilian consulate abroad or by attorney (source: brazilcounsel.com guides; consulate Miami CPF page); annual re-registration via RFB mobile app by 31 Dec required from 13 Jan 2025 forward or CPF goes to "Suspended" status; banks: Itaú / Bradesco / Santander BR / Banco do Brasil for standard, Nubank / Inter accept non-resident CPF holders for digital; FATCA: Standard (Itaú Personnalité, Bradesco Prime, Itaú Private Bank Miami branch for USD); hidden trap: Lei 14.754/2023 (effective 1 Jan 2024 per planalto.gov.br/L14754) imposes annual reporting and taxation on offshore investments held by Brazilian tax residents — a buyer who later becomes Brazilian-resident inherits worldwide-asset disclosure; Confidence: HIGH.

**BS (Bahamas)** — TIN issued by Department of Inland Revenue (BS-resident only); non-residents per Central Bank of the Bahamas Guidelines for Opening Accounts (centralbankbahamas.com 2019 PDF, still the operative framework) can open checking, savings, investment, fixed-deposit, brokerage, multi-currency accounts; banks: RBC Caribbean, Scotiabank Caribbean, Bank of the Bahamas, plus offshore-licensed institutions; FATCA: Standard with reporting threshold USD 50,000 individuals / USD 1,000,000 entities to IRS per Bahamas-US tax-info agreement; Caribbean-wide tightening on US persons since 2018 EU AML grey-list pressure — TD Bank Cayman closed to new US clients 2024, RBC Caribbean restrictive — verify with each branch before relying; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey, HSBC Premier US (USD 75k AUM); Confidence: MEDIUM.

**BZ (Belize)** — TIN at Belize Tax Service; non-residents historically used offshore-licensed banks under IFSC, now the Financial Services Commission (belizefsc.org.bz); banks: Atlantic Bank, Heritage Bank, Belize Bank — all regulated by Central Bank of Belize; FATCA: Standard but increasingly restrictive — many offshore banks closed to new US persons post-2018; CFATF 4th-round MER Jan 2025 rated Belize Fully Compliant on 38/40 FATF Recommendations, removing the historical reputational drag (source: pressoffice.gov.bz Jan 2025); hidden trap: bank-by-bank policy is opaque, correspondent-banking access remains brittle — non-resident account-opening is genuinely case-dependent; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; Confidence: LOW (bank policy opaque).

**CL (Chile)** — RUT at SII (or temporary RUT via form F4415 at SII office, but temporary RUT does NOT permit CuentaRUT account opening per expat.cl official guidance); BancoEstado is the only bank that consistently onboards temporary residents via CuentaRUT (source: bancoestado.cl CuentaRUT FAQ; expat.cl banking guide); private banks BCI / Santander Chile / BICE typically require residency history; FATCA: Standard; hidden trap: visitors without RUT cannot bank — RUT is the universal blocker; Confidence: HIGH.

**CO (Colombia)** — NIT at DIAN required to register property and open utilities, NOT strictly required to sign the escritura but practically necessary (sources: lookuptax.com NIT guide; thelatinvestor.com Colombia documents 2026); cédula de extranjería required for visa >3 months and is the practical blocker for opening a bank account at Bancolombia / Davivienda / Banco de Bogotá / BBVA Colombia; Bancolombia has a published "buy from abroad" mortgage program financing up to 70% LTV for qualified non-resident applicants; FATCA: Standard; hidden trap: foreign-currency-account FX restrictions under Banco de la República rules — verify case-by-case; Confidence: HIGH.

**CR (Costa Rica)** — DIMEX (foreign-resident ID issued by Dirección General de Migración) is the practical bank-onboarding key; tourists can sometimes open at BAC Credomatic or Scotiabank Costa Rica with passport + entry stamp + KYC + source-of-funds, but most banks prefer DIMEX (source: wise.com Costa Rica banking 2025; investingcostarica.com); BAC San José has the strongest digital banking and SINPE instant-transfers enrollment requires DIMEX; Firma Digital required for many online banking flows; FATCA: Standard; SUGEF (Superintendencia General de Entidades Financieras) is the AML supervisor; Confidence: HIGH.

**DO (Dominican Republic)** — Cédula de Identidad for individuals or RNC for entities (source: taxdo.com DR TIN guide); some banks (Banco Popular Dominicano, Banreservas) allow non-residents to open with valid passport plus visa, others require local cédula de extranjero issued post-residency; banks: Banreservas / Popular / BHD / Scotiabank DR / APAP / Banesco offer foreign-buyer mortgages (source: thelatinvestor.com Dominican mortgage 2026); FATCA: Standard; hidden trap: residency-of-convenience tourism flows mean mortgage underwriting on non-resident income is genuinely available but case-dependent; Confidence: HIGH.

**EC (Ecuador)** — Cédula de Identidad para Extranjeros required for full banking (checking accounts require residence permit per multiple expat-banking guides 2024-25); USD-dollarised since 2000 — eliminates FX-account overhead; Banco Pichincha is the largest (USD 19.5 bn assets Dec 2024 per Banco Pichincha financials), Produbanco and Banco Guayaquil also serve foreigners; FATCA: Standard; hidden trap: Sep 2024-Apr 2025 rolling blackouts disrupted banking sporadically — branch hours and ATM availability fragile (source: state.gov 2025 Investment Climate Statement Ecuador); plus Banco Central de Ecuador 2024-25 ban on crypto banking transactions for institutions — relevant to remittance routing; Confidence: MEDIUM.

**GD (Grenada)** — no income-tax-driven personal tax-ID; property tax / PTT registration via the **Inland Revenue Division** ([ird.gd](https://ird.gd)); non-residents open with **passport + proof of address + reference letters + source-of-funds** (CRS/FATCA self-certification); banks: **Republic Bank (Grenada)**, **CIBC Caribbean (FirstCaribbean)**, **Grenada Co-operative Bank**, **RBC / RBTT Caribbean** ([republicgrenada.com](https://republicgrenada.com/)); currency **XCD pegged EC$2.70 = US$1.00 (ECCB)** — no FX layer for USD buyers; FATCA: **Standard for declared US persons** under a **Model 1B IGA signed Oct 2016** (treated as having an IGA in effect from 30 Jun 2014 — [US Treasury — Grenada FATCA agreement](https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/131/FATCA-Agreement-Grenada-10-17-2016.pdf)) but with heavy source-of-funds KYC; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; hidden trap: **CBI-naturalised buyers bank on citizen terms** while a non-CBI foreign buyer also carries a ~22%+ government-plus-fee acquisition stack (10% PTT + ~10% ALHL) that front-loads the cash needed in-account; Confidence: MEDIUM (named banks + IGA verified; per-bank non-resident terms not published).

**JM (Jamaica)** — TRN (Taxpayer Registration Number) at Tax Administration Jamaica; non-residents can open at NCB, Scotiabank Jamaica, Sagicor Bank Jamaica with passport + in-branch presence (Scotiabank Jamaica explicit: applicant must be present in branch — jm.scotiabank.com opening requirements); foreign-currency accounts USD/GBP/EUR available at NCB; FATCA: Standard, improved since 28 Jun 2024 FATF grey-list removal (source: mof.gov.jm press release); BOJ supervises commercial banks (boj.org.jm); Confidence: MEDIUM-HIGH.

**KN (St Kitts and Nevis)** — no income-tax-driven personal tax-ID (no income/CGT/inheritance tax); property assessment via the **Inland Revenue Department** ([sknird.com](https://www.sknird.com/)); non-residents open with **valid passport + proof of address + reference letters + source-of-funds** (CRS/FATCA self-certification mandatory); banks: **St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla National Bank**, **Republic Bank**, **RBC Caribbean**, **The Bank of Nevis** (plus Nevis offshore specialist **Hamilton Reserve Bank** for online/multi-currency — *secondary, verify scope*); currency **XCD pegged EC$2.70 = US$1.00 (ECCB)**; FATCA: **Standard for declared US persons** under a **Model 1B IGA signed 31 Aug 2015** ([US Treasury FATCA agreements list](https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/tax-policy/foreign-account-tax-compliance-act); Nevis FSRC FATCA page — [nevisfsrc.com/fatca](https://www.nevisfsrc.com/fatca/)) but heavy source-of-funds KYC; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; hidden trap: **CBI-naturalised citizens (world's oldest CBI programme, est. 1984) bank on citizen terms** — non-CBI open-market buyers face the heavier non-resident path; Confidence: MEDIUM.

**KY (Cayman Islands)** — no personal tax-ID prerequisite for individuals (zero direct tax: no income/CGT/inheritance/property tax); non-residents open with **valid passport + proof of address + reference letters + source-of-funds** + CRS/FATCA self-certification, AML through bank + attorney under [CIMA](https://www.cima.ky/); banks: **Butterfield**, **Cayman National Bank**, **RBC Royal Bank**, **Scotiabank**, **CIBC Caribbean (FirstCaribbean)** — both KYD and USD accounts available; currency **KYD pegged CI$1 = US$1.20 since 1974**, USD circulates in parallel (market is effectively USD-denominated) — no FX layer; FATCA: **Standard for declared US persons** under a **Model 1 IGA in force 29 Nov 2013** ([IRS FATCA governments](https://www.irs.gov/businesses/corporations/fatca-governments)), but onboarding is heavy KYC — aggregator sources cite **est. USD 50,000–100,000 minimum deposit** and 2–6 week onboarding for non-residents (*secondary — verify with each bank; do not quote as fact*); **CRS 2.0 due-diligence in effect from 1 Jan 2026** raises onboarding documentation (*secondary*); expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; hidden trap: minimum-deposit thresholds and per-bank non-resident terms are bank-direct only — **verify**; Confidence: MEDIUM (named banks + IGA verified; minimum-balance figures aggregator-tier).

**LC (Saint Lucia)** — no income-tax-driven personal tax-ID for the buyer; stamp duty / property tax via the **Inland Revenue Department** ([irdstlucia.gov.lc](https://irdstlucia.gov.lc/)); non-residents open with **valid passport + proof of address + reference letters + source-of-funds** (CRS/FATCA self-certification mandatory); banks: **Bank of Saint Lucia (ECFH)**, **Republic Bank**, **RBC Royal Bank Caribbean**, **CIBC Caribbean (FirstCaribbean)**, **Scotiabank** (regional bank footprints consolidating — verify current branch presence); currency **XCD pegged EC$2.70 = US$1.00 (ECCB)**; FATCA: **Standard for declared US persons** under a **Model 1 IGA signed 19 Nov 2015, in force 1 Sep 2016** ([US Treasury — FATCA IGA status table](https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/tax-policy/foreign-account-tax-compliance-act) · [signed agreement PDF](https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/131/FATCA-Agreement-St-Lucia-11-19-2015.pdf); Treasury classes it "Model 1" with no A/B suffix and the agreement's preamble provides for **reciprocal** automatic exchange under the 1987 TIEA — 2026-09-18 verified) but heavy source-of-funds KYC; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; hidden trap: **CBI-naturalised buyers bank on citizen terms** while non-CBI buyers carry ALHL fees; Confidence: MEDIUM.

**MX (Mexico)** — CURP (population ID) prerequisite, then RFC at SAT — RFC requires Temporary or Permanent Resident Card per RMF 2025 (lorad.mx + SAT RMF 2025); non-resident format XEXX010101000 used in cross-border transactions; banks: BBVA México / Santander México / Banorte / HSBC México / Citibanamex; restricted-zone property requires fideicomiso bank trust at BBVA, HSBC, Banamex, or Santander (~USD 2,000-3,000 setup, ~USD 550-1,000 annual fees per brevitas.com 2025); FATCA: Standard, with US-tax-person desks at BBVA / Santander / Banorte / Citibanamex Premier; hidden trap: BBVA "Cuenta Express" is NOT a full account; CURP-RFC-proof-of-address Catch-22 traps tourist-visa buyers — Santander/HSBC/Banorte tend to be more receptive than BBVA for US persons; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Premier US (USD 75k AUM); Confidence: HIGH.

**PA (Panama)** — Cédula or carné de residente; USD-dollarised; banks: Banco General (USD 50 minimum opening per official savings-account terms), Banistmo (USD 500 minimum opening for foreigners per published account schedule), BAC Credomatic, Multibank; Friendly Nations Visa now requires USD 200,000 real-estate purchase or USD 200,000 3-year fixed deposit or local employment (source: panamafriendlynationsvisa.com; ndm.com.pa visa guide 2024) — the prior USD 5,000 deposit option was eliminated in the 2021/2024 reform cycle; FATCA: Standard but post-Panama-Papers (2016) and post-2024 IRS pressure require detailed source-of-funds documentation (work reference letter, 2-year tax returns); Banco General rates low for applicants without cédula in hand; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey, Citi IPB Singapore (USD 200k AUM); Confidence: HIGH.

**PE (Peru)** — RUC at SUNAT for residents/businesses; non-domiciled persons register via SUNAT Virtual at nodomiciliados.sunat.gob.pe; **since March 2025 banks may open a basic account with passport alone, with simpler onboarding and transaction limits** (source: wise.com Peru banking 2025); banks: BCP / Interbank / Scotiabank Perú / BBVA Perú; Yape app dominates retail digital; FATCA: Standard; SBS (Superintendencia de Banca, Seguros y AFP) is the AML supervisor; Confidence: HIGH.

**PY (Paraguay)** — Cédula civil issued post-residency (residency obtainable via SENAD/Migraciones); non-residents/tourists generally cannot open accounts (sources: getresidencyparaguay.com 2026 guide; goldenharbors.com Paraguay banking 2025); banks: Banco Itaú Paraguay (foreigner-friendly per multiple expat reports), Banco Continental, Sudameris Bank — multi-currency USD accounts available with documented source-of-funds; FATCA: Standard; hidden trap: bank-by-bank policy is opaque, "foreigner-friendly" is reputation not guarantee — verify before booking flights; Confidence: LOW-MEDIUM.

**TC (Turks and Caicos Islands)** — no personal tax-ID prerequisite (no central bank, USD is sole legal tender — zero FX/currency-control layer); non-residents open with **passport + proof of address + reference letters + source-of-funds** + CRS/FATCA self-certification; banks: **Scotiabank (Turks & Caicos)** (largest by assets), **RBC Royal Bank**, **CIBC Caribbean (FirstCaribbean)** ([visittci.com — banks & financial institutions](https://www.visittci.com/life-and-business/financial-services/banks-financial-institutions); [TCI FSC licensed banks](https://www.tcifsc.tc/banks-licensed-banks)); FATCA: **Standard for declared US persons** under a **Model 1 IGA signed 1 Dec 2014, in force 25 Jul 2016** ([US Treasury — signed US/TCI Model 1 IGA](https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/131/FATCA-Agreement-TurksandCaicosIslands-12-1-2014.pdf) · [Treasury IGA status table](https://home.treasury.gov/policy-issues/tax-policy/foreign-account-tax-compliance-act); [IRS FATCA governments](https://www.irs.gov/businesses/corporations/fatca-governments)) (2026-09-18 verified) but heavy source-of-funds KYC (offshore-centre onboarding); expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; hidden trap: **no currency-control repatriation gate** (USD jurisdiction, no national currency) — the only "currency" workstream is AML source-of-funds on the way in; many buyers purchase cash; **per-bank minimum-balance figures: data not publicly available — verify**; Confidence: MEDIUM.

**TT (Trinidad and Tobago)** — no income-tax-driven personal tax-ID detailed for the buyer (BIR file number at the [Inland Revenue Division](https://ird.gov.tt/) for taxable matters); non-residents open with **passport + proof of address + reference letters + source-of-funds + KYC** (CRS/FATCA self-certification — verify the current documentation list with the bank); banks: **Republic Bank** (largest, est. 1837), **First Citizens Bank** (state-linked), **Scotiabank Trinidad & Tobago**, **CIBC Caribbean**, **RBC** — all regulated by the [Central Bank of Trinidad and Tobago (CBTT)](https://www.central-bank.org.tt/), plus mortgage-focused **TT Mortgage Bank** + **Home Mortgage Bank**; conveyancing is **attorney-handled** (common-law, no separate notary profession). **FATCA posture: data not primary-verified this pass — verify per-bank; expat-arm fallback HSBC Expat Jersey**. Hidden trap (the single biggest practical exit risk): there is **no legal capital-repatriation bar** — the Exchange Control Act (Chap. 79:50) was substantively liberalised from April 1993 — **BUT a genuine, multi-year USD shortage means authorised dealers RATION forex**, so a foreign seller paid in TTD must source USD through a rationing authorised dealer to repatriate — slow/uncertain "even from USD accounts held in T&T" ([EUROCHAMTT FX challenges](https://eurochamtt.org/); [IMF 2026 Article IV](https://www.imf.org/en/Countries/TTO)); inbound is cleaner because **FIA s.10(1) REQUIRES the purchase price be settled in an internationally traded currency through an authorised dealer**, creating the paper trail; the **TTD is a managed float with a de facto soft USD anchor (~TTD 6.74–6.78/USD, 2025–2026)** — quote the publish-day [CBTT rate](https://www.central-bank.org.tt/exchange-rates-daily/); **no non-resident mortgage product surfaced at a primary source — frame foreign-buyer finance as predominantly cash/equity (inference, not sourced) and verify per-lender**; **NO Citizenship-by-Investment — do NOT list T&T among Caribbean CBI countries** (naturalisation/descent only). Confidence: MEDIUM (named banks + CBTT + FX-rationing exit risk + FIA s.10 hard-currency settlement + no-CBI primary/regulated-sourced; per-bank non-resident terms + US-person policy not published).

**UY (Uruguay)** — Cédula de Identidad uruguaya for residents; non-residents can open accounts at BROU, Santander UY, Itaú UY, BBVA UY, Scotiabank with proof of source of funds and international bank references (source: goldenharbors.com Uruguay banking 2025; livinginuruguay.com expat guide); private banking traditions persist — Itaú Private Banking and Santander UY Private Banking serve high-net-worth clients (minimums data not publicly available — verify directly with each bank's private-banking desk); FATCA: Standard; Uruguay is a CRS-participating jurisdiction — bank secrecy traditions reformed but legal-privacy protections retained per BCU framework (bcu.gub.uy); Confidence: MEDIUM-HIGH.

**VG (British Virgin Islands)** — no personal tax-ID prerequisite (USD is sole legal tender since 1959; no income/CGT — no residency-style TIN for individuals); non-residents open with **rigorous KYC + multiple reference letters + certified source-of-funds** + CRS/FATCA self-certification (a major offshore-finance centre — onboarding is correspondingly strict); banks: **FirstBank Virgin Islands**, **Banco Popular**, **CIBC Caribbean (FirstCaribbean)**, **Scotiabank** (verify current branch footprint) ([thebanks.eu — BVI major banks](https://thebanks.eu/countries/British-Virgin-Islands/major_banks); BVI FSC — [bvifsc.vg](https://www.bvifsc.vg/)); FATCA: **Standard for declared US persons** under a **Model 1 IGA signed 30 Jun 2014** ([MNE Tax — US/BVI Model 1 FATCA IGA](https://mnetax.com/u-s-british-virgin-islands-sign-model-1-fatca-iga-2553); [IRS FATCA governments](https://www.irs.gov/businesses/corporations/fatca-governments)) but heavy source-of-funds KYC; expat-arm fallback: HSBC Expat Jersey; hidden trap: the gating foreign-buyer step is the **Non-Belonger Land Holding Licence (NBLHL)**, NOT a currency/FX-registration filing — but AML source-of-funds documentation is rigorous; thin USD-millions market means many buyers pay cash via offshore structures; Confidence: MEDIUM.

### Reform calendar 2024-2026 (dated)

- **12 Dec 2023** — Brazil — Lei 14.754/2023 sanctioned (effective 1 Jan 2024) — overseas wealth & income reporting for Brazilian-residents — source: planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_ato2023-2026/2023/lei/l14754.htm
- **1 Jan 2024** — Brazil — Lei 14.754/2023 enters effect — source: trenchrossi.com legal alert
- **28 Jun 2024** — Jamaica — FATF removed Jamaica from grey list at FATF Plenary Singapore — source: mof.gov.jm/fatf-removes-jamaica-from-grey-list/
- **21 Oct 2024** — Argentina — AFIP dissolution announced; ARCA created — source: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administracion_Federal_de_Ingresos_Publicos (cross-ref milei.ufm.edu reform watch)
- **25 Oct 2024** — Argentina — ARCA operationally replaces AFIP — source: argentina.gob.ar/arca official portal
- **Dec 2024** — CFATF Plenary discusses Belize MER ahead of January publication — source: cfatf-gafic.org news
- **13 Jan 2025** — Brazil — RFB rule requires annual re-registration of non-resident CPF via mobile app by 31 Dec each year — source: brazilcounsel.com guides; U.S. consulate Miami Brazil CPF instructions
- **Jan 2025** — Belize — CFATF publishes 4th-round MER, Belize Fully Compliant 38/40, Largely Compliant 2/40 — source: pressoffice.gov.bz/belize-emerges-as-global-leader…
- **Feb 2025** — Brazil — BCB publishes Drex pilot phase-one report — source: omfif.org May 2025 brief
- **Mar 2025** — Peru — banks may open basic account with passport alone (simpler onboarding, transaction limits) — source: wise.com Peru banking 2025
- **14 Apr 2025** — Argentina — cepo cambiario lifted via BCRA Comunicaciones "A" 8226 and 8227; floating band 1,000-1,400 ARS/USD established — source: trade.gov market intelligence; bcra.gob.ar communications archive
- **Apr 2025** — Argentina — IMF USD 20 bn agreement supports FX liberalization — source: realinstitutoelcano.org analysis
- **2025 (calendar year)** — Mexico — RMF 2025 (Resolución Miscelánea Fiscal) published, Annex 1-A documentation requirements for RFC unchanged for non-residents — source: SAT publication; lorad.mx 2025 checklist
- **1 Jan 2026** — Cayman Islands — CRS 2.0 enhanced due-diligence in effect, raising non-resident onboarding documentation — *secondary (aggregator) — verify at [CIMA](https://www.cima.ky/)*
- **Mid-2026** — Jamaica — preparing for 5th-round FATF/CFATF mutual evaluation — source: cfatf-gafic.org news
- **Pending** — Brazil — Drex public launch expected following pilot conclusion; cross-border phase 2 to use Chainlink CCIP for tokenised eBoL settlement — source: omfif.org; cbdctracker.org Brazil page
- **Pending** — Panama — Friendly Nations Visa USD 200,000 real-estate / USD 200,000 fixed-deposit / employment-contract pathways remain operative through 2025 (deposit-only USD 5,000 path eliminated in prior reform cycle) — source: panamafriendlynationsvisa.com; kraemerlaw.com FNV brief

### Confidence

HIGH for MX/BR/CL/CO/PE/PA/CR/DO where regulators publish authoritative documentation (SAT, RFB, SII, DIAN, SUNAT, SUGEF) and the major banks publish foreigner-onboarding requirements; MEDIUM for AR (post-Apr-2025 regime young, USD-account practical access still settling), UY (private-banking minimums opaque, secrecy norms reformed but discretion remains), BS / BB / JM (post-CFATF cleanup ongoing, US-person acceptance bank-by-bank); LOW for BZ / PY where bank-by-bank policy is opaque and correspondent-banking relationships remain brittle — verify directly with the named bank before committing to a property timeline. MEDIUM for KY/BM/VG/TC (offshore-finance OTs — named banks + FATCA IGA model verified at US Treasury/IRS, but per-bank non-resident minimum-balance/fee terms are bank-direct only; KY minimum-deposit figures are aggregator-tier) and KN/AG/LC/GD (ECCU CBI states — named regional banks + Model 1B IGA verified, but bank-by-bank US-person retail policy is not published and the CBI cohort dominates the documented foreign-buyer flow; AG IGA reported "signed" — verify current in-force status at the IRS list).
## Africa + Anglo-non-EU

### Regional pattern

The 14-country group splits into three banking archetypes. **Mauritius and Seychelles** are the offshore-friendly historical anchors of the Indian Ocean — both exited the FATF grey list (Mauritius Oct 2021, EU blacklist Jan 2022 per [Bank of Mauritius](https://www.bom.mu/media/media-releases/mauritius-exits-faft-list-jurisdictions-under-increased-monitoring-list); Seychelles VASP Act in force 1 Sept 2024) and now actively court HNW non-resident wealth via private-banking arms (MCB, AfrAsia, SBM, ABSA Seychelles). Account-opening for non-residents is genuinely viable remote+POA at HNW tiers, in-person at retail tiers.

**South Africa** is unique — it operates a full SARB exchange-control regime where the residency tag determines what you can do. Residents get a R1M Single Discretionary Allowance (SDA) plus R10M Foreign Investment Allowance (FIA) per calendar year, both administered by SARS via Tax Compliance Status PINs ([SARB FinSurv FAQ](https://www.resbank.co.za/en/home/what-we-do/financial-surveillance/FinSurvFAQ)). Non-residents open "Non-Resident Rand Accounts" with documentation but are blocked from many investment products. Section 9H "deemed disposal" exit-tax on financial emigration is the principal trap.

**Nigeria and Ghana** are currency-crisis recoveries. Nigeria's CBN unified its FX windows in mid-2023 ("willing buyer, willing seller"), launched EFEMS on 1 Dec 2024 and the FX Code on 28 Jan 2025 ([CBN](https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2025/CCD/CBN_UPDATE_JANUARY_2025_EDITION.pdf)) — naira closed 2025 around ₦1,429/USD, 7.4% YoY appreciation. Ghana's IMF ECF (US$3B, May 2023) concluded at its sixth and final review on 27 Jul 2026, succeeded by a non-financing 36-month Policy Coordination Instrument (5th review Dec 2025, [IMF PR 25/429](https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2025/12/17/pr-25429-ghana-imf-completes-the-fifth-review-under-the-ecf-arrangement)) with state-owned bank recapitalisation continuing through end-2025.

**Rwanda, Cabo Verde, Kenya** are smaller-scale but functional. Cabo Verde escudo is pegged 1 EUR = 110.265 CVE (1999, [BCL working paper](https://www.bcl.lu/en/publications/Working-papers/16/BCLWP016.pdf)). Kenya requires a KRA PIN before account opening at all major banks. Rwanda has the most digital-forward foreigner-onboarding (I&M Bank Rwanda online account-opening, BK Diaspora Banking).

**Anglo-non-EU (AU/CA/NZ/US)** are FATCA-native and English-language regulator-transparent — but three of them (AU, CA, NZ) currently have foreign-buyer restrictions on residential property. AU banned foreign persons from established dwellings 1 Apr 2025 to 31 Mar 2027 ([Treasury](https://ministers.treasury.gov.au/ministers/clare-oneil-2024/media-releases/albanese-government-clamping-down-foreign-purchase)); CA extended its non-Canadian purchase ban to 1 Jan 2027 ([Canada.ca](https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/news/2024/02/government-announces-two-year-extension-to-ban-on-foreign-ownership-of-canadian-housing.html)); NZ partially reopened in Dec 2025 for AIP/Investor visa holders at NZD 5M+ ([Bell Gully](https://www.bellgully.com/insights/overseas-investment-act-update-door-opens-for-investor-visa-holders-buying-residential-land/)). The US has no federal foreign-buyer ban; ITIN-via-W-7 unlocks bank accounts at most major banks. FATCA is intra-country for the US (target jurisdiction) and varies for the others — Mauritius, Australia and Canada bank-arms publicly serve US persons; Ghana / Cabo Verde / Rwanda US-person desks are less mature.

### Country one-liners

**AU (Australia)** — TFN at ATO via Individual Auto Registration online once visa active (≤28 days for letter, [ATO TFN application](https://www.ato.gov.au/individuals-and-families/tax-file-number/apply-for-a-tfn/foreign-passport-holders-permanent-migrants-and-temporary-visitors-tfn-application)); CommBank Migrant Banking pre-arrival, NAB / Westpac / ANZ post-arrival in-person with passport+visa; FATCA universally accepted at the Big Four, ANZ Premier and Macquarie Private OK with US persons; **trap**: foreign individuals BANNED from buying established dwellings 1 Apr 2025 – 30 Jun 2029 ([foreigninvestment.gov.au](https://foreigninvestment.gov.au/guidance/types-investments/residential-land)), FRCGW raised to 15% on all property regardless of value 1 Jan 2025 ([ATO FRCGW](https://www.ato.gov.au/individuals-and-families/investments-and-assets/capital-gains-tax/foreign-residents-and-capital-gains-tax/foreign-resident-capital-gains-withholding/foreign-resident-capital-gains-withholding-overview)), state foreign-buyer surcharges (NSW/VIC/QLD/WA) and AUSTRAC Tranche 2 enrolment for real-estate professionals from 31 Mar 2026, obligations from 1 Jul 2026 ([AUSTRAC](https://www.austrac.gov.au/industry-and-business/about-amlctf-reforms/about-reforms)); **confidence HIGH**.

**CA (Canada)** — SIN required for full bank account access — only obtainable with work permit / PR / citizenship, ITN as fallback for non-resident tax filing; RBC Newcomer / TD New to Canada / Scotia StartRight pre-arrival packages allow account-opening up to 12 months before landing; FATCA universally accepted, RBC Premier and TD Cross-Border Banking serve US tax-residents (TD CBB threshold USD 500k AUM); **trap**: Prohibition on the Purchase of Residential Property by Non-Canadians Act EXTENDED to 1 Jan 2027 ([Canada.ca 4 Feb 2024](https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/news/2024/02/government-announces-two-year-extension-to-ban-on-foreign-ownership-of-canadian-housing.html)) for CMA/CA areas, BC/ON/NS additional Foreign Buyer Tax 20-25%, FINTRAC AML reform 1 Oct 2025 added title insurers as reporting entities and forces real-estate brokers to verify unrepresented parties' identity ([DLA Piper](https://www.dlapiper.com/en/insights/publications/2025/10/regulatory-updates-impacting-reporting-entities-under-canadas-aml-regime)); **confidence HIGH**.

**NZ (New Zealand)** — IRD Number applicable from abroad via IR742 form; ANZ NZ / ASB / BNZ / Westpac NZ / Kiwibank — most accept overseas-passport+visa with in-person verification, ANZ Migrant Banking has pre-arrival pack; FATCA universally accepted; **trap**: foreign-buyer restriction on residential property under Overseas Investment Act has been PARTIALLY LIFTED Dec 2025 — Active Investor Plus, Investor 1 and Investor 2 visa holders can buy NZD 5M+ residential property with OIO consent (~5 working days, NZD 2,040 fee existing / NZD 3,500 new build, [Bell Gully](https://www.bellgully.com/insights/overseas-investment-act-update-door-opens-for-investor-visa-holders-buying-residential-land/) — Royal Assent 19 Dec 2025, in force by May 2026); other foreigners remain restricted; **confidence HIGH**.

**US (United States)** — ITIN via Form W-7 for non-residents (7 weeks normal / 9-11 weeks tax season, foreign passport stands alone as ID, [IRS W-7 instructions Dec 2024](https://www.irs.gov/instructions/iw7)); SSN only for residents/work-eligible; BoA / Chase / Wells Fargo / Citi accept ITIN+passport in person at most branches (state variance), HSBC US Premier (USD 75k AUM) and Charles Schwab International serve cross-border; non-residents file Form W-8BEN not W-9 to bank ([IRS NRA interest](https://www.irs.gov/individuals/international-taxpayers/nontaxable-types-of-interest-income-for-nonresident-aliens)); **trap**: FBAR/FinCEN 114 + Form 8938 reporting on foreign accounts for US persons; FinCEN BOI reporting applies ONLY to entities formed under foreign law and registered to do business in a US state — narrowed by the 26 Mar 2025 interim final rule and **made permanent by the final rule effective 14 Aug 2026 (91 FR 52508)**, which also exempts BOI of US-person beneficial owners and US-person company applicants and drops the FinCEN-ID update duty for US persons (2026 data, source Federal Register) ([Federal Register 2026-16576](https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/08/14/2026-16576/beneficial-ownership-information-reporting-requirement-revision); superseded interim rule: [2025-05199](https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/03/26/2025-05199/beneficial-ownership-information-reporting-requirement-revision-and-deadline-extension)); OBBBA signed 4 Jul 2025 made the USD 15M federal estate exemption permanent from 1 Jan 2026 (USD 30M MFJ, indexed from 2027 with 2025 base, [Tax Foundation](https://taxfoundation.org/research/all/federal/one-big-beautiful-bill-act-tax-changes/)) — non-resident aliens still capped at USD 60k US-situs estate exemption unless a treaty applies; **confidence HIGH**.

**ZA (South Africa)** — SARS Tax Reference Number required for residents and full non-resident registration via RAV01 (single point of truth from filing season 2025 per [SARS Non-Residents](https://www.sars.gov.za/individuals/tax-during-all-life-stages-and-events/tax-and-non-residents/)); Standard Bank / FNB / Absa / Nedbank all offer Non-Resident Rand Accounts (in-person preferred, POA possible), Standard Bank Offshore (Isle of Man) for non-resident wealth; HSBC SA retail closed 2025; FATCA broadly accepted, FNB historically more restrictive on US persons; **trap**: Exchange Control under SARB FinSurv — SDA R1M + FIA R10M per calendar year, FIA needs SARS TCS PIN ([SARB FinSurv FAQ](https://www.resbank.co.za/en/home/what-we-do/financial-surveillance/FinSurvFAQ)); Section 9H exit-tax on financial emigration including foreign property; *Edward Nathan Sonnenbergs Inc v Hawarden* [2024] ZASCA 90 (10 Jun 2024) — SCA REVERSED the High Court — buyer (not law firm) bears Business Email Compromise risk on conveyancing payments ([SAFLII](https://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZASCA/2024/90.html)); eDRS launched 1 Apr 2025 (Proclamation 250 of 2025, [gov.za](https://www.gov.za/news/media-statements/land-reform-and-rural-development-implements-electronic-deeds-registration)) but a 5-year dual manual/electronic period applies; load-shedding suspended since Mar 2025 with brief Feb 2025 Stage 6 episode ([Eskom](https://www.eskom.co.za/loadshedding-suspended-for-261-consecutive-days-resulting-in-year-on-year-diesel-savings-of-r16-46-billion/)); **confidence HIGH**.

**KE (Kenya)** — KRA PIN mandatory before opening any bank account or buying property (passport scan, foreign address, photo via iTax); KCB / Equity Bank / NCBA / Stanbic Kenya foreigner-friendly with passport + work/dependant permit + KRA PIN + Kenyan SIM, "introducer" reference often required for non-residents; FATCA accepted at all major banks, tax-residency self-certification on opening; **trap**: foreigners cannot own freehold agricultural land (max 99-yr leasehold per Constitution Art. 65), 30% Capital Gains Tax for non-residents on land sales; **confidence MEDIUM** (bank-by-bank policy variance, KRA PIN process documented but procedural).

**NG (Nigeria)** — TIN at the NRS (Nigeria Revenue Service, formerly FIRS) via TaxProMax for non-residents with property/business interests; GTBank NRN ([nrn.gtbank.com](https://nrn.gtbank.com/)) and Zenith Bank Diaspora ([zenithbank.com diaspora-banking](https://www.zenithbank.com/personal-banking/bank-accounts/diaspora-banking/)) offer remote opening with notarised foreign-passport bio-data + utility bill + 2 Nigerian-bank reference letters, Access Bank and First Bank similar; FATCA standard at all four; **trap**: CBN unified FX windows mid-2023, EFEMS launched 1 Dec 2024, FX Code 28 Jan 2025 ([CBN](https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2025/CCD/CBN_UPDATE_JANUARY_2025_EDITION.pdf)) — naira ₦1,429/USD end-2025 (7.4% YoY appreciation per [CBN BoP release](https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2025/CCD/CBN%20Release%20on%20BoP.pdf)) — but FX repatriation of property sale proceeds requires Certificate of Capital Importation (CCI) at time of inflow, no CCI = no exit; foreigner land ownership restricted to 99-yr leasehold under Land Use Act 1978; **confidence MEDIUM**.

**GH (Ghana)** — TIN at GRA (now subsumed into Ghana Card system since 2021); GCB Bank / Stanbic Bank Ghana / Ecobank Ghana / Fidelity Bank — Ghana Card (national ID, also issued to foreign residents) or passport + residence permit + utility bill; FATCA standard; **trap**: 2022 sovereign default + IMF Extended Credit Facility USD 3B (May 2023; concluded at the sixth and final review 27 Jul 2026, now a non-financing Policy Coordination Instrument; 5th review completed Dec 2025, [IMF PR 25/429](https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2025/12/17/pr-25429-ghana-imf-completes-the-fifth-review-under-the-ecf-arrangement)) — bank recapitalisation continuing through end-2025 with state-owned banks lagging private; cedi (GHS) volatile; foreigners cannot own freehold land (50-yr lease maximum under 1992 Constitution Art. 266); **confidence MEDIUM**.

**MU (Mauritius)** — Tax Identification Number (TAN) via MRA online for non-residents holding property; MCB / SBM Bank / AfrAsia Bank / HSBC Mauritius — most foreigner-friendly in the region, multi-currency (MUR / USD / EUR / GBP) accounts standard, in-person preferred but POA via local agent/lawyer accepted, USD 100k+ minimum balance for non-resident at HNW tiers ([Bank of Mauritius supervised banks list](https://www.bom.mu/financial-stability/regulated-financial-entities)); FATCA notably US-person-friendly via AfrAsia and SBM, HSBC Mauritius private-banking USD 500k minimum; **trap**: Mauritius EXITED FATF grey list Oct 2021 and EU high-risk list 7 Jan 2022 ([Bank of Mauritius release](https://www.bom.mu/media/media-releases/mauritius-exits-faft-list-jurisdictions-under-increased-monitoring-list)) — KYC documentation now substantially heavier than pre-2020 reputation suggests; FSC AML reform ongoing; **confidence HIGH** (regulator publishes in English, FSC + BoM transparent).

**SC (Seychelles)** — TIN at Seychelles Revenue Commission (SRC); ABSA Seychelles / Mauritius Commercial Bank Seychelles / Bank of Seychelles / Nouvobanq foreigner-friendly historically with passport + proof of address; FATCA accepted but documentation heavier post-2018 cleanup; **trap**: VASP Act in force 1 Sept 2024, mandatory licensing 31 Dec 2024 ([global-amlcft.eu](https://www.global-amlcft.eu/mauritius-aml-cft/) and Seychelles FSA); since 2025 mandatory SRC electronic platform registration + annual XML CRS/AEOI filings for non-resident account holders; foreigners need Sanction by Government to buy property (Immovable Property (Transfer Restriction) Act); **confidence MEDIUM** (small market, policy opaque vs. AU/CA, but English-language regulator).

**CV (Cabo Verde)** — NIF at Direção Nacional de Receitas do Estado for any property purchase; Caixa Económica de Cabo Verde / Banco Comercial Atlântico / BCN / Ecobank Cabo Verde — passport-based for non-residents, multi-currency CVE/EUR/USD accounts standard ([Caixa Económica de Cabo Verde non-resident](https://www.caixa.cv/non-residents/current-accounts?l=en)); FATCA accepted but US-person desk less mature; **trap**: CVE pegged 1 EUR = 110.265 CVE since 1999 backed by Portuguese Treasury credit facility ([BCL working paper 16](https://www.bcl.lu/en/publications/Working-papers/16/BCLWP016.pdf)) — peg has held but small-island banking sector is concentrated and PEP-screening can flag legitimate transfers; **confidence LOW** (small market, Portuguese-language regulator, sparse English documentation).

**RW (Rwanda)** — TIN at Rwanda Revenue Authority (RRA) online — same-day issuance for foreigners with passport + foreign address + Rwandan phone; Bank of Kigali Diaspora Banking and I&M Bank Rwanda online account opening ([imbank.com Rwanda diaspora](https://www.imbank.com/rwanda/diaspora/how-to-open-account/)) — passport + 2 photos + 1 reference, BK and Equity Bank Rwanda also foreigner-friendly; FATCA standard but US-person desk less mature; **trap**: small banking market means concentration risk and limited correspondent-banking choice; foreigners can hold freehold via emphyteutic lease (99-yr renewable); RWF managed-float — depreciation ~5-8% YoY against USD typical; **confidence MEDIUM** (modern digital onboarding, English-language regulator, but data not publicly indexed for cross-border banking — verify at [BNR](https://www.bnr.rw)).

**NA (Namibia)** — no income-tax-driven personal tax-ID detailed for the buyer (Namibia levies **no CGT on ordinary assets, no inheritance/estate/gift/wealth tax** per [PwC Namibia, 18 Dec 2025](https://taxsummaries.pwc.com/republic-of-namibia/corporate/other-taxes)); non-resident account-opening requires **passport + proof of address + source-of-funds** under the **Financial Intelligence Act, 2012** (KYC can be lengthy — Namibia's AML regime has been under heightened scrutiny; verify current FATF/ESAAMLG status at the [Financial Intelligence Centre](https://www.fic.na/) before assuming standard timelines); banks: **Bank Windhoek**, **First National Bank (FNB) Namibia**, **Standard Bank Namibia**, **Nedbank Namibia** — the four principal commercial banks, regulated by the [Bank of Namibia](https://www.bon.com.na/) ([BoN supervised institutions](https://www.bon.com.na/)); **FATCA posture: data not primary-verified this pass — verify per-bank; expat-arm fallback HSBC Expat Jersey**; hidden trap (the load-bearing one) is **NOT account-opening but exchange control**: the **NAD is pegged 1:1 to the ZAR inside the Common Monetary Area (CMA)** and **both are legal tender at par** — intra-CMA flows (NA ↔ ZA/LS/SZ) are *not* exchange-controlled, but flows **outside the CMA are exchange-controlled via Authorised Dealers** and non-resident **property-sale repatriation outside the CMA must be planned before purchase** (route incoming funds through an Authorised Dealer to preserve the outward channel; the exact forms are not publicly itemised — verify at [BoN Exchange Control](https://www.bon.com.na/Informations/FAQ/Exchange-Control.aspx)); many foreign buyers structure **cash purchases** to minimise local-lender involvement; **no CBI** (5-yr renewable Residence-by-Investment only); **confidence MEDIUM** (four banks + CMA exchange-control structure primary/central-bank-sourced; per-bank non-resident terms + US-person policy + FATF status not pulled this pass).

**BW (Botswana)** — non-resident account-opening typically requires **passport + proof of address + source-of-funds + reference documentation** under the **Financial Intelligence Act** AML regime (prepare apostilled documents); banks: **First National Bank Botswana (FNBB)**, **Absa Bank Botswana** (ex-Barclays), **Stanbic Bank Botswana**, **Standard Chartered Botswana**, **BBS Bank** — regulated by the [Bank of Botswana](https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/) ([BoB](https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/)); **FATCA posture: data not primary-verified this pass — verify per-bank; expat-arm fallback HSBC Expat Jersey**; hidden trap (the standout positive, not a friction): **all exchange controls were abolished 9 February 1999** ([BoB Milestones](https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/milestones)) — profits, rents, dividends and **full disinvestment proceeds are freely repatriable**, the load-bearing positive for foreign rental income + exit; the **BWP (Pula) is a crawling-band peg to a 50% ZAR / 50% SDR basket** (decided Dec 2024) with a **deliberate downward crawl (2.76% p.a. from 11 Jul 2025)** — a BWP asset held over years tends to lose value in ZAR/SDR/USD terms, so model the crawl into multi-year returns ([BoB Monetary Policy Report Oct 2025](https://www.bankofbotswana.bw/)); resident home-loan LTV runs high (FNBB advertises up to 100%, 105% first-time-buyer) but **non-resident mortgage terms are NOT documented at a primary source — do NOT transpose South African non-resident products; default to cash or confirm directly with FNBB / Absa Botswana**; **no operational CBI as of June 2026** (enabling Citizenship (Amendment) Bill 2025 passed Parliament 17 Dec 2025; threshold not yet set by government); **confidence MEDIUM** (five banks + 1999 exchange-control abolition + crawling-peg parameters primary/central-bank-sourced; per-bank non-resident terms + US-person policy not pulled).

### Reform calendar 2024-2026 (dated)

- **10 Jun 2024** — ZA — *Edward Nathan Sonnenbergs Inc v Hawarden* [2024] ZASCA 90 — SCA reversed High Court, buyer bears BEC risk on conveyancing wire transfers — [SAFLII](https://www.saflii.org/za/cases/ZASCA/2024/90.html)
- **1 Sept 2024** — SC — Virtual Asset Service Providers Act 2024 in force; mandatory VASP licensing deadline 31 Dec 2024 — [global-amlcft.eu Seychelles](https://www.global-amlcft.eu/mauritius-aml-cft/)
- **1 Dec 2024** — NG — CBN Electronic Foreign Exchange Matching System (EFEMS) launched after 2-week test — [CBN Update Jan 2025](https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2025/CCD/CBN_UPDATE_JANUARY_2025_EDITION.pdf)
- **2 Dec 2024** — GH — IMF Executive Board completed 3rd ECF review under USD 3B 36-month arrangement (May 2023) — [IMF PR 24/447](https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2024/12/02/pr-24447-ghana-imf-executive-board-completes-3rd-review-under-the-ecf-arrangement)
- **1 Jan 2025** — AU — FRCGW rate raised from 12.5% to 15%, AUD 750k threshold removed (applies to all property) — [ATO FRCGW overview](https://www.ato.gov.au/individuals-and-families/investments-and-assets/capital-gains-tax/foreign-residents-and-capital-gains-tax/foreign-resident-capital-gains-withholding/foreign-resident-capital-gains-withholding-overview)
- **13 Jan 2025** — US — FinCEN BOI initial filing deadline (post Fifth Circuit injunction-stay) for pre-2024 entities — [FinCEN](https://www.fincen.gov/boi)
- **28 Jan 2025** — NG — CBN Nigerian Foreign Exchange (FX) Code launched — [CBN Update Jan 2025](https://www.cbn.gov.ng/Out/2025/CCD/CBN_UPDATE_JANUARY_2025_EDITION.pdf)
- **16 Feb 2025** — AU — Treasury announced 2-year ban on foreign persons buying established dwellings 1 Apr 2025 – 31 Mar 2027 — [Treasury Ministers release](https://ministers.treasury.gov.au/ministers/clare-oneil-2024/media-releases/albanese-government-clamping-down-foreign-purchase)
- **26 Feb 2025** — ZA — Eskom load-shedding suspended after recovery of generation capacity (with brief Stage 6 22 Feb 2025) — [Eskom](https://www.eskom.co.za/loadshedding-suspended-for-261-consecutive-days-resulting-in-year-on-year-diesel-savings-of-r16-46-billion/)
- **1 Apr 2025** — AU — Foreign-person ban on established dwellings effective — [foreigninvestment.gov.au](https://foreigninvestment.gov.au/news-and-reports/news/changes-foreign-purchases-established-dwellings)
- **1 Apr 2025** — ZA — eDRS (Electronic Deeds Registration System) launched per Proclamation 250 of 2025 (5-yr dual manual/electronic period) — [gov.za](https://www.gov.za/news/media-statements/land-reform-and-rural-development-implements-electronic-deeds-registration)
- **26 Mar 2025** — US — FinCEN interim final rule narrowed CTA "reporting company" to FOREIGN entities only; domestic entities exempt; foreign filing deadline 25 Apr 2025 (superseded by the 14 Aug 2026 final rule) — [Federal Register 2025-05199](https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2025/03/26/2025-05199/beneficial-ownership-information-reporting-requirement-revision-and-deadline-extension)
- **30 Jun 2025** — ZA — SARS Notice of Non-Resident Tax Status now states qualifying basis (FE vs DTA); RAV01 single residency reference — [SARS Cease/Reinstatement](https://www.sars.gov.za/individuals/cease-to-be-an-sa-tax-resident-and-reinstatement-of-sa-tax-resident/)
- **4 Jul 2025** — US — One Big Beautiful Bill Act (OBBBA) signed; USD 15M federal estate/gift/GST exemption permanent from 1 Jan 2026, indexed from 2027 — [Tax Foundation OBBBA FAQ](https://taxfoundation.org/research/all/federal/one-big-beautiful-bill-act-tax-changes/)
- **1 Oct 2025** — CA — FINTRAC AML amendments in force: title insurers added as reporting entities; real-estate brokers must verify unrepresented parties; beneficial-ownership discrepancy reporting to Corporations Canada — [DLA Piper](https://www.dlapiper.com/en/insights/publications/2025/10/regulatory-updates-impacting-reporting-entities-under-canadas-aml-regime)
- **17 Dec 2025** — GH — IMF Executive Board completed 5th ECF review with programme extension — [IMF PR 25/429](https://www.imf.org/en/news/articles/2025/12/17/pr-25429-ghana-imf-completes-the-fifth-review-under-the-ecf-arrangement)
- **19 Dec 2025** — NZ — Overseas Investment Amendment Act received Royal Assent: AIP / Investor 1 / Investor 2 visa holders may buy residential property ≥ NZD 5M with OIO consent (~5 working days, NZD 2,040 / NZD 3,500 fees); in force by May 2026 — [Bell Gully](https://www.bellgully.com/insights/overseas-investment-act-update-door-opens-for-investor-visa-holders-buying-residential-land/)
- **31 Mar 2026** — AU — AUSTRAC Tranche 2 enrolment opens for real-estate professionals (agents, conveyancers, developers) — [AUSTRAC Tranche 2](https://www.austrac.gov.au/industry-and-business/about-amlctf-reforms/about-reforms)
- **1 Jul 2026** — AU — AUSTRAC Tranche 2 AML/CTF obligations live for real-estate sector — [AUSTRAC Tranche 2](https://www.austrac.gov.au/industry-and-business/about-amlctf-reforms/about-reforms)
- **14 Aug 2026** — US — FinCEN final rule adopts the CTA narrowing permanently (91 FR 52508, effective on publication); only entities formed under foreign law and registered in a US state report BOI; US-person beneficial owners / company applicants exempt; FinCEN-ID update duty dropped for US persons — [Federal Register 2026-16576](https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2026/08/14/2026-16576/beneficial-ownership-information-reporting-requirement-revision)
- **1 Jan 2027** — CA — Prohibition on the Purchase of Residential Property by Non-Canadians Act expiry (extended Feb 2024 from original 1 Jan 2025) — [Canada.ca](https://www.canada.ca/en/department-finance/news/2024/02/government-announces-two-year-extension-to-ban-on-foreign-ownership-of-canadian-housing.html)
- **30 Jun 2029** — AU — Foreign-buyer ban on established dwellings scheduled expiry (subject to extension) — [foreigninvestment.gov.au](https://foreigninvestment.gov.au/guidance/types-investments/residential-land)

### Confidence

**HIGH** for AU / CA / NZ / US / ZA / MU — regulators publish in English, primary-source URLs stable, reform timeline well-documented and recently enacted. **MEDIUM** for KE / NG / GH / SC / RW — bank-by-bank policy varies, KYC documentation requirements heavier and less standardised in published form, though primary regulators (CBN, BoG, BNR, SRC) do publish core rules in English. **LOW** for CV — small banking sector, Portuguese-language regulator, scarce non-resident-banking documentation in publicly indexed sources; verify directly at [Banco de Cabo Verde](https://www.bcv.cv) before relying on any specific bank-fee or process detail.

---

## LGBTQ+ & unmarried-partner joint title + co-borrower eligibility (at purchase)

Marital status and the law of *who can co-own and co-borrow* are separable. Across the corpus, **joint title is a property-law act, not a family-law one** — two unmarried or same-sex persons can almost always take title together. The friction sits elsewhere: (1) **lender** willingness to accept co-borrowers who aren't married to each other, and (2) the **protection** of the surviving / non-married partner, which is a succession question handled in `shared/notary-forced-heirship.md`, not here. This sub-section is *purchase-time eligibility only*.

⚠️ **Trap**: "we can both be on the deed" is not "the survivor is protected." Civil-law co-ownership has no default survivorship and no community-property regime for unmarried / same-sex cohabitants — each share passes by succession (forced-heirship + higher non-relative succession tax). Purchase-time fixes: elect the survivorship form where it exists (common-law joint tenancy), hold by fractional shares + a written cohabitation / declaration-of-trust, use a notary-structured usufruct / *tontine* clause in civil-law states, or register a civil partnership (FR PACS / UK civil partnership) where that unlocks spousal-equivalent treatment.

**TITLE side — generally YES everywhere:**

- **Common-law (US, CA, UK, IE, AU, NZ)** — joint tenancy (with survivorship) or tenancy-in-common, any two persons, no marriage required. Strongest path *if* the survivorship form is elected on the deed / TR1.
- **Civil-law (FR *indivision*, DE *Miteigentum*, ES/PT *copropiedad/compropriedade*, IT *comproprietà*, NL *gemeenschappelijk eigendom*, and the rest of the EU/EFTA corpus)** — co-ownership by fractional share is open to any two persons; no marital-status bar.
- **JP** — registered co-ownership (共有 *kyōyū*) open to unmarried / same-sex co-owners.
- **Restrictive markets (AE/UAE, SA, GCC)** — foreign freehold is zone-limited *regardless of couple type*, and title-registration in a designated freehold zone does not bar two co-purchasers — BUT same-sex relations are criminalised, so openly co-purchasing as a same-sex couple carries personal-legal exposure beyond the title mechanics. Proceed only with named local counsel; verify per-emirate at `--permits`.

**MORTGAGE side — unmarried / same-sex co-borrowers:**

- **JP — the documented positive case**: JHF **Flat 35** admits same-sex partners as joint-and-several co-borrowers (連帯債務者), income-combining party (収入合算), and co-owner of the financed property — for applications received on/after **4 Jan 2023** (announced 20 Dec 2022; requires a municipal partnership certificate or notarised pledge), couple group-life cover (デュエット) included ([flat35.com](https://www.flat35.com/topics/20221220.html) + [jhf.go.jp](https://www.jhf.go.jp/topics/topics_20221220.html), PRIMARY). Private JP banks' partner pair-loans exist lender-by-lender — verify the specific bank.
- **US** — ECOA + Fair Housing Act bar marital-status / sex discrimination in credit; unmarried and same-sex co-borrowers are standard.
- **UK, IE, FR, DE, ES, IT, PT, NL, AU, NZ** — joint mortgages for unmarried / same-sex co-borrowers are available in practice; lenders assess combined income + joint-and-several liability, not marital status (practice-level — confirm the individual lender's product terms).
- **AE/UAE, GCC** — no documented openly-same-sex co-borrower product; the penal / personal-status context makes openly-couple co-borrowing inadvisable. Treat as UNVERIFIED.

**EU cross-border note (recognition, not title):** CJEU **C-713/23** *Cupriak-Trojan and Trojan v Wojewoda Mazowiecki* (Grand Chamber, **25 Nov 2025**, [EUR-Lex CELEX 62023CJ0713](https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A62023CJ0713)) held that a member state must recognise a same-sex marriage lawfully contracted by its nationals in another member state during free-movement, without forcing states to introduce domestic same-sex marriage (builds on *Coman* C-673/16, 5 Jun 2018). This bears on a buyer's *recognition / residence* status, not the title or mortgage directly — but a recognised marriage can unlock spousal lender / notary treatment in some states. The UAE non-Muslim civil-status law (Federal Decree-Law No. 41 of 2022, in force 1 Feb 2023) is opposite-sex-only and does NOT enable same-sex marriage or joint title ([loc.gov GLM](https://www.loc.gov/item/global-legal-monitor/2023-03-13/united-arab-emirates-personal-status-law-for-non-muslims-enters-into-force/)).

**Scale**: marriage equality is in force in ~38 jurisdictions as of 2026 (Pew via [Our World in Data](https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/same-sex-marriage-country-count) counts "nearly 40"), most recently Thailand (in force 23 Jan 2025) and Liechtenstein (1 Jan 2025); a majority of UN states still do not recognise same-sex marriage. In non-recognising states the title-side co-ownership usually still works, but spousal-equivalent lender / notary / succession treatment does not — fall back to fractional shares + a written cohabitation agreement.

**Confidence**: MEDIUM-HIGH. JP Flat 35 (4 Jan 2023), CJEU C-713/23 (25 Nov 2025), UAE Decree-Law 41/2022 scope, and the 38-country count are PRIMARY / authoritative-sourced; common-law / civil-law title structure is well-established. Per-country *lender* practice (beyond US ECOA) is practice-level — confirm the specific bank's terms at purchase. **Last verified**: 2026-06-03.

---

## Visa-linked blocked-deposit / proof-of-funds (residence-permit stage)

Many residence/long-stay/student permits require the applicant to demonstrate maintenance funds — but there is a decision-critical split between a **blocked account** (the money is *frozen* in a designated account and released only in monthly tranches — a real liquidity lock you cannot spend on the purchase) and a one-time **proof-of-funds** (you only *show* a bank balance, funds stay accessible). The folklore "I just need to show €X" routinely collapses the two. This is the residence-permit financial gate that runs *alongside* the property purchase — distinct from the programme thresholds in `--visa` (`min_threshold`) and the mythologised-floor busting in `shared/visa-programs.md` § Reality-check.

⚠️ **Trap**: the figure is a **per-applicant floor reset yearly** (DE/AT/AU drift annually; re-verify each intake) — dependants add a per-head multiplier on top. A *blocked* account means that year's funds are gone from your liquidity until released monthly — budget it as committed, not available, when you also need closing cash. **EU/EEA/Swiss free-movers are exempt** from these means tests EU-wide.

**🟢 Blocked account — funds FROZEN, released in monthly tranches (a real liquidity lock):**

- **🇩🇪 DE — *Sperrkonto* (the canonical)** — students deposit **€11,904** for year 1 (= €992/mo, the BAföG *Förderungshöchstbetrag*); **Opportunity Card / *Chancenkarte*** job-seekers **€1,091 net/mo (~€13,092/yr)** — both *frozen before the visa issues*, then ~1/12 released monthly after arrival. Also applies to language-course / recognition / au-pair / training permits; self-employed prove funds via a business plan instead. A scholarship or *Verpflichtungserklärung* can substitute. Amount is BAföG-linked + reset yearly (re-verify after WiSe 2026/27). Providers: Fintiba / Expatrio / Coracle / Deutsche Bank — the [Auswärtiges Amt](https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/en/sperrkonto-388600) deleted its provider list in 2022 and makes no recommendation (page = the *mechanic*; the €992 amount sources to BAföG/BMBF). 2026.
- **🇳🇿 NZ — Funds Transfer Scheme (FTS), *conditional*** — NZ is proof-of-funds by default (show **NZD 20,000/yr** tertiary / NZD 17,000/yr school), **but** Immigration NZ imposes a genuine blocked account — the **ANZ-run FTS** — as an Approval-in-Principle condition on student applicants from **China, India, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Vietnam**: the maintenance sum is frozen in a designated NZ account and auto-released ~NZD 1,666/mo. ANZ is the sole recognised provider (no multi-provider ecosystem). [Immigration NZ — FTS](https://www.immigration.govt.nz/study/study-visas/funds-transfer-scheme/). 2026.

**🟡 Proof of funds — SHOWN, not frozen (funds stay accessible):**

- **🇦🇹 AT** — NAG settlement / student permits: monthly **§293 ASVG *Richtsatz*** — single **€1,308.39/mo**, couple **€2,064.12/mo**, +€201.88/child (2026, BGBl. II 263/2025); the financially-independent / pensioner permit (*Niederlassungsbewilligung – ausgenommen Erwerbstätigkeit*) requires **double** (€2,616.78/mo single). Shown via income / pension / savings / *Verpflichtungserklärung*; **foreign accounts accepted** (VwGH case law — no domestic account required). [BMI *Unterhaltsberechnung* brochure 2026](https://www.bmi.gv.at/312/files/broschuere_unterhaltsberechnung_publikation_a4_2026_converted_webbf.pdf).
- **🇨🇭 CH** — student residence permit (B/L) **CHF 21,000/yr**, shown via a confirmation from a FINMA-licensed bank; federal short-stay "sufficient means" CHF 100/day (CHF 30/day students, SEM). Cantonal — a minority of cantons *may* ask students to block a year of funds, but that is discretion, not uniform (Zurich + Geneva do not). [UZH guidelines](https://www.uzh.ch/en/studies/application/entry/guidelines.html) + SEM.
- **🇫🇷 FR** — long-stay **visitor** (VLS-TS *visiteur*, incl. retirees) **€1,477.93 net/mo (~€17,735/yr)** = net SMIC (2026); **student €615/mo**. Shown via bank statements / guarantor / pension / scholarship; a self-funded student *may* optionally use a bank-blocked-amount letter but it is one accepted option, not a requirement. [service-public.gouv.fr F302](https://www.service-public.gouv.fr/particuliers/vosdroits/F302).
- **🇨🇿 CZ** — long-stay/long-term visa (non-business): **15× the subsistence minimum** (3,130 CZK) for month 1 **+ 2×** per further whole month → **46,950 CZK** base (~78,250 CZK for 6 months); business visa **50× = 156,500 CZK** (Act 326/1999 Sb.; Govt Reg. 436/2022, confirmed unchanged for 2026). Shown via bank statement / payment card. [MoI — ipc.gov.cz](https://ipc.gov.cz/en/forms-and-documents/documents/proof-of-funds-for-the-residence-finances/).
- **🇮🇪 IE** — student (Stamp 2) **€10,000** for a one-year course (€833/mo; €6,665 for ≤8-month courses), effective 30 Jun 2025. Shown via bank statement; an **optional** education-bond pilot (≥€10,000 via TransferMate) is a genuine escrow alternative. Stamp 0 / retiree financial-independence tests are separate + case-by-case. [ISD — Student Finances](https://www.irishimmigration.ie/coming-to-study-in-ireland/what-are-my-study-options/a-fee-paying-private-primary-or-secondary-school/information-on-student-finances/).
- **🇦🇺 AU** — student (subclass 500) **AUD 29,710** living-costs floor (12 mo, from 10 May 2024, pegged to 75% of the minimum wage) + AUD 10,394 partner / AUD 4,449 child; parental-income alternative **AUD 87,856 (single) / 102,500 (with family)**. "Genuine access to funds" — must be accessible and explicitly **not** locked in investments (the opposite of a Sperrkonto). [legislation.gov.au — LIN 19/198 as amended by LIN 24/042, compilation 10 May 2024](https://www.legislation.gov.au/F2019L01366/latest/text).

**Honest tail**: most of the corpus has **no fixed published visa-funds floor** — the gate is a consular "sufficient means" judgement (case-by-case) or there is no proof-of-funds requirement at all. Where no figure is published, verify the specific consulate's current means requirement rather than quoting a number. These figures are per-applicant floors that drift yearly — re-confirm at the named authority before relying. Feeds the `--tco` move-budget one-time cash event (blocked deposits are committed, not spendable).

**Confidence**: HIGH for the 8 documented regimes (each amount primary-sourced to the immigration authority / foreign-ministry / statute + date-stamped 2026; built grounded-research → independent audit, which corrected the CH Geneva figure for the LASLP supersession of RIASI, AU's stale 60k/70k income alternative → 87,856/102,500, and the NZ mechanism → ANZ-run FTS conditional on six source countries). MEDIUM on the breadth of the honest tail + cantonal CH variation. **Last verified**: 2026-06-14.

---

## 7 universal mitigations

1. **Open the bank account BEFORE the property offer goes in, not after.** The "I'll get the account when I sign the deed" plan fails routinely — closing-day wire deadlines collide with 4-12 week non-resident onboarding windows. In FR / DE / ES / IT / SG / HK / SA / SE start the account-opening process before the offer is in (BR CPF, MX RFC, ES NIE can be obtained months ahead via consulate). Use HSBC Expat Jersey as a 2-week pre-arrival universal fallback for any country where the local bank rejects.
2. **Treat residency as a 4-axis credential, not a single status.** (1) Tax-residency for FATCA / CRS reporting; (2) immigration residency for visa-status; (3) tax-domicile for inheritance-tax exposure (UK FA 2025 / FR IFI / DE ErbStG / IT 24-bis); (4) banking-residency for KYC self-cert. Each axis has independent rules. A "permanent visa holder + non-tax-resident" combination unlocks accounts unavailable to tourists but blocks investment products available only to tax residents.
3. **For US persons: HSBC Expat Jersey is the floor; Charles Schwab International is the parallel rail.** Both accept US-tax-persons routinely; Schwab covers the US-side custody / brokerage / US-IRA gap; HSBC Expat covers the multi-currency current-account + international-mortgage gap. At HNW (USD 1M+ AUM), add a private-bank desk (Lombard Odier / LGT / Pictet / UBS WM). For US-tax-person buyers in EU mainstream retail (Sparkasse / Crédit Agricole / Banco Santander mass-market), expect refusal at the branch level — escalate to Premier-tier or international-clients desk before booking the trip.
4. **Verify "non-resident" account capability against the actual transactions you need.** A "non-resident yen account" in Japan looks like a solution but excludes overseas remittance + cash card + bill payments — useless for property closing. JP buyers wire from SG / HK on completion-day. Similar pattern: CH non-resident accounts often access-limited (no e-banking); CN UnionPay-only; SE samordningsnummer accounts no BankID/Swish. Test the bank's published non-resident-account capability matrix against your timeline before relying.
5. **Documents-from-abroad chain takes 4-12 weeks even in 2026.** Apostille (or HCCH Convention equivalent), sworn translation, courier, embassy authentication for non-EU passports — the documents-courier chain dominates the timeline more than the bank's own KYC. Plan for 8 weeks worst case from "decided to buy" to "account funded for closing" for any non-EU buyer using non-EU-source-of-funds documentation.
6. **Tax-Compliance Status / Tax Residency Certificate is the unlock for FX outflow in many regimes.** ZA SARS TCS PIN for FIA R10M; IN Form 15CA/15CB chartered-accountant cert for repatriation; NG CCI for property-sale-exit; AR ARCA fiscal-residency cert for USD purchase. In ES + PT + GR appoint a fiscal representative on day one, not on day 30 — penalty regimes for late appointment are standardised (ES Modelo 720 EUR 20-20,000 per data-point post-Law 5/2022; PT EUR 75-7,500).
7. **Re-verify regulator URLs and bank fee schedules within 30 days of decision-day.** This document's `Last verified: 2026-05-10`; bank fees + regulatory-watch items have a half-life of 90-180 days. The most volatile categories: TR KKM (terminated 23 Aug 2025), AR cepo (lifted 14 Apr 2025), HK CARF/CRS 2.0 (consultation through 6 Feb 2026), AU foreign-buyer ban (expires 31 Mar 2027 subject to extension), CA Prohibition Act (expires 1 Jan 2027), LB BdL Circulars 158/166 (renewed annually with revised caps), HSBC Malta sale (completion early 2027). Decision-makers should pull the bank's current fee schedule + the latest regulator notice before relying on any specific number here.

## Status

**Confidence**: HIGH for ~75 of 126 countries (named-bank policy published, regulator URL stable, reform timeline well-documented); MEDIUM for ~24 countries (pattern documented but bank-by-bank execution varies); LOW for ~5 countries (LB active crisis, AZ bank policy opacity, MV Dhivehi-first regulator, UZ ministerial-decree culture, CV small-market Portuguese-language regulator). Per-country confidence labels appear in each one-liner above.

**Last verified**: 2026-05-10 (FinCEN CTA/BOI reporting corrected 2026-09-18 — final rule effective 14 Aug 2026, 91 FR 52508; AU student-funds citation re-pointed to the in-force LIN 19/198 compilation; LC and TC FATCA IGA classification and in-force dates corrected 2026-09-18 per US Treasury IGA status table).

**Pairs strongly with**:
- `--finance` (mortgage availability + LTV cap + rates) — companion credit layer
- `--currency` (peg / FX volatility / capital controls) — what currency the account holds
- `--home-tax` (buyer-nationality tax overlay) — FBAR / Form 8938 / IFI / Modelo 720 / IVIE / T1135 / Quadro RW reporting on the account
- `--notary` (deed execution mechanisms) — funds-domiciliation requirement for closing
- `--remote` (POA / RON / e-conveyancing) — when account opening can use POA vs. in-person
- `--language` (apostille / sworn-translator) — documents-courier chain for foreign-source funds proof
- `--permits` (foreign-buyer property-purchase rules) — account is necessary-not-sufficient (AU/CA/NZ bans; MV freehold ban; NG/GH/KE leasehold caps)

**Methodology note**: researched via 6 parallel region agents (W1 Western Europe + EFTA + microstates + UK / W2 CEE + Western Balkans + Baltics + Caucasus / W3 MENA + GCC + Israel + Türkiye / W4 APAC + Central Asia / W5 LATAM + Caribbean / W6 Africa + Anglo-non-EU) — confidence labels per country honestly surfaced. Anti-hallucination posture: bank-specific minimum-balance + fee figures that could not be sourced to the bank's official site or a regulator within the research window were omitted rather than estimated. Cross-checked against primary regulators (CBUAE, SAMA, FINMA, BaFin, FCA, MAS, HKMA, PBoC, RBI, BoK, FSA Japan, CBN, SARB, FinCEN, ATO, CRA, BCRA, Receita Federal, etc.) and major secondary sources (Reuters, FT, Norton Rose Fulbright, Mayer Brown, DLA Piper, KPMG, EY where regulator URL not yet published the specific reform).