# Universal `--squatter` Section — Occupation Risk · Eviction Timeline · Adverse Possession for Absentee Owners

Foreign-buyer **squatter / occupation** layer: the risk that an absentee or second-home owner finds an occupied unit slow, expensive and legally constrained to clear — and, on unattended land, the risk that adverse possession / *usucapione* extinguishes title outright. Covers the occupation-risk types (squatting/*okupación* vs non-paying-tenant overstay vs adverse possession of land), the eviction timeline and process, anti-squatter fast-track eligibility, the self-help prohibition and owner liability, absentee-foreign-owner exposure, the adverse-possession/*usucapión* period, and seasonal eviction moratoria. Distinct from `--crime` (burglary/theft stats — this is lawful-but-adverse occupation), `--scams` (this is not fraud), `--rental` (yield/STR-zoning, not eviction-process risk), and `--notary`. This is the *can I actually get my property back, and can someone take title to it while I'm away* check.

**Snapshot**: May 2026.

**Scope**: this doc supplies the *occupation + adverse-possession* layer — the country-specific eviction timeline, anti-squatter fast-track eligibility, absentee-owner monitoring/insurance, and adverse-possession periods for land and buildings. It does **not** restate crime statistics (`--crime`) or transaction fraud (`--scams`). A foreign buyer typically needs three pieces of intel before the offer: (1) how long and how costly is eviction here if an occupier moves in, (2) is the property disproportionately exposed because it will sit empty, (3) can adverse possession extinguish title on unattended land and within what period.

## Universal contract

For the property's country, return:

1. **Occupation-risk types** present in the jurisdiction — squatting / *okupación* / informal occupation vs non-paying-tenant overstay vs adverse possession of unfenced land.
2. **Eviction timeline + process + realistic duration/cost** (ES desahucio/juicio verbal/okupa · IT sfratto · FR expulsion + commandement · UK Interim Possession Order · DE Räumungsklage · ZA PIE Act court order · US state UD).
3. **Anti-squatter fast-track + eligibility + status/date** (ES Ley Orgánica 1/2025 criminal juicio rápido · FR loi 2023-668 + CPCE L412-6 · UK LASPO 2012 s.144 residential-only · NL Kraakverbod 2010 · US 2024-25 state reforms e.g. FL HB 621).
4. **Self-help prohibition + owner liability** for lock-change / utility cut / belonging removal.
5. **Absentee/foreign-owner exposure** (empty second homes targeted; non-resident can't react in-country) + monitoring/insurance options.
6. **Adverse possession / usucapión / prescription period** for land + building (years; good/bad faith; registered vs unregistered; Torrens immunity where it applies).
7. **Seasonal moratorium** (FR trêve hivernale 1 Nov–31 Mar · PL okres ochronny · HU 15 Nov–30 Apr) + **Confidence** HIGH/MEDIUM/LOW.

## ⚠️ 7 cross-cutting traps

1. **Self-help is illegal almost everywhere — changing the locks or cutting utilities makes the OWNER liable.** Across every jurisdiction researched the route is the courts, not direct action; ZA PIE Act makes self-help eviction contempt, US lockout statutes penalise it, and an owner who acts unilaterally typically loses standing and incurs liability.
2. **Absentee and empty second homes are disproportionately targeted, and you cannot react in-country.** This is the structural foreign-owner exposure — the very profile this skill serves is the highest-risk one, and the mitigation (monitoring, caretakers, anti-okupa insurance) is contractual and pre-emptive, not reactive.
3. **This is lawful-but-adverse, not a crime stat and not fraud.** It is orthogonal to `--crime` (burglary) and `--scams` (fraud); the metric that actually matters is the *eviction timeline*, which ranges from weeks to several years and is the decision variable.
4. **Anti-squatter fast-tracks exist but are narrowly conditional.** Spain's Ley Orgánica 1/2025 (in force 3 Apr 2025) routes *allanamiento*/*usurpación* to a criminal *juicio rápido* but does NOT cover *inquiokupación* (defaulting tenants, still the slow civil track); France's loi 2023-668 and the 48-hour préfet route turn on the property being a *domicile*. Eligibility conditions decide everything.
5. **Adverse possession / *usucapione* can extinguish your title on unattended land.** India 12-year (Limitation Act 1963, s.27 extinguishes the owner's *right* itself — the classic NRI loss); Italy 20-year; South Africa 30-year; Brazil 5/10/15-year *usucapião*; and the clock frequently resets only on owner action (Kenya). Unfenced rural land bought and left is the acute case.
6. **Torrens / land-titles registration immunises many parcels from adverse possession — know whether yours is registered-title.** Singapore (LTA 1993), Malaysia (NLC — never recognised), registered land in Australia/New Zealand, Land Titles parcels in parts of Canada, and Torrens-registered Dominican Republic land are substantially immune; the residual exposure is old-system / unregistered land.
7. **Seasonal eviction moratoria suspend enforcement for months.** France's *trêve hivernale* (1 Nov–31 Mar), Poland's *okres ochronny* (1 Nov–31 Mar), Hungary's winter moratorium (15 Nov–30 Apr) — though true squatters (vs defaulting tenants) are often carved out, materially changing the absentee-owner calculus.

## Regional patterns + country one-liners

The six regional blocks below give the occupation-risk types, eviction timeline, fast-track eligibility, self-help/liability rule and adverse-possession period per country, with anti-hallucination flags surfaced honestly. Recent reform instruments are date-stamped (ES Ley Orgánica 1/2025; FR loi 2023-668; IT D.L. 48/2025 → L. 80/2025; US FL HB 621); Torrens immunity is stated where it applies; sparse jurisdictions carry `data not publicly available — verify` rather than fabricated periods.

## Western Europe + EFTA + microstates + UK

### Regional pattern

Lawful-but-adverse occupation risk for absentee/foreign owners splits into two distinct legal channels almost everywhere here: a fast-tracked criminal/administrative route against true squatters (entry by *voie de fait* / *okupación* / *kraken*) versus a slow civil route against defaulting or holding-over tenants — and 2023-2025 reforms (ES LO 1/2025, FR loi 2023-668, IT D.L. 48/2025→L. 80/2025) accelerate only the squatter side, never the defaulting-tenant side. Self-help (lock-change, utility cut, removing belongings) is barred in every jurisdiction and exposes the owner to criminal and civil liability. A *violent or clandestine* occupier generally cannot found acquisitive prescription/usucapión — the period runs only once possession becomes public, peaceful and owner-like — so the real absentee adverse-possession risk is unattended, unfenced, undeclared inherited land (acute in GR, material in IE, register-constrained in DE/AT/CH/Nordics), not active urban squats; empty urban 2nd homes are an eviction-cost/delay problem, not usually a title-loss problem. Only FR and LU operate a winter *trêve hivernale* (squatters of a *domicile* statutorily excluded in FR).

### Country one-liners

- **ES Spain** — Risk: two distinct tracks — (a) *okupación* of empty property: criminal *allanamiento de morada* (CP art. 202, if it's someone's dwelling) vs *usurpación* (CP art. 245, non-dwelling/empty 2nd home — minor offence, historically slow); (b) *inquiokupa* — non-paying or overstaying tenant (purely civil, NOT covered by the 2025 fast-track). Eviction: pre-reform *desahucio* / *juicio verbal* routinely **6 months–2+ years** (court backlog + vulnerability suspensions). Fast-track: **Ley Orgánica 1/2025, de 2 de enero** (de medidas en materia de eficiencia del Servicio Público de Justicia), in force **3 April 2025** — adds *allanamiento de morada* and *usurpación* to the *juicio rápido* (fast criminal trial) catalogue: accused before judge within 72h, trial within ~15 days, ruling within 3 days, eviction immediately after; burden shifts to occupant to prove a legal right; **post-judgment vulnerability re-assessment that previously stalled physical eviction is eliminated for this fast track**. The common premise "Spain's 2025 anti-okupa law lets you evict any squatter or non-paying tenant in 15 days" is wrong — LO 1/2025 does NOT speed up *inquiokupación* (defaulting/overstaying tenants), which stays in the slow civil *juicio verbal*; reform is criminal-track only. If a within-48h flagrancy report is made, police can remove squatters without a court order (flagrante delito) — but the 48h window is narrow and contested in practice (🟡 verify case-specific). Self-help: barred — lock-change / utility cut on an occupant exposes owner to *coacciones* (CP art. 172) and civil liability. Absentee: empty coastal/2nd homes are the canonical target; a private *seguro anti-okupa* / alarm-monitoring market exists (⚠️ insurer marketing, scope varies — read policy). Usucapión (Código Civil): for real property **10 years** with *buena fe* + *justo título* between present parties / **20 years** without title / **30 years** *extraordinaria*; an *okupa* with no title and clandestine/violent entry generally cannot found usucapión (possession not "pública, pacífica y en concepto de dueño"). Moratorium: no general winter truce, but vulnerable-occupant eviction suspensions have been repeatedly extended by RD-ley (status fluid — verify current RD-ley at boe.es). Sources: boe.es (LO 1/2025), Código Penal arts. 202/245, Código Civil arts. 1940-1959. **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **FR France** — Risk: *squat* (occupation sans droit ni titre — entry by *voie de fait*) vs *locataire défaillant* (defaulting/overstaying tenant — covered by an *expulsion* via *commandement de quitter les lieux* + *concours de la force publique*). Eviction (tenant route): *commandement de payer* → *assignation* → judgment → *commandement de quitter* → bailiff + préfet force — realistically **~12–24 months** including trêve hivernale. Squat route is now fast: *procédure administrative accélérée d'expulsion* — owner (or tenant) files with the **préfet**, who must rule within **48h**; if granted, forces de l'ordre evict **without a court judgment** (CCH; strengthened by **loi n° 2023-668 du 27 juillet 2023** "visant à protéger les logements contre l'occupation illicite", not 2022). loi 2023-668 also: criminalised squatting penalties up to **3 years + €45,000** (occupying another's domicile), created an offence for *maintien* after the squat, and reduced protections for defaulting tenants (*clause de résiliation de plein droit* mandatory, shorter délais). Self-help: strictly barred — *expulsion par voie de fait* by the owner is itself an offence (*violation de domicile* can run against the owner); utility cut / lock-change → owner criminal + civil liability. Absentee: a *résidence secondaire* left empty is the textbook squat target; the 48h préfet route was designed precisely for absentee owners (still requires proving ownership + that occupation is without title). Adverse possession: *prescription acquisitive* (Code civil) — **30 years** ordinary / **10 years** abrégée with *juste titre* + *bonne foi* (immovables); squatter possession that is clandestine/violent does not run (*possession utile* required: continue, paisible, publique, non équivoque). Moratorium: **trêve hivernale 1 Nov – 31 Mar** suspends tenant evictions — BUT **squatters are statutorily excluded**: **CPCE art. L412-6** (as amended by loi n° 2023-668) provides the sursis "ne s'applique pas lorsque la mesure d'expulsion a été prononcée en raison d'une introduction sans droit ni titre dans le domicile d'autrui à l'aide de manœuvres, de menaces, de voies de fait ou de contrainte" — i.e. a squat of a *domicile* can be cleared 1 Nov–31 Mar; the trêve still fully protects defaulting *tenants*. (2025-26 trêve: 1 Nov 2025 – 31 Mar 2026.) Sources: legifrance.gouv.fr (loi n° 2023-668 du 27 juillet 2023; CPCE art. L412-1/L412-6 LEGIARTI000047900053; CCH; Code civil arts. 2258 sqq.). **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **IT Italy** — Risk: *occupazione arbitraria* of a residential property (now a dedicated crime — **art. 634-bis c.p.**, "Occupazione arbitraria di immobile destinato a domicilio altrui", **2–7 years** imprisonment) vs *sfratto per morosità* (defaulting tenant — civil, slow) and *sfratto per finita locazione*. Eviction (tenant): *intimazione di sfratto* + *convalida* → if uncontested **~2–4 months**; contested / *graduazione* / officer-availability delays push to **6–12+ months or years**, with *proroga* of the executive date common. Fast-track: **D.L. 11 April 2025 n. 48 ("decreto sicurezza"), converted by Legge 9 June 2025 n. 80** — inserted **art. 634-bis c.p.** (in force 12 April 2025 on publication) AND **art. 321-bis c.p.p.** (art. 10 c.3 D.L. 48/2025), an accelerated reintegration-in-possession / sgombero route allowing rapid removal once occupation is reported. This is a **criminal**-track instrument tied to art. 634-bis (occupation of *altrui domicilio* by violence/threat/without title) — it is **not** a blanket 15-day civil eviction for any defaulting tenant; the separate 2026 *DDL rilascio immobili* aiming at a 15-day judicial release is **proposed, NOT yet law** (🟡 do NOT cite as in force). Self-help: barred — owner who re-enters by force / cuts utilities risks *esercizio arbitrario delle proprie ragioni* (art. 392 c.p.) + civil liability. Absentee: empty 2nd homes / inherited *immobili* are prime targets, esp. urban; private anti-occupation monitoring exists (⚠️ marketing). Usucapione (c.c. art. 1158 sqq.): real property **20 years** ordinary; **10 years** *abbreviata* with title transcribed + good faith; agricultural/mountain land shorter regimes. An *occupante abusivo* whose possession is *violenta o clandestina* cannot usucapt — the period runs only from when violence/clandestinity ceases and possession becomes public/peaceful (c.c. art. 1163). Moratorium: no fixed winter truce; the *graduazione degli sfratti* / prefect-set staggered enforcement calendar and periodic *blocco sfratti* decrees have historically delayed enforcement (status fluid — verify). Sources: normattiva.it (D.L. 11 Apr 2025 n.48; L. 9 Jun 2025 n.80; c.p. art. 634-bis; c.p.p. art. 321-bis; c.c. arts. 1158-1167), idealista.it / ecnews.it (⚠️ secondary, cross-checked). **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **UK United Kingdom** — Risk: residential vs commercial squatting differ sharply; also *trespasser* vs holding-over tenant. Eviction: **squatting in a residential building is a criminal offence — s.144 Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO), in force 1 Sept 2012** (max 51 weeks' imprisonment / level-5 fine) — police can arrest and remove; owner does NOT need a civil possession order for *residential* squats. **s.144 LASPO is residential-only** — squatting *commercial* premises (or land) remains a **civil** matter; the owner uses an *Interim Possession Order (IPO)* (CPR Part 55 II) — once served, squatters get 24h to leave and committing/remaining becomes a criminal offence pending the full hearing; standard possession claims otherwise take weeks–months. (Scotland: separate regime — no LASPO s.144 equivalent; squatting handled under Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865 + civil removing.) Self-help: owner may use reasonable force to *displace a trespasser* only where lawful and without breaching s.6 Criminal Law Act 1977 (using/threatening violence to enter premises where someone opposing entry is present is itself an offence) — in practice owners should use the IPO/police route, not self-help, to avoid liability. Absentee: empty homes targeted; "guardianship" (property-guardian) companies are the UK absentee-owner mitigation market (⚠️ commercial; licence-not-tenancy status itself litigated). Adverse possession: **Land Registration Act 2002, Sch. 6** — for **registered land**, a squatter must apply after **10 years** adverse possession; registered owner is notified and can object (defeats most claims) — squatter only succeeds in narrow conditions (e.g. reasonable belief of ownership for 10 years — *Brown v Ridley* [2025] UKSC clarified the 10-year reasonable-belief period need not be the 10 years immediately before application); **unregistered land** retains the old **12-year** Limitation Act 1980 regime. *Best v Chief Land Registrar* [2014] confirmed criminal squatting under s.144 does not by itself bar an adverse-possession claim. Moratorium: no seasonal truce. Sources: legislation.gov.uk (LASPO s.144; LRA 2002 Sch.6; Limitation Act 1980; Criminal Law Act 1977 s.6), Parliament research briefing SN00355. **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **NL Netherlands** — Risk: *kraken* (squatting) — criminalised nationwide. Eviction: under the **Wet Kraken en Leegstand** ("Kraakverbod"), in force **1 October 2010**, squatting is a criminal offence (up to **1 year** imprisonment; more with violence) — passed from civil to criminal courts; OM (prosecution) can clear, though courts have required a short notice/kort geding window before clearance in some cases (⚠️ verify current practice). A 2021 amendment (in force ~2022) further accelerated clearance (faster eviction timeline — verify exact date/instrument at wetten.overheid.nl). Squatters no longer acquire *bewoonersrecht* (right of habitation) after a year — that pre-2010 protection ended with the Kraakverbod. Self-help: barred — owner must use the criminal/judicial route, not force. Absentee: empty buildings are the target; the *antikraak* (anti-squat / property-guardian, *bruikleen*) market is large and the standard Dutch absentee-owner mitigation — guardians hold a *bruikleenovereenkomst*, not a lease (weaker occupant rights, but also a vacancy-deterrent for owners). Adverse possession (*verjaring*, BW): acquisitive prescription **10 years** with good faith (*te goeder trouw*, art. 3:99 BW) / **20 years** extinctive route (art. 3:105 BW after the owner's claim has prescribed at 20 yrs) — Dutch Supreme Court (*Gemeente Heusden* line) allows a bad-faith possessor to acquire via the 20-year route but exposes them to damages/restitution to the dispossessed owner. Moratorium: no seasonal truce. Sources: wetten.overheid.nl (Wet Kraken en Leegstand; BW arts. 3:99/3:105/3:306), Wikipedia (Dutch squatting ban — ⚠️ secondary, cross-checked). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **DE Germany** — Risk: *Hausbesetzung* (squatting — entering empty property is *Hausfriedensbruch*, StGB §123, prosecuted on owner complaint within 3 months) vs *Mietnomaden* (defaulting tenant who exploits civil eviction delay — informal term, not a separate legal category) vs holding-over tenant. Eviction: no self-help (`§ 858 BGB` *verbotene Eigenmacht*) — owner must file *Räumungsklage*; default judgment for non-paying non-responding tenant realistically **~4–6 months** (Cologne AG benchmark); contested / *Räumungsschutz* (§765a ZPO hardship) / bailiff scheduling stretch to **3–9+ months**, occasionally longer. The *Berliner Räumung* (eviction limited to handing over possession, leaving belongings) is the cost-saving enforcement variant. Squats: police can act faster on a fresh *Hausfriedensbruch* complaint if the occupation is recent and the owner complains promptly; an established occupation still typically needs the civil route. Self-help: strictly barred — lock-change/utility cut = *verbotene Eigenmacht* (§858/§859 BGB), owner liable to be put back in possession + damages. Absentee: empty inherited / 2nd properties targeted; private monitoring market (⚠️ marketing). Ersitzung: registered land — **Buchersitzung** (§900 BGB) **30 years** entered in Grundbuch as owner + possession; movables **10 years** (§937 BGB). Practically, adverse possession of titled real property against the Grundbuch owner is very hard (the register controls) — squatters do not acquire title in practice. Moratorium: no statutory winter truce (court may grant *Räumungsfrist*/Vollstreckungsschutz on hardship — discretionary, esp. winter/health, not a fixed calendar bar). Sources: gesetze-im-internet.de (BGB §§858/859/900/937; StGB §123; ZPO §765a), Tieben/MTH (⚠️ law-firm secondary, cross-checked). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **AT Austria** — Risk: defaulting/overstaying tenant (*Räumungsklage*) and squatting (rarer; *Besitzstörung* / *Hausfriedensbruch* StGB §109). Eviction: *Räumungsklage* before the *Bezirksgericht* then *Exekution* via *Gerichtsvollzieher* — uncontested ~ a few months, contested longer (~6–12 months est., court-dependent). A summary *Besitzstörungsklage* (ABGB §339, 30-day window from learning of the disturbance) is the fast tool against a fresh squat — it restores possession without deciding ownership. Self-help: barred — *eigenmächtige* re-entry exposes the owner to a *Besitzstörungsklage* by the occupant. Absentee: empty 2nd homes (Alpine holiday property) the target; monitoring market modest (⚠️). Ersitzung (ABGB §1460 sqq.): real property **30 years** ordinary / **3 years** for movables; *uneigentliche Ersitzung* (no title/good-faith) **30 years**; against the *Grundbuch* register practically very hard. Moratorium: no fixed winter truce; court may grant an *Aufschub der Exekution* on hardship. Sources: ris.bka.gv.at (ABGB §§339/1460-1477; StGB §109). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **CH Switzerland** — Risk: *Hausbesetzung* (squatting — historically tolerated in some cantons e.g. Geneva, now mostly cleared; entry = *Hausfriedensbruch*, StGB Art. 186) vs defaulting tenant (*Ausweisung/Exmission*). Eviction: where the lease has clearly ended and facts are undisputed, landlord uses the **summary procedure (*Verfahren in klaren Fällen*, ZPO Art. 257)** at the single judge — fast (weeks–a few months); disputed cases go to ordinary procedure (longer). Squatter clearance is cantonal — some cantons act quickly on owner complaint + clear *Hausfriedensbruch*. Self-help: barred — owner uses the *Ausweisung* / cantonal police route, not force. Absentee: empty chalets/2nd homes; Lex Koller restricts foreign 2nd-home ownership in the first place, so the absentee-foreign-owner squat exposure is structurally smaller. Ersitzung (ZGB): titled real property is *grundbuchlich* — **ordentliche Ersitzung Art. 661 ZGB 10 years** where someone is wrongly entered in the *Grundbuch*; **ausserordentliche Ersitzung Art. 662 ZGB 30 years** for unregistered land/owner-unknown via court; movables 5 years (Art. 728). Against a correctly registered owner, adverse possession is effectively unavailable. Moratorium: no seasonal truce. Sources: fedlex.admin.ch (ZGB Art. 661/662/728; ZPO Art. 257; StGB Art. 186). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **PT Portugal** — Risk: *ocupação ilegal/abusiva* (empty property — penalties for illegal occupation were aggravated by a law approved by Parliament **July 2025** — verify exact Lei n./date at dre.pt) vs *arrendatário* in default / holding over (civil). Eviction: the **Procedimento Especial de Despejo (PED)** via the **Balcão Nacional do Arrendamento (BNA)** — for rent default the BNA route averages **~2–6 months**; a contested court *ação de despejo* runs **6 months–2 years** (contestation, police involvement, suspension periods). Self-help: barred — owner must use the PED/judicial route; force/utility-cut exposes owner to liability. Absentee: empty inherited rural and Algarve/Lisbon 2nd homes targeted; the 2025 penalty increase responds to publicised absentee-owner cases. Usucapião (Código Civil arts. 1287 sqq.): immovables with registered title + good faith **10 years**; title without registration / no good faith up to **15** then **20 years**; possession that is *violenta ou oculta* only counts from when it becomes peaceful/public (art. 1297). Moratorium: no fixed winter truce; periodic legislative eviction-suspension measures have occurred (status fluid — verify at dre.pt). Sources: dre.pt / bna.mj.pt (RAU/NRAU PED; Código Civil arts. 1287-1300), idealista.pt (⚠️ secondary, cross-checked). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **SE Sweden** — Risk: defaulting/overstaying tenant or unlawful occupant — eviction (*avhysning*) is enforced by the **Kronofogden** (Enforcement Authority) on application; self-help eviction by the owner is illegal. Squatting as an organised movement is marginal; an unlawful occupant is removed via Kronofogden after a *betalningsföreläggande/handräckning* or court order — timeline typically a few months (court/agency-dependent, verify). Self-help: barred (Kronofogden monopoly on enforced eviction). Absentee: low squat exposure relative to S. Europe; empty *fritidshus* rarely occupied adversely. Adverse possession (*hävd* / *urminnes hävd*; Jordabalken): acquisitive prescription is restrictive — Sweden largely abolished classic adverse possession of registered land; historical *hävd* periods existed (cf. Nordic *hævd* 20-yr tradition) but modern registered title is strongly protected — practical squatter title acquisition is effectively unavailable; precise statutory position `data not fully publicly verified — verify at riksdagen.se Jordabalken`. Moratorium: no seasonal truce. Sources: kronofogden.se, government.se, Jordabalken (to verify). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **FI Finland** — Risk: defaulting/overstaying tenant; eviction (*häätö*) via the District Court then enforcement by the *ulosottoviranomainen* (enforcement authority/bailiff). Timeline typically a few months for an uncontested default (court/agency-dependent — verify). Self-help: barred — bailiff-enforced only. Absentee: low adverse-occupation exposure; empty *mökki* (summer cottages) rarely squatted. Adverse possession: Finland does **not** have classic adverse possession of registered land in the common-law sense — the land register/title system controls; historical *nautinta*/usucaption concepts are not a practical route to defeat a registered owner; `process direction HIGH; adverse-possession specifics not fully publicly verified — verify at finlex.fi (Maakaari)`. Moratorium: no seasonal truce; court/enforcement can grant a short postponement on hardship. Sources: oikeus.fi (enforcement), finlex.fi (Maakaari — to verify). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **NO Norway** — Risk: defaulting/overstaying tenant (*utkastelse*) via the *namsmann* (enforcement officer) under *tvangsfullbyrdelsesloven*; squatting marginal. Timeline a few months typical for uncontested (verify). Self-help: barred — *namsmann* enforced. Absentee: low; empty *hytte* (cabins) rarely occupied adversely. Adverse possession (*hevd*, *hevdsloven* 1966): real property **20 years** in good faith (*aktsom god tro*); shorter (10 yr) for some limited rights / longer where claimant should have known; the Norwegian Code 1688 already contained a *hævd* provision (Nordic tradition). A possessor whose entry was clearly unlawful/known generally fails the good-faith test. Moratorium: no seasonal truce. Sources: lovdata.no (hevdsloven; tvangsfullbyrdelsesloven), Wikipedia (Nordic hævd — ⚠️ secondary). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **DK Denmark** — Risk: defaulting/overstaying tenant (*udsættelse*) via the *fogedret* (bailiff's court); the *fogedforbud* (interim prohibitory injunction) is the fast tool to stop an ongoing unlawful occupation/disturbance. Squatting marginal (historical *Ungdomshuset* aside). Timeline: *fogedret* eviction typically weeks–a few months; *fogedforbud* faster (interim). Self-help: barred — *fogedret* enforced. Absentee: low; *sommerhus* (summer houses) have separate ownership/residency rules but adverse occupation is rare. Adverse possession (*hævd*, Danske Lov 5-5-1, tradition from Jyske Lov 1241, standardised to **20 years** in 1547 and carried into the Danske Lov 1683, still in force): real property **20 years** continuous, unchallenged, owner-like possession (*alderstidshævd* for longer/immemorial). A clandestine/violent or clearly-mala-fide occupant's possession is not "uforstyrret" and generally does not found *hævd*. Moratorium: no seasonal truce. Sources: retsinformation.dk (Danske Lov 5-5-1), Wikipedia (Danish hævd history — ⚠️ secondary, cross-checked against Danske Lov tradition). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **IS Iceland** — Risk: defaulting/overstaying tenant; eviction enforced by the *sýslumaður* (district commissioner) / *fógeti* (bailiff). Squatting essentially negligible (small population, low vacancy in occupied areas). Timeline: a few months typical (verify). Self-help: barred — bailiff-enforced. Absentee: very low adverse-occupation exposure. Adverse possession (*hefð*, Lög um hefð nr. 46/1905): real property **20 years** continuous good-faith possession; movables 10 years. A mala-fide/clandestine occupant generally cannot acquire by *hefð*. Moratorium: no seasonal truce. Sources: althingi.is (Lög um hefð nr. 46/1905). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **IE Ireland** — Risk: *trespasser* (squatter in empty property) vs overholding tenant. Eviction: owner must use the courts — **no lawful self-help / forcible removal / lock-change**; possession is obtained via Circuit/High Court possession proceedings (or ejectment). Squatting itself is generally a civil trespass, not a standalone crime (criminal trespass under the Criminal Justice (Public Order) Act 1994 is narrower / behaviour-based). Timeline: court-dependent, typically months; contested longer. Self-help: barred (forcible re-entry exposes owner to liability + Prohibition of Forcible Entry and Occupation Act 1971 nuances cut both ways). Absentee: empty inherited rural houses are the classic Irish adverse-possession risk for absentee/diaspora owners. Adverse possession: **12 years** continuous, exclusive, adverse possession (Statute of Limitations 1957, s.13) — registered land via Tailte Éireann application; the absentee-owner exposure here is real and well-documented (inherited land left unmanaged). Moratorium: no seasonal truce (a temporary COVID-era and a 2023 short-term tenant-eviction winter moratorium applied to **tenancies**, now ended — does not apply to trespassers; verify current status). Sources: irishstatutebook.ie (Statute of Limitations 1957 s.13; Forcible Entry Act 1971), tailte.ie. **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **GR Greece** — Risk: *αυθαίρετη κατάληψη* (unlawful occupation/trespass) and overholding tenant; the strong, well-documented risk for absentee/foreign owners is **adverse possession (*χρησικτησία* / "hrisiktisia")** on unregistered or poorly-documented land (very common in Greece pre-Cadastre). Eviction: owner files a *διεκδικητική αγωγή* (vindicatory action) / *αγωγή έξωσης* (eviction) before the Greek courts — there is **no lawful self-help**; civil proceedings are slow (months–years, court-backlog-dependent — verify). Self-help: barred. Absentee: **high** — diaspora/foreign owners of inherited Greek land are the textbook *χρησικτησία* victims; an occupant cultivating/fencing unattended land for the period can claim title. Adverse possession (*χρησικτησία*, Astikos Kodikas): **έκτακτη (extraordinary) 20 years** uninterrupted possession (no title/good faith needed) / **τακτική (ordinary) 10 years** with good faith + just title; against the State longer. The ongoing **Εθνικό Κτηματολόγιο** (National Cadastre) rollout is reducing — but has not eliminated — this exposure (deadlines to declare rights; missing declarations risk loss). Moratorium: no seasonal truce; periodic legislative eviction/auction suspensions have occurred (status fluid — verify). Sources: Astikos Kodikas arts. 1041-1054, ktimatologio.gr, greeklawyersonline.gr / greekusalawyers.com (⚠️ law-firm secondary, cross-checked). **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **LU Luxembourg** — Risk: defaulting/overstaying tenant (*expulsion* via *justice de paix*) and squatting (occupation sans titre). Eviction: judgment from the *juge de paix* then bailiff (*huissier*) enforcement; timeline typically months (court-dependent — verify). A 2024 housing-law package reformed tenancy/eviction procedure (verify exact loi/date at legilux.public.lu). Self-help: barred — *voie de fait* by owner is unlawful (huissier-enforced only). Absentee: modest market; cross-border (FR/BE/DE) owners common but adverse-occupation exposure low. Adverse possession (Code civil, French-derived): *prescription acquisitive* **30 years** ordinary / **10 years** abrégée with *juste titre* + *bonne foi*; clandestine/violent possession does not run. Moratorium: **trêve hivernale** — Luxembourg applies a winter eviction-suspension period (commonly **1 Nov – 31 Mar / 1 Apr**, mirroring the French model; verify exact dates + squatter-exclusion at legilux.public.lu). Sources: legilux.public.lu (Code civil arts. 2262 sqq.; loi sur le bail à loyer). **Confidence**: MEDIUM.

- **CY Cyprus** — Risk: overholding tenant + adverse-possession exposure on inherited/foreign-owned land (a known issue, partly tied to title-deed backlog). Eviction: Rent Control Court / District Court possession orders then enforcement — slow (months–years; Cyprus court backlogs are well-documented — verify). Self-help: barred (court-order route). Absentee: foreign/expat-heavy market (UK, Russia); empty 2nd homes and undelivered-title-deed situations create exposure (distinct from squatting per se). Adverse possession (Limitation/immovable property regime, English-derived + statute): commonly cited at **~30 years** for immovable property against a private owner (and shorter where there is a registered interest dispute) — but the title-deed and Land Registry regime materially constrains it; `adverse-possession period and eviction timeline not precisely verified — verify at portal.dls.moi.gov.cy (Cap. 224 Immovable Property Law)`. North Cyprus (TRNC) is a separate, internationally-unrecognised legal regime with its own (disputed, higher-risk) property/occupation rules — out of scope here; flag to any buyer. Moratorium: no clearly-documented seasonal truce — `data not publicly available — verify at moi.gov.cy/dls`. Sources: Cap. 224 Immovable Property (Cyprus) Law (un-verified period), cylaw.org. **Confidence**: LOW.

- **MT Malta** — Risk: overholding tenant (Malta's pre-1995/post-1995 lease regimes + the long-running protected-lease/constitutional-rent saga make recovering possession from legacy tenants notoriously hard) more than classic squatting. Eviction: Rent Regulation Board / civil courts; legacy protected leases can be effectively unrecoverable for years (a recurring ECtHR-litigated Maltese issue) — modern leases follow ordinary civil eviction (months–years, court-dependent — verify). Self-help: barred (court route). Absentee: foreign-buyer-heavy (AIP permit market); the practical absentee risk is acquiring a property burdened by a legacy protected tenant, not street squatting. Adverse possession (Civil Code, Code of Organization and Civil Procedure): *acquisitive prescription* for immovables commonly **30 years** (and **10 years** with just title + good faith between present/absent parties) — `legacy-lease risk HIGH-relevance but prescription period/articles not precisely verified — verify at legislation.mt (Cap. 16 Civil Code)`. Moratorium: no clearly-documented seasonal truce — `data not publicly available — verify at justice.gov.mt`. Sources: legislation.mt (Civil Code Cap. 16), ECtHR Maltese protected-lease judgments (context). **Confidence**: LOW.

- **LI Liechtenstein** — Risk: minimal — tiny, high-control jurisdiction; defaulting/overstaying tenant handled via the *Landgericht* then enforcement. Squatting essentially negligible. Self-help: barred (court/enforcement route, ABGB-derived like Austria). Absentee: foreign real-property acquisition is tightly restricted (Grundverkehr), so absentee-foreign-owner squat exposure is structurally near-zero. Adverse possession: Liechtenstein private law derives from Austrian ABGB — *Ersitzung* of immovables **30 years** (3 years movables) by derivation; against the *Grundbuch* practically very hard; `most specifics not separately publicly verified — verify at gesetze.li (ABGB / SR)`. Moratorium: none documented. Sources: gesetze.li (SR/ABGB — un-verified specifics). **Confidence**: LOW.

- **AD Andorra** — Risk: low — small jurisdiction; defaulting/overstaying tenant via the *Batllia* (courts); squatting negligible. Self-help: barred (court route — Andorran civil procedure). Absentee: foreign property acquisition is regulated (residency/investment-linked); empty 2nd homes exist but organised squatting is not a documented Andorran phenomenon. Adverse possession (Andorran civil law, Catalan/Roman-derived; Llei applicable): *usucapió* of immovables commonly cited around **30 years** extraordinary / shorter with title + good faith, by derivation from Catalan/Roman tradition — `exact period not separately publicly verified — verify at bopa.ad / Codi / Llei de l'usucapió`. Moratorium: none documented. Sources: bopa.ad (un-verified specifics). **Confidence**: LOW.

- **MC Monaco** — Risk: very low — defaulting/overstaying tenant via the *Tribunal de première instance* / *juge de paix*; among the world's most controlled property markets, organised squatting is not a documented phenomenon. Self-help: barred (French-derived civil procedure; *voie de fait* unlawful). Absentee: ultra-high-value, heavily-managed buildings; concierge/security density makes adverse occupation impractical — exposure effectively negligible. Adverse possession (Code civil monégasque, French-derived): *prescription acquisitive* **30 years** ordinary / **10 years** abrégée with *juste titre* + *bonne foi* by derivation — `exact articles not separately publicly verified — verify at legimonaco.mc`. Moratorium: French-style winter truce possible by derivation but `not separately verified — verify at legimonaco.mc`. Sources: legimonaco.mc (un-verified specifics). **Confidence**: LOW.

- **SM San Marino** — Risk: very low — small jurisdiction; defaulting/overstaying tenant via San Marino courts; squatting not a documented phenomenon. Self-help: barred. Absentee: foreign acquisition restricted; minimal exposure. Adverse possession (San Marino private law — Italian/common-law-of-statutes tradition, *usucapione*-style): immovables commonly cited around **20–30 years** by derivation from the Italian tradition — `exact period not separately publicly verified — verify at official San Marino legislative source (consigliograndeegenerale.sm / sm legislative gazette)`. Moratorium: none documented. Sources: San Marino legislative source (un-verified specifics). **Confidence**: LOW.
- **BE Belgium** — Risk: squatting (*krakers* / *squat*) + non-paying-tenant overstay. Eviction via the Juge de Paix / Vrederechter; a criminal anti-squat route exists since the **loi du 18 octobre 2017** (*violation de domicile* / huisvredebreuk, penalising occupation of another's property — Moniteur belge). Self-help (lock-change / utility cut) barred; owner must use the courts. Absentee empty-second-home exposure moderate. Adverse possession: *usucapion* 30 yr ordinary / 10 yr good-faith + just title (Code civil art. 2229 ff.). Regional winter eviction-protection variation (Flanders / Wallonia / Brussels). Procedural timelines + Regional specifics: data not publicly available — verify at primary source (SPF Justice / Moniteur belge). **Confidence**: LOW.

### Confidence

HIGH on the load-bearing 2023-2025 reform instruments and dates (ES LO 1/2025 scope, FR loi 2023-668 + CPCE L412-6 trêve-exclusion, IT D.L. 48/2025→L. 80/2025 art. 634-bis, UK s.144 LASPO + LRA 2002 Sch.6, IE 12-yr, GR χρησικτησία 20/10-yr) and on the universal self-help bar. MEDIUM on eviction-month ranges (court-dependent, often benchmarked to one court) and on NL/DE/AT/CH/PT/Nordic adverse-possession specifics. LOW by design for CY/MT (substantive risk is legacy protected tenants / title-deed, not squatting) and the microstates AD/MC/SM/LI (squatting not a documented phenomenon; prescription periods derived-by-tradition and flagged `verify at <official source>`). Nordic SE/FI adverse-possession specifics LOW (registered-title systems strongly protect the owner; precise Jordabalken/Maakaari position not fully publicly verified); NO/DK/IS retain a clearer ~20-yr *hevd/hævd/hefð* good-faith tradition.

## CEE + Western Balkans + Baltics + Caucasus

### Regional pattern

The universal post-socialist baseline: self-help eviction (lock-change, utility cut-off, removing belongings) is unlawful everywhere — the owner must obtain a court title and enforce via a state bailiff/court-executor, and a self-helping landlord risks criminal liability (coercion / unlawful interference with possession) plus civil damages. In every civil-law jurisdiction below a tenant/lessee holds derived (precarious) possession and cannot run the adverse-possession clock against the landlord — the clock is a risk from trespassers / colour-of-title holders / boundary encroachers, not from your own tenant. Acquisitive-prescription periods are precisely confirmed for the EU members (PL 20/30, CZ/SK/SI/LT/RS 10, HR 10/20, HU 15/5, BG 5/10, RO 10/30) but UNCONFIRMED — and explicitly not fabricated — for EE, LV, ME, BA (entity-split), MK, AL, GE (US-state collision), MD, AM, AZ. Only PL (1 Nov–31 Mar) and HU (15 Nov–30 Apr, with a squatter carve-out) have explicit statutory winter eviction bans; for every other country a found "none" is recorded as `data not publicly available — verify` rather than asserted. The strongest at-signing absentee mitigants are CZ/RO/PL lease structuring (notarial enforceable deed, registered fixed-term lease = titlu executoriu, occasional/institutional lease) and HR's "urgent" classification of ownership eviction claims.

### Country one-liners

- **PL Poland** — Risk: (a) non-paying tenant under *ochrona praw lokatorów* (Tenant Protection Act, ust. o ochronie praw lokatorów 2001), (b) *bezumowne korzystanie* (occupant without title), (c) *zasiedzenie* of land/building by a trespasser. Eviction: *eksmisja* via civil court judgment; court frequently must rule whether the occupant is entitled to a *lokal socjalny* (social/replacement dwelling) — if entitled, the municipality must provide it and the bailiff cannot proceed until it does, the principal cause of multi-year delay; realistic end-to-end 1–3 yr+. Fast-track: *najem okazjonalny* / *najem instytucjonalny* (occasional / institutional lease with notarial voluntary-submission-to-enforcement + named alternative address) bypasses the social-housing bottleneck — strongest practical mitigant; only available if structured at lease signing. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate-high exposure — slow bailiff queue + winter ban; recommend a local property manager + remote-managed *najem okazjonalny* + filed criminal notice for genuine trespass. Adverse possession (*zasiedzenie*, Civil Code art. 172–176): **20 yr good faith / 30 yr bad faith**, good faith presumed (rebuttable); tenant cannot run the clock. Moratorium: winter protection (*okres ochronny*) **1 Nov–31 Mar** — no eviction "to the street"; bailiff may not execute unless the person has a guaranteed alternative dwelling/shelter; lease termination + judgment still proceed, only physical removal is frozen until 1 Apr. 2025 amendment capped rent rises ~5%/yr and removed some municipal replacement-housing duties (renovation/demolition terminations). Sources: time2home.pl, pcpr.info, kancelariasledcza.pl, landager.com; dudkowiak.com, wozniaklegal.com, klodzinskikancelaria.pl. **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **CZ Czech Republic** — Risk: holdover/non-paying *nájemce* (lessee under Civil Code §2235+), unlawful occupant, *vydržení* by a good-faith possessor. Eviction: traditionally an *žaloba na vyklizení* (action to vacate) → judgment ordering vacation within a set period → bailiff enforcement; historically slow. Fast-track: TWO 2025 accelerants — (1) a *notářský zápis se svolením k vykonatelnosti* (notarial deed with consent to direct enforcement) signed with the tenant at/during lease = enforceable eviction title without a merits trial; (2) statutory *eviction order* (*příkaz k vyklizení*) bill in force **1 Jul 2025** — materially shortens the path vs. full lawsuit. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate — exposure drops sharply if the 2025 notarial-deed tool is used at signing; otherwise budget a contested vacation suit. Adverse possession (*vydržení*): **10 yr** continuous, good-faith (lawful) possession of real estate; boundary/unregistered-land encroachment is the classic CZ fact pattern. Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban (unlike PL/HU). Sources: ceelegalmatters.com (CZ Real Estate 2025), bnt.eu (eviction order), advokatky.cz, eversheds-sutherland.com (boundary/adverse possession). **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **SK Slovakia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying *nájomca* (Civil Code 40/1964 Zb. §663+), unauthorized occupant, *vydržanie* by good-faith possessor. Eviction: landlord may terminate only on statutory grounds (rent >1 month overdue, lease breach, unauthorized sublet); unauthorized occupation → owner sues for *vypratanie* (vacation) by court order; process commonly several months to longer if contested. Fast-track: no PL-style occasional-lease regime as prominent; notarial enforceable-deed practice exists generally. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; local manager + early notarial enforcement clause advised. Adverse possession (*vydržanie*): **10 yr** for real estate by a bona-fide possessor; since **May 2021** a special court procedure governs registration (possessor must first prove ~10-yr bona-fide possession; interested parties may object) — reduced the prior notary-based route's abuse risk. Moratorium: no general statutory winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Občiansky zákonník 40/1964 Zb. (slov-lex.sk)`. Sources: bnt.eu (Slovak real estate new rules), zakonypreludi.sk (40/1964), ceelegalmatters.com (SK Real Estate 2025). **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **SI Slovenia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying *najemnik*, unlawful occupant, *priposestvovanje* by a good-faith owner-possessor. Eviction: court action → *izselitev / deložacija* enforced via court executor; Land Register trust principle (*načelo zaupanja v zemljiško knjigo*) makes registered title robust against off-register claims. Fast-track: no specific anti-squatter fast-track documented — `data not publicly available — verify at Stvarnopravni zakonik (SPZ) & Stanovanjski zakon (SZ-1)`. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; off-register/boundary risk is the main adverse-possession vector since registered title is well-protected. Adverse possession (*priposestvovanje*, SPZ art. 43): **10 yr** for immovables by a *dobroverni lastniški posestnik* (good-faith owner-like possessor); a tenant explicitly **cannot** acquire (knows it is not theirs); public/extra-commercial property excluded. Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Stanovanjski zakon SZ-1`. Sources: zakonodaja.com (SPZ 43. člen), data.si, odvetnicasibila.si, iclg.com (SI Real Estate 2026). **Confidence**: HIGH on adverse possession; MEDIUM on eviction-duration / fast-track / moratorium specifics.

- **HR Croatia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying *najmoprimac*, unlawful occupant, *dosjelost* (regular vs extraordinary). Eviction: ownership-based *tužba za iseljenje* (eviction claim) is treated as **urgent**; a granted condemnatory judgment orders vacation within **15 days** under threat of enforcement; if ignored → *ovršni postupak* (enforcement) for forced eviction (*deložacija*) via court. Fast-track: the "urgent" classification of ownership eviction claims is itself the accelerant; no separate anti-squatter statute identified. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; ECtHR case-law (Radomilja, Jakeljić v. Croatia) shows historical adverse-possession exposure on long-unsupervised land — absentee owners of rural/coastal land should physically monitor. Adverse possession (*dosjelost*, Property Act / Zakon o vlasništvu): **10 yr regular** (*redovna* — with valid legal basis, good faith) / **20 yr extraordinary** (*izvanredna* — no valid basis, uninterrupted possession). Note 8 Oct 1991 repeal of the Yugoslav bar on adverse possession of formerly socially-owned property → live restitution/ownership disputes persist. Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Ovršni zakon (zakon.hr/z/74)`. Sources: imperium-immobiliare.hr, katastor.hr, zakon.hr (Ovršni zakon z/74), ECtHR Radomilja/Jakeljić v. Croatia. **Confidence**: HIGH on adverse possession + eviction-urgency; MEDIUM on moratorium.

- **HU Hungary** — Risk: (a) holdover after fixed-term lease expiry, (b) *önkényes lakásfoglaló* (arbitrary occupant — moved into an empty unit with no title), (c) *elbirtoklás* by a possessor. Eviction: *kilakoltatás* via court → bailiff (*végrehajtó*). Fast-track / KEY ABSENTEE POINT: the winter moratorium **does NOT apply to property occupied unlawfully** (önkényes), nor where the obligor was previously fined for contempt — i.e. a true *squatter* can be removed even in winter (a materially better position for absentee owners facing true trespass than PL), but a former-tenant holdover generally cannot. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate — unlawful-occupier carve-out helps the squatter case; holdover-tenant case still hits the winter freeze. Adverse possession (*elbirtoklás*, 2013 Civil Code / Ptk. **§ 5:44**): general period **15 yr** for real property by continuous possession "as one's own" — the Ptk. **does NOT require good faith** for the general 15-yr clock (the rationale is the registered owner's prolonged indifference, not the possessor's belief), which makes Hungarian absentee non-monitoring *more* dangerous than e.g. SI/LT for the trespasser/encroacher scenario; a **shorter 5-yr** *jogcímes* (title-based) elbirtoklás applies where the possessor took the property under a written contract that would have supported registration (formality defect) and paid the consideration. Pre-existing registered encumbrances are NOT extinguished by elbirtoklás (Ptk. § 5:44(2)). Tenant's derived possession still excluded. Moratorium: winter eviction moratorium **15 Nov–30 Apr** (in the legal system since 2003, NOT the Polish 1 Nov–31 Mar window — the two must not be conflated); during it only physical eviction of *lawful-occupier* cases is postponed — lease termination, clearance proceedings and auction continue; unlawful-occupier evictions proceed. Sources: mbvk.hu, drujvary.hu, kozakugyved.hu, habitants.org; ptk2013.hu (Molnár Hella), projektjeink.birosag.hu (PTK e-learning), Dentons Budapest (lexology). **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **RO Romania** — Risk: holdover/non-paying *chiriaș* (precarious detainer — cannot usucapt), unlawful occupant, *uzucapiune* by a possessor. Eviction: *evacuare* — a notary-authenticated OR tax-registered fixed-term lease becomes an **enforceable title (titlu executoriu) at term expiry**, letting the owner go straight to forced execution (*executare silită*) WITHOUT a merits lawsuit; otherwise a special *procedura de evacuare* in the Civil Procedure Code (updated 2026) applies. Fast-track: the executory-lease route is the strongest CEE-region accelerant available at signing — register/notarize the lease. Self-help: barred. Absentee: low-moderate IF lease is notarized/registered (near-administrative repossession); higher for unlawful occupants needing the evacuation procedure. Adverse possession (*uzucapiune* / *prescripție achizitivă*) is **regime-dependent** — new Civil Code (post-Oct 2011) *uzucapiune extratabulară* = **10 yr** continuous good-faith possession (e.g. registered owner deceased/defunct or property never land-book-registered); pre-2011 old Civil Code = **30 yr** and still governs older fact patterns (stating a single number is wrong). A tenant is a *detentor precar* and can never usucapt. Moratorium: no general statutory winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Codul de procedură civilă (lege5.ro)`. Sources: lege5.ro, eximo.ro, storia.ro, juridice.ro, velicu.eu, avocatu.ro. **Confidence**: HIGH on eviction executory-title + uzucapiune periods; MEDIUM on moratorium.

- **BG Bulgaria** — Risk: holdover/non-paying *наемател*, unlawful occupant, придобивна давност (acquisitive prescription) by a possessor. Eviction: regime is assessed **pro-tenant in practice** — legal avenues exist but the court process is slow and bailiff (*съдебен изпълнител*) enforcement is often delayed; budget a long contested timeline. Fast-track: none specifically identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Закон за задълженията и договорите / Закон за собствеността`. Self-help: barred. Absentee: HIGH exposure — slow courts + weak enforcement + a relatively short good-faith prescription clock; strongly recommend local management + periodic physical inspection + notarized title kept current. Adverse possession (*придобивна давност*, Закон за собствеността): **5 yr good faith** (possession on a legal ground — contract/notarial deed/document) / **10 yr bad faith** (e.g. holder on a preliminary contract, which is *not* adequate legal grounds). The 5-yr good-faith clock is one of the shortest in the region — material absentee risk on under-monitored property. Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at ЗЗД / ГПК (lex.bg)`. Sources: lawyer-bulgaria.bg, petkovalegal.com, petkov-law.com, globalpropertyguide.com (BG landlord/tenant), advocateabroad.com. **Confidence**: HIGH on prescription periods; MEDIUM on eviction-duration; LOW on moratorium.

- **EE Estonia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant (Law of Obligations Act lease rules), unlawful occupant, acquisitive prescription under the **Law of Property Act 2002**. Eviction: self-help is **not lawful** — if a tenant remains after termination the landlord must apply to the **county court** for a possession/vacation order, then enforce via bailiff; regime generally regarded as relatively balanced/landlord-workable vs. the Balkans. Fast-track: none specifically identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Law of Property Act / Law of Obligations Act (riigiteataja.ee)`. Self-help: barred (explicitly confirmed). Absentee: moderate; Estonia's strong e-state land register + digital court filing eases remote management vs. peers. Adverse possession: Law of Property Act §123(1) follows a German-style model emphasising the registered-owner-vs-possessor relationship; **exact prescription period for immovables not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Law of Property Act §123 (riigiteataja.ee)` (do NOT assume 10 yr). Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at riigiteataja.ee`. Sources: lawyersestonia.com / lex-lawyers.com (EE eviction, self-help bar), globalpropertyguide.com (EE), upenn.edu 373-jurisdictions survey. **Confidence**: MEDIUM (eviction route + self-help bar confirmed; adverse-possession period NOT confirmed — flagged).

- **LT Lithuania** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant (Civil Code lease rules), unlawful occupant, *įgyjamoji senatis* (acquisitive prescription). Eviction: court action then bailiff enforcement; self-help barred (general civil-law rule). Fast-track: none specifically identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Civil Code (e-tar.lt)`. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; clock cannot run on state/municipal property or property already registered in another's name (registered title is protected) — main risk is unregistered/colour-of-title land. Adverse possession (*įgyjamoji senatis*, Civil Code): **10 yr** for immovable property by a person who acquired & possessed it **in good faith, lawfully, openly, continuously and as their own**, and remains good-faith *throughout*; cannot acquire state/municipal property or property registered to another. Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at e-tar.lt`. Sources: tga.lt (LT 10yr), upenn.edu 373-jurisdictions survey. **Confidence**: HIGH on adverse-possession period; MEDIUM on eviction-duration / moratorium.

- **LV Latvia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, acquisitive prescription under the Civil Law (*Civillikums*). Eviction: court action → bailiff; self-help barred (general rule). Fast-track: none specifically identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Civillikums / law on residential tenancy (likumi.lv)`. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; Latvia historically debated tenancy-vs-ownership balance (denationalised "master-house" tenants legacy). Adverse possession: Civil Law recognises acquisitive prescription for immovables but the **exact period is not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Civillikums (likumi.lv)` (do NOT fabricate a period). Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at likumi.lv`. Sources: rgsl.edu.lv (LV tenancy paper), globalpropertyguide.com, upenn.edu 373-jurisdictions survey. **Confidence**: LOW (framework exists; period + eviction-duration + moratorium all unconfirmed — flagged).

- **RS Serbia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying *zakupac*, unlawful occupant, *održaj* (adverse possession) by a possessor. Eviction: court action *tužba za iseljenje* → judgment → enforcement (*izvršni postupak*) via *izvršitelj*; self-help barred. Fast-track: none specifically identified — `data not publicly available — verify at Zakon o izvršenju i obezbeđenju / Zakon o osnovama svojinskopravnih odnosa (paragraf.rs)`. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; foreign-ownership reciprocity rules add a layer (verify nationality eligibility separately under `--permits`). Adverse possession (*sticanje svojine održajem*, Law on Basic Property-Law Relations): immovable title acquirable by **10 yr** possession; a **tenant can NEVER** acquire by održaj — lease is derived possession, not a basis for ownership; possession must be lawful (valid basis, not by force/fraud/breach of trust) and good faith. Moratorium: no general winter eviction ban identified — `data not publicly available — verify at paragraf.rs`. Sources: advokatbeograd.net, propisi.net, researchgate.net (Serbian CC adverse possession), paragraf.rs (statutes). **Confidence**: HIGH on održaj period + tenant-exclusion; MEDIUM on eviction-duration; LOW on moratorium.

- **ME Montenegro** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, *održaj* (adverse possession). Eviction: court action → enforcement via *javni izvršitelj*; self-help barred (general ex-Yugoslav civil-law rule). Fast-track: none identified. Self-help: barred. Absentee: HIGH structural exposure — small jurisdiction, coastal property frequently foreign-owned & seasonally vacant, slower courts; recommend local manager + frequent physical inspection + current registered title. Adverse possession (*održaj*, Zakon o svojinsko-pravnim odnosima): ex-Yugoslav lineage similar to RS/HR (good-faith vs extraordinary periods) — **exact periods not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Zakon o svojinsko-pravnim odnosima (Crna Gora) — sluzbenilist.me`. Do NOT assume the HR 10/20 split applies. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from ex-Yugoslav lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (sluzbenilist.me). **Confidence**: LOW (framework inferred from regional lineage; all periods/durations unconfirmed — flagged).

- **BA Bosnia & Herzegovina** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, adverse possession. **Two-entity complication**: property law differs between the Federation of BiH and Republika Srpska (plus Brčko District) — there is no single national regime; post-war restitution/return legacy adds disputed-occupancy risk on some stock. Eviction: entity-level court + enforcement; self-help barred. Fast-track: none identified. Self-help: barred. Absentee: HIGH structural exposure — fragmented law, historical occupancy/return disputes, slower courts. Adverse possession: entity property-law codes recognise acquisitive prescription (ex-Yugoslav lineage) — **exact periods differ by entity and are not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at FBiH Zakon o stvarnim pravima & RS Zakon o stvarnim pravima`. Do NOT state a single national period. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from ex-Yugoslav lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (FBiH/RS Zakon o stvarnim pravima). **Confidence**: LOW (must consult the relevant entity's code; entity-split is the key warning — flagged).

- **MK North Macedonia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, *одржувачка/придобивна давност* (acquisitive prescription). Eviction: court action → enforcement via *извршител*; self-help barred (general rule). Fast-track: none identified. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate-high; smaller market, slower courts. Adverse possession (Law on Ownership and Other Real Rights / Закон за сопственост): ex-Yugoslav lineage with good-faith vs extraordinary periods — **exact periods not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Закон за сопственост и други стварни права (slvesnik.com.mk)`. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from ex-Yugoslav lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (slvesnik.com.mk). **Confidence**: LOW (framework inferred; periods/durations unconfirmed — flagged).

- **AL Albania** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, *fitimi i pronësisë me parashkrim* (acquisitive prescription). Eviction: court action → bailiff; self-help barred (general civil-law rule). Property context: significant unresolved post-1990 land-restitution / legalisation backlog (informal construction legalisation) → elevated *title-dispute* risk independent of squatting. Fast-track: none identified. Self-help: barred. Absentee: HIGH structural exposure — title-chain uncertainty + slower courts + coastal foreign-owned vacant stock. Adverse possession (Civil Code, Kodi Civil): acquisitive-prescription periods exist (good faith vs bad faith) — **exact periods not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Kodi Civil i Republikës së Shqipërisë (qbz.gov.al)`. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from civil-law lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (qbz.gov.al). **Confidence**: LOW (periods/durations unconfirmed; title-backlog is the key absentee warning — flagged).

- **GE Georgia (country)** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, acquisitive prescription under the Civil Code of Georgia. Open-web searches for "Georgia adverse possession" return the US state of Georgia (7-yr colour-of-title / 20-yr) — these figures are **NOT applicable** to the country of Georgia (Caucasus). Eviction: court action → enforcement bureau (National Bureau of Enforcement); self-help barred (general civil-law rule). Georgia is generally rated business-/owner-friendly with a strong digital public registry (NAPR) — registered title is robust. Fast-track: none confirmed. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; strong digital land registry (NAPR) eases remote title monitoring vs. Balkan peers — main risk is contractual holdover, not registry-defeating squatting. Adverse possession (Civil Code of Georgia): acquisitive prescription for immovables exists — **exact period not confirmed in sources (US-state-of-Georgia collision)** — `data not publicly available — verify at Civil Code of Georgia (matsne.gov.ge)`. Do NOT import US Georgia's 7/20-yr figures. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from civil-law lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (matsne.gov.ge). **Confidence**: LOW on periods; MEDIUM on registry-strength / self-help bar.

- **MD Moldova** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, *uzucapiune* (acquisitive prescription) under the Civil Code of Moldova. Eviction: court action → enforcement via *executor judecătoresc*; self-help barred (general civil-law rule). Romanian-lineage civil law (similar concepts to RO) but **do NOT assume RO periods carry over**. Fast-track: none confirmed. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate-high; smaller market, slower courts, Transnistria region entirely out of normal legal control (avoid). Adverse possession (*uzucapiune*, Codul civil al Republicii Moldova): immovable acquisitive prescription exists — **exact period not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Codul civil al Republicii Moldova (legis.md)`. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from Romanian/civil-law lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (legis.md). **Confidence**: LOW (Romanian lineage noted but periods unconfirmed — flagged; Transnistria carve-out is a hard warning).

- **AM Armenia** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, acquisitive prescription under the Civil Code of Armenia. Eviction: court action → compulsory enforcement service; self-help barred (general civil-law rule). Fast-track: none confirmed. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate; smaller market — local management essential for any vacant unit. Adverse possession (Civil Code of the Republic of Armenia): immovable acquisitive prescription exists — **exact period not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Civil Code of the Republic of Armenia (arlis.am)`. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from civil-law lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (arlis.am). **Confidence**: LOW (framework inferred; all specifics unconfirmed — flagged).

- **AZ Azerbaijan** — Risk: holdover/non-paying tenant, unlawful occupant, acquisitive prescription under the Civil Code of Azerbaijan. Eviction: court action → enforcement (Enforcement Service); self-help barred (general civil-law rule). Foreign-ownership note: foreigners generally **cannot own land** (only buildings/long-lease in practice) — verify eligibility under `--permits` before any acquisition; this materially changes the absentee risk profile. Fast-track: none confirmed. Self-help: barred. Absentee: moderate-high; opaque process, smaller market, foreign land-ownership restriction. Adverse possession (Civil Code of the Republic of Azerbaijan): acquisitive prescription for immovables exists — **exact period not confirmed in sources** — `data not publicly available — verify at Civil Code of Azerbaijan (e-qanun.az)`. Moratorium: `data not publicly available — verify`. Sources: framework inferred from civil-law lineage; no country-specific primary source isolated (e-qanun.az). **Confidence**: LOW (framework inferred; foreign land-ownership bar is the key structural warning — flagged).

### Confidence

HIGH where the acquisitive-prescription period is statute-confirmed and precise: PL 20/30 · CZ 10 · SK 10 (+ May-2021 procedure) · SI 10 · HR 10/20 · HU 15 / 5 jogcímes · BG 5/10 · LT 10 · RO 10 (new CC) / 30 (old CC) · RS 10. CZ/RO/PL also HIGH on the best at-signing absentee-protective lease structuring; HR HIGH on the "urgent" 15-day vacate classification. MEDIUM where eviction-duration or moratorium specifics are qualitative (SI/RO/RS moratorium; BG eviction-duration). LOW — periods explicitly UNCONFIRMED and not fabricated — for EE, LV, ME, BA (entity-split), MK, AL, GE (US-state collision), MD, AM, AZ; for all LOW-confidence countries engage local counsel for the exact acquisitive-prescription period BEFORE purchase. Highest structural absentee exposure: BA (entity-split + return-disputes), AL (title-restitution backlog), ME (coastal vacant foreign stock + slow courts), MD (Transnistria carve-out), BG (short 5-yr good-faith clock + weak enforcement). No general winter eviction moratorium identified outside PL & HU; every other "none" recorded as `data not publicly available — verify` (absence of a found source ≠ confirmed absence).

## MENA + GCC + Israel + Türkiye

### Regional pattern

In the GCC and most of MENA the "squatter" risk a foreign/absentee buyer actually faces is almost never a stranger-trespasser on titled property — it is a non-paying or holdover tenant who will not leave, resolved through a rent-disputes committee or enforcement court, not the civil/criminal trespass route familiar in the West. Titled land in the GCC and Israel sits on Torrens-style registries (UAE Land Department / Tabu; Israel Tabu) where adverse possession against registered land is effectively impossible — the single most reassuring fact for an absentee buyer of titled property here; Türkiye is the main exception (a 20-year acquisitive-prescription mechanism exists but is barred against registered land save a narrow defective-registry exception). Self-help eviction (lock-changing, utility cut-off, removing belongings) is illegal across every jurisdiction in this set and exposes the owner to damages/criminal liability — a uniform finding — and seasonal eviction moratoria of the EU type do not exist anywhere in this region; the binding constraint is court/committee speed, not a calendar ban. Lebanon is in active legal/economic crisis (rent-law overhaul ping-ponged through Parliament and the Constitutional Council mid-2025) and is flagged LOW throughout.

### Country one-liners

- **TR Türkiye** — Risk types: dominant flavour is **non-paying or holdover tenant** (TR tenancy law is structurally pro-tenant); secondary risk is occupation of *unregistered* land. Eviction process: two routes — (a) **tahliye davası** (eviction lawsuit) through the *sulh hukuk mahkemesi*, slow: **~2 years typical, up to 3 years with appeal** (Yargıtay/Court-of-Cassation stage); (b) for rent default, the faster **icra (enforcement) route** — landlord initiates combined rent-collection + eviction at the *İcra Dairesi* (enforcement office); after the payment order is served the tenant has **30 days to pay or 7 days to object**; absent objection/payment the enforcement office proceeds to forced eviction without a full trial (Turkish Code of Obligations Art. 315 default mechanic; istanbullawyerfirm.com, akkaslaw.com, ozansoylu.av.tr — ⚠️ aggregator law-firm, cross-checked across 4 firms). Fast-track: **tahliye taahhütnamesi** (eviction undertaking, TCO Art. 352) — a wet-signed written promise by the tenant to vacate on a fixed date; if breached, the landlord may file for eviction **within 1 month** of that date OR go straight to the enforcement office — the single most effective tool, routinely signed at lease start. Self-help: prohibited; eviction only via court + enforcement office; forcible removal is a state act. Absentee exposure: a non-resident landlord who cannot attend hearings is materially exposed to the multi-year *tahliye davası* timeline — mitigant is (i) always take a notarised/dated *tahliye taahhütnamesi*, (ii) appoint a Turkish lawyer with vekâletname (PoA), (iii) monitor rent arrears monthly. Adverse possession: *olağanüstü kazandırıcı zamanaşımı*, **Turkish Civil Code (TMK) Art. 713** — **20 years** uninterrupted, unchallenged possession "as owner" (*malik sıfatıyla*); the general rule is that adverse possession **cannot run against registered (tapulu) land** — TMK 713/2 allows it ONLY where the registry is so defective the owner cannot be identified (or owner long-dead/whereabouts unknown), so a registered, identifiable foreign owner of *tapulu* land is **effectively immune**; requires a court action (*tapu iptali ve tescili davası*), not automatic (TMK Art. 713; istanbulattorneys.com, dergipark.org.tr academic). Seasonal moratorium: none (temporary COVID-era and rent-cap measures existed but no seasonal moratorium). **Confidence**: HIGH (statute-anchored on adverse possession & undertaking; timelines aggregator-sourced but consistent across 4 firms).

- **AE United Arab Emirates** — Risk types: trespass/squatting on *titled* property is rare (strong title registry, residency-gated occupation); the real risk is a **holdover or non-paying tenant**, plus **off-plan/empty-unit informal occupation** in low-supervision developments. Eviction process (Dubai): governed by **Law No. 26 of 2007 as amended by Law No. 33 of 2008**; disputes go to the **Rental Dispute Settlement Centre (RDSC / "RDC")** under Dubai Land Department — not ordinary courts. Notice rules: eviction *during* a lease term is limited to enumerated breaches (non-payment: tenant gets a **30-day** notice to remedy after default before an eviction claim, Art. 25(1)); eviction at/after expiry for **owner sale or personal/first-degree-relative use** requires **12 months' prior notice served via Notary Public or registered mail** (Art. 25(2)). The landlord files at RDSC with Ejari-registered contract + title deed + the served notice; the tenant may contest within 15 days. Timeline (specific): first hearing **~2-3 weeks** after filing; if mediation fails, First Instance Circuit ruling **typically within ~30 days of the first hearing**; **straightforward eviction filing-to-first-instance ruling ~1-3 months**. Appeal must be lodged **within 15 days** of the ruling — but for claims **under AED 50,000 the first-instance judgment is final / not appealable** (a meaningful fast-finality threshold). Post-judgment, if the tenant refuses, the landlord applies to the **Execution Court** (Dubai Police assist physical removal) — **~2-6 additional weeks** (rdc.gov.ae FAQ; tamimi.com; cross-checked notaryindubai.com — ⚠️ aggregator). Fast-track: the RDSC itself is the expedited venue; Ejari registration + a clean 12-month notarised notice + a sub-AED-50k claim where applicable (final at first instance) is the practical fast path. Self-help: prohibited — utility disconnection, lock changes and forced removal are unlawful and expose the landlord to damages (Dubai Land Department guidance; tamimi.com). Absentee exposure: empty/holiday units carry low *squat* risk but high *holdover-tenant* risk; non-resident landlords should (i) keep Ejari current, (ii) serve the 12-month notice early and correctly notarised (defective service is the #1 reason RDSC rejects an eviction), (iii) use a managing agent with PoA. Abu Dhabi runs an analogous regime via the **Abu Dhabi Rental Disputes** mechanism / Tamm; other emirates have rent committees. Adverse possession: against **registered land — immune**; UAE Civil Code prescription concepts do not defeat a registered Land-Department title; titled real property in Dubai/AD is protected by the registry (Dubai Land Department title system; UAE Civil Code Federal Law 5/1985 — possession does not transfer registered title). Seasonal moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH (Dubai statute + RDSC procedure well-documented; Abu Dhabi/other-emirate detail MEDIUM).

- **IL Israel** — Risk types: genuine **stranger-trespasser (פולש)** squatting is a recognised, distinct scenario here (more so than the GCC), alongside **holdover/non-paying tenant**; public-land squatting handled separately. Eviction process: civil **תביעת פינוי / "mesira rechusha"** (delivery-of-possession / eviction claim) — an **expedited track**, typically **~3-6 months** filing-to-enforcement, materially faster than ordinary civil suits; enforcement of the judgment is carried out through the **הוצאה לפועל (Enforcement & Collection Authority)**, not by the owner. Public/state land squatting is handled under the **Public Land (Eviction of Squatters) Law, 5741-1981** (administrative eviction order route for Israel-land/local-authority land). Fast-track / self-help window: the **Land Law, 5729-1969** §18 gives the lawful holder a **narrow self-help right** — reasonable force to *prevent* a trespass, and to remove a trespasser **within 30 days of the unlawful seizure**; **after 30 days, or against a former tenant, self-help is barred** and the only remedy is the court (Land Law §§18-19; versa.cardozo.yu.edu; knesset.gov.il statute PDF) — this 30-day window is the single most important operational fact for an absentee owner (discover an intrusion late and you lose the self-help option entirely). Self-help (general): changing locks / cutting utilities against a tenant is **illegal**; landlords doing so are liable in damages — court authorisation is mandatory. Absentee exposure: high — an overseas owner is unlikely to detect a seizure inside the 30-day §18 window, so the practical posture is (i) local property manager doing physical checks, (ii) immediate counsel on discovery, (iii) the expedited *mesira rechusha* track. (The politically-charged Absentees' Property Law / East-Jerusalem disputes are a separate sovereignty matter, deliberately excluded from this squatter analysis — mentioned only to disambiguate it from §18 self-help and the *mesira rechusha* track.) Adverse possession / prescription: governed by the **Prescription Law, 5718-1958** interacting with the Land Law; for **registered (mukar / Tabu-registered) land under the title-registration (Torrens) system, acquisitive prescription is effectively unavailable** — registered title is not defeated by possession; prescription historically bites mainly on **unregistered/settlement-pending land**, and post-1969 the regime sharply curtails prescriptive acquisition. A registered foreign owner of Tabu-registered land is **protected**; verify the parcel's registration status (Tabu vs. unsettled) on due diligence. Seasonal moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on §18 30-day rule and expedited track; MEDIUM on precise prescription periods for edge-case unregistered parcels — verify per parcel at the Land Registry.

- **SA Saudi Arabia** — Risk types: predominantly **non-paying / holdover tenant**; stranger-squatting on titled (Sakk) land is uncommon; foreign freehold ownership is itself narrowly permitted, so most absentee exposure is via leased units. Eviction process: a lease documented and authenticated on the **Ejar** platform (REGA / Ministry of Municipalities & Housing) is a self-enforcing **executive instrument** — the landlord goes **directly to the Enforcement Court (Tanfeedh / محكمة التنفيذ)** without first filing a substantive lawsuit; an **undocumented** lease has no such shortcut and requires a full general-court action first. Standard Ejar terms give a **~15-day grace period** on non-payment before formal action; the landlord must serve **written notice** before eviction proceedings. Timeline: **~1-3 months** depending on complexity and whether the tenant contests (elaqatlaw.com; trowers.com; saudigazette.com.sa — ⚠️ law-firm/press, cross-checked). Fast-track: the Ejar→Tanfeedh path *is* the fast-track; **Rental Dispute Resolution Committees** under the Ministry handle contested matters; the Enforcement Court can compel compliance by **suspending the tenant's government & banking services and imposing a travel ban** — an unusually strong enforcement lever. A 2025 framework (REGA) further streamlined this and introduced Riyadh-area rent regulation. Self-help: explicitly **illegal** — Saudi Gazette guidance confirms landlords may **not** cut electricity/water/gas or remove belongings to force payment. Absentee exposure: register every lease on Ejar (the decisive protective step), keep notices documented; non-resident owners benefit from the strong Tanfeedh enforcement once an executive instrument exists. Adverse possession: Sharia-based *hiyaza* (long undisturbed possession) can found a claim over **unregistered** land, but **registered Sakk title is not displaced by possession** and the Real Estate Registration Law programme further hardens registered title — a registered owner of titled property is **protected**; unregistered/edge parcels carry residual *hiyaza* risk. Seasonal moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM (Ejar/Tanfeedh mechanics well-attested across multiple firms + Saudi Gazette; exact statutory adverse-possession periods under Sharia/Real-Estate-Registration-Law are not cleanly codified in a single citable English source — verify with Saudi counsel / REGA).

- **QA Qatar** — Risk types: **non-paying / holdover tenant** dominant; foreign ownership is zone-restricted so most exposure is leasehold; stranger-squatting on titled land uncommon. Eviction process: **Law No. (4) of 2008 on Property Leasing** (Al Meezan legal portal, almeezan.qa — primary); non-payment is a ground under **Art. 19** — landlord serves a **legal notice demanding payment within a set deadline**, then files with the **Rental Disputes Resolution Committee** at the Ministry of Justice, which has exclusive jurisdiction over tenancy disputes and is described as **free and relatively efficient**; committee decisions are enforced per Council-of-Ministers procedure. Timeline: not published as a fixed statutory number — committee practice ~weeks to a few months; treat as `est.` pending committee-specific data — **data not publicly available — verify at [almeezan.qa](https://www.almeezan.qa/LawView.aspx?opt=&LawID=3982&language=en)**. Fast-track: the Rental Disputes Committee is itself the specialised expedited venue (no ordinary-court queue). Self-help: prohibited (Law 4/2008 routes all eviction through the Committee; no self-help remedy exists). Absentee exposure: keep the tenancy and notices documented; non-resident landlords act through the Committee with local counsel/PoA; empty-unit squat risk low given strong title registry and residency-gated occupancy. Adverse possession: against **registered title — not available**; Qatari registered real-property title is protected by the registry — possession does not transfer a registered title (no clean English statutory citation for the prescription period — treat unregistered-land edge cases as `data not publicly available — verify with Qatari counsel / Ministry of Justice`). Seasonal moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM (Law 4/2008 + Committee jurisdiction primary-sourced via Al Meezan; eviction timeline and adverse-possession period not authoritatively published in English — honestly flagged).

- **OM Oman** — Risk types: **non-paying / holdover tenant** dominant; foreign ownership largely confined to designated ITC zones, so absentee exposure is mostly leasehold; stranger-squatting on titled land uncommon. Eviction process: governed by **Royal Decree 6/89** (landlord–tenant law), **substantially amended by Royal Decree 12/2025, in force 13 July 2025** — the operative reform is **RD 12/2025 amending RD 6/89** (not the sometimes-cited "Royal Decree 6/2024"; decree.om/2025/rd20250012; kco.om; cms.law — primary decree text + 3 firms). RD 12/2025 creates a dedicated **Rental Disputes Settlement Committee** (new Art. 15), chaired by a Court-of-First-Instance judge with Governorate + Municipality representatives, as the official venue for all lease disputes including eviction. Timeline: a submitted case must be **passed to the Committee within 7 days**; the **Committee must decide within 90 days** of referral (RD 12/2025 procedural provisions); rent-payment delay now triggers faster action than under the old RD 6/89 regime. Fast-track: the new Committee replaces the slower court route — that *is* the fast-track (and the 90-day decision cap is a hard statutory ceiling). Self-help: prohibited — eviction requires the formal Committee process; no self-help remedy. Absentee exposure: register the tenancy (registration is required for Committee access, mirroring the GCC pattern), act through the Committee with local counsel; ITC-zone units have low squat risk given title registry. Adverse possession: against **registered title — not available** under the Omani land-registration system; unregistered-land edge cases — **data not publicly available — verify with Omani counsel / Ministry of Housing & Urban Planning**. Seasonal moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM (RD 12/2025 reform + 7-day/90-day timelines primary-sourced and recent; adverse-possession period not authoritatively published — honestly flagged).

- **BH Bahrain** — Risk types: **non-paying / holdover tenant** dominant; stranger-squatting on titled land uncommon. Eviction process: **Real Estate Lease Law No. 27 of 2014** (bahrainbusinesslaws.com — primary); non-payment ground: a landlord may evict for **non-payment for 2 consecutive months** (the general restriction on eviction does not apply once rent is 2 months unpaid, unless the Committee finds good reason). The tenant must be **notified, with 3 months' notice for relevant termination dates, by registered mail with acknowledgment of receipt** — defective service can sink the eviction. Disputes go to the **Lease Disputes Committee** (Ministry of Justice). Critical gating fact: the Committee **will not hear disputes on leases not registered** with the Property Lease Agreement Registration office — and leases must be registered within **1 month of signing** — an unregistered lease leaves the landlord with **no committee remedy at all**. Timeline: not published as a fixed number — **data not publicly available — verify at [bahrainbusinesslaws.com](https://bahrainbusinesslaws.com/laws/Property-Rent-Law)** / Lease Disputes Committee. Fast-track: the Lease Disputes Committee is the specialised venue, conditional on registration. Self-help: prohibited (all eviction routed through the Committee). Absentee exposure: **register the lease within 1 month** — the single decisive step for a non-resident landlord; without it the entire Committee enforcement track is unavailable. Adverse possession: against **registered (Survey & Land Registration Bureau) title — not available**; possession does not defeat a registered Bahraini title; unregistered-land edge cases **data not publicly available — verify with Bahraini counsel / SLRB**. Seasonal moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM (Law 27/2014 substantive grounds + registration gating primary-sourced; timeline and adverse-possession period not published — honestly flagged).

- **KW Kuwait** — Risk types: **non-paying / holdover tenant** dominant; foreign freehold ownership is highly restricted, so absentee exposure is overwhelmingly leasehold; stranger-squatting on titled land uncommon. Eviction process: **Law No. 35 of 1978 on real-estate leasing** (as amended, incl. **Law No. 15 of 2020** COVID-era amendments); non-payment: under **Art. 10** the tenant must pay per the written agreement; tenant gets a **3-day grace period** after the due date before the landlord may file; the landlord then files an eviction case in the Kuwait courts. A **single-judge rental division** within the courts has **sole jurisdiction over all lease disputes irrespective of value** — a specialised judge, not a separate administrative committee as in UAE/SA/QA/OM/BH. Timeline: not published as a fixed number; the dedicated rental division is intended to be faster than ordinary civil queues — treat as `est.` — **data not publicly available — verify with Kuwaiti counsel / Ministry of Justice**. Fast-track: the dedicated single-judge rental division *is* the expedited mechanism. Self-help: prohibited (eviction is a judicial act through the rental division). Absentee exposure: non-resident landlords need local counsel with PoA to run the rental-division case; document the written lease and arrears. Adverse possession: against **registered title — not available**; registered Kuwaiti real-property title is protected — possession does not transfer it; unregistered-land edge cases **data not publicly available — verify with Kuwaiti counsel**. Seasonal moratorium: none (the 2020 Law 15 amendments were a COVID caseload-management measure, not a seasonal eviction ban). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (Law 35/1978 + single-judge rental division + 3-day grace primary-attested across firms; timeline and adverse-possession period not published — honestly flagged).

- **JO Jordan** — Risk types: **non-paying / holdover tenant** dominant; foreign ownership permitted with approval, but absentee exposure is mostly leasehold; stranger-squatting on titled land uncommon. Eviction process: the dominant primary statute is the **Owners and Tenants Law No. 11 of 1994 (and its amendments)** (not the sometimes-cited "Law 11 of 2013"; tamimi.com, bayut.jo, amaken.jo — ⚠️ aggregator, cross-checked); non-payment route: landlord serves a **formal notice giving ~15 days to pay**; if unpaid, the landlord files an **eviction lawsuit in the competent court**; on confirmed delinquency the court issues an eviction order, enforced by the competent authorities. The tenant is liable for **3 months' rent plus rent accruing during the pendency** of the suit. Timeline: not published as a fixed number — court-driven, treat as `est.` — **data not publicly available — verify with Jordanian counsel**. Fast-track: no separate administrative committee analogous to the GCC; the route is the ordinary competent court — slower posture than UAE/SA/OM. Self-help: prohibited (eviction is a judicial order enforced by authorities). Absentee exposure: higher relative to GCC committee jurisdictions because the route is full court litigation — non-resident landlords need local counsel with PoA and documented notice/arrears. Adverse possession: against **registered (Department of Lands & Survey / Tabu) title — not available**; possession does not defeat a registered Jordanian title; unregistered-land edge cases **data not publicly available — verify with Jordanian counsel / DLS**. Seasonal moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM (substantive non-payment process + Law 11/1994 attested across 3 firms; timeline and adverse-possession period not published — honestly flagged).

- **LB Lebanon** — Risk types: **non-paying / holdover tenant** dominant, *severely aggravated by active economic and legal crisis*; a large legacy stock of **old controlled-rent (pre-23 July 1992) tenancies** where the occupier pays a near-worthless legacy rent and is functionally entrenched — the closest thing in this set to a structural squatting problem, and the one most likely to ambush a foreign buyer of an older building. Contracts signed **after 23 July 1992** are freely-agreed and treated neutrally by the law. Eviction process: a post-1992 tenant **may be evicted for non-payment after 2 months' default, following legal notice**; but the courts are **slow — commonly ~2 years to evict a non-paying tenant** (globalpropertyguide.com — ⚠️ aggregator; lcps-lebanon.org policy monitor). The **old controlled-rent regime** has been the subject of a destabilising legislative saga: a Non-Residential Rent Law was adopted Dec 2023, withdrawn, re-published 3 Apr 2025, **struck down by the Constitutional Council 20 May 2025**, re-passed by Parliament **12 June 2025**, and approved by the Constitutional Council **22 July 2025**, with the rent-liberalisation timeline extended to **5-8 years** (klfi.net; today.lorientlejour.com; ministryinfo.gov.lb — press + firm; the dates ping-pong by source so treat each as `est.` and re-verify). Fast-track: none functioning reliably — courts are slow and the legal framework itself is in flux; **no dependable expedited route exists in 2025-26**. Self-help: prohibited in law (eviction is judicial), but enforcement institutions are weak amid the crisis. Absentee exposure: **highest in this set** — a foreign buyer of an older Lebanese building must specifically due-diligence whether any unit carries a pre-1992 controlled tenancy (massively value-impairing and slow to clear) and must price in the slow, unstable judicial route; do not rely on the new-law timeline until it has actually run. Adverse possession: registered-land title under the Lebanese Land Registry is, as a rule, not defeated by possession; but with registry/court institutional stress, treat as **data not publicly available — verify with Lebanese counsel / Land Registry** — do not assert immunity as confidently as for the GCC/IL Torrens systems. Seasonal moratorium: none (the issue is systemic court paralysis and legislative flux, not a calendar ban). **Confidence**: LOW (active crisis; rent-law status changed multiple times in 2025 and dates differ by source; eviction timelines aggregator-sourced; verify everything with current Lebanese counsel before relying).

### Confidence

Self-help prohibition and the absence of any EU-style seasonal/winter eviction moratorium are uniform across all 10 countries — the highest-confidence cross-cutting findings in this batch. HIGH: TR (statute-anchored TMK Art. 713 + TCO Art. 352 undertaking; timelines aggregator-sourced but consistent across 4 firms) and AE (Dubai statute + RDSC procedure well-documented; Abu Dhabi/other-emirate detail MEDIUM); IL HIGH on §18 30-day rule + expedited *mesira rechusha* track. MEDIUM: SA, QA, OM, BH, KW, JO — substantive grounds/committee jurisdiction primary-sourced, but published fixed eviction timelines do not exist for QA/KW/BH/JO (all `data not publicly available — verify`; do not invent a number) and exact prescription periods for *unregistered/unsettled* parcels were not cleanly citable in English (flagged `verify with local counsel`, not asserted). Adverse-possession immunity against registered title is a structural inference from the Torrens/parcel-registration model — robust as a directional statement for AE/IL/SA/QA/OM/BH/KW/JO. LOW: LB — every datapoint crisis-degraded; the 2023-2025 rent-law saga dates differ by source (each `est.`); the reliable takeaway is "slow, unstable, value-impairing for old-stock buildings", not any specific date.

## APAC + Central Asia + South Asia

### Regional pattern

An absentee/foreign owner discovers an occupied unit (overstaying ex-tenant, informal land occupier, or adverse-possessor accruing time) and finds clearing it slow, costly, or — worst case — finds title eroding. The recurring theme: **India's 12-year adverse possession is the single most notorious NRI absentee trap on the planet** (with s.27 extinguishing the owner's *right*, not just the remedy), with LK Sri Lanka (10-yr Prescription Ordinance) and HK Hong Kong (12-yr private land) the secondary headline traps — these three should drive the `--squatter` verdict-band for absentee/NRI/diaspora buyers. JP/KR/SG/MY are slow-but-title-safe (court-only eviction strongly protects an in-place occupier but title is not at risk); SG and MY are the two clean no-title-risk jurisdictions (SG abolished adverse possession for registered land 1 Mar 1994, MY never recognised it under Torrens). VN/CN are State-regime jurisdictions (no private adverse possession but State-recovery risk). No jurisdiction in this region has a seasonal eviction moratorium of the European/COVID type as a standing rule.

### Country one-liners

- **IN India** — Risk: (a) overstaying tenant under rent-control regimes + (b) informal occupant + (c) **adverse possession — the classic NRI absentee disaster**. Eviction: ejectment / suit for possession in civil court; rent-controlled tenancies (state Rent Control Acts) are extremely slow — multi-year is normal, appeals stretch it further; a tenant whose entry was lawful **cannot** claim adverse possession (Bajaj Finserv; nrilegalservices.com). Adverse possession: **12 years for private land (Limitation Act 1963, Schedule Art. 65), 30 years against government (Art. 112); s.27 is the unusual provision that extinguishes BOTH the remedy AND the owner's *right* to the property** (not merely the right to sue) — open, continuous, hostile, exclusive possession ripens into title; the owner's clock resets only on a successful interruption (legal notice/entry/suit) (primary: Limitation Act 1963, indiacode.nic.in/bitstream/123456789/1565/5/A1963-36.pdf — Art. 65 & s.27; corroborated bajajfinserv.in, crypticproperty.com). Fast-track: none uniform; some states have summary eviction for specific tenancy classes — verify per state Rent Control Act. Self-help: barred — possession must be recovered through court; forcible re-entry exposes owner to criminal/civil liability. Absentee: **VERY HIGH** — empty NRI flats and ancestral/agricultural land left with a "caretaker" are the textbook adverse-possession loss; mitigations: registered caretaker agreement (acknowledges owner's title, defeats hostility), periodic documented inspections, up-to-date mutation/property-tax records in owner's name, periodic legal notice. Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on the 12yr/30yr Limitation Act figures and self-help bar; MEDIUM on per-state eviction timelines (vary widely by state Rent Control Act).

- **JP Japan** — Risk: overstaying non-paying tenant (the dominant risk; squatting/informal land occupation is rare). Eviction: court-only via building-surrender suit (建物明渡訴訟 / 明渡訴訟); the tenant is strongly protected by the **Act on Land and Building Leases (借地借家法 / Shakuchi Shakuya Hō)** plus the Civil Code — landlord must prove "just cause" (正当事由) and follow strict procedure; non-payment is a serious enough breach to justify termination. Timeline: from arrears to vacated possession **~4–6 months** typically — certified demand → suit → uncontested judgment in ~60–90 days → enforcement (forced surrender) a further ~30–50 days (legaladvicejapan.com; PLAZA HOMES). Fast-track: none specific; rent-guarantee companies (家賃保証会社) drive the process in practice but the court track is the same. Self-help: prohibited — no lock-out / utility cut-off / removal of belongings; landlord doing so faces liability. Absentee: MODERATE — strong tenant protection means a non-paying occupier stays for months even with a clean case, but title is **not** at risk on residential tenancies; engage a 管理会社 (management company) for absentee monitoring. Adverse possession: 取得時効 (acquisitive prescription) — **20 years (Civil Code Art. 162) generally, reduced to 10 years only if the possessor began in good faith and without negligence**; a lawful tenant's possession is not hostile (en.wikibooks.org Japanese Property Law; verify Civil Code Art. 162 at japaneselawtranslation.go.jp). Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on 借地借家法 protection + 10/20yr prescription; MEDIUM on the 4–6mo aggregate (practitioner estimate, varies with contest/court load).

- **PH Philippines** — Risk: (a) informal settler families (ISFs) + (b) professional squatters/syndicates + (c) overstaying occupant. Eviction: **summary procedure under Rule 70, Rules of Court** — *forcible entry* (entry by force/stealth) or *unlawful detainer* (lawful entry, possession withheld after demand); must be filed within 1 year. The **criminal Anti-Squatting Law was PD 772, repealed by RA 8368 (1997)** — squatting per se is no longer a crime against most occupants (dhsud.gov.ph RA 8368; chanrobles.com; housinginteractive.com.ph). RA 7279 (UDHA 1992, "Lina Law", as amended by RA 10884) is **not** repealed and is the regime that *protects* informal settlers / regulates eviction of ISFs: ≥30-day notice, LGU consultation, humane relocation/financial assistance before demolition — making clearance slow and politically fraught. Fast-track: **professional squatters and squatting syndicates have NO relocation rights and can be evicted on court order after a short (≈5-day) notice** (E.O. 129); proving an occupant is a "professional squatter" is the key accelerator. Self-help: barred — eviction requires a court order and sheriff execution; LGU/NHA handle ISF relocation within ~45 days of final judgment. Absentee: **HIGH** — vacant land or untended provincial lots attract ISF settlement; absentee foreign owners (who in any case cannot own land — only condos / long lease) face slow ejectment plus relocation politics. Adverse possession: yes — Civil Code acquisitive prescription (ordinary 10 yr with just title + good faith; extraordinary 30 yr without) applies to **unregistered** land; Torrens-registered land is generally protected (verify Civil Code Arts. 1117–1138 at lawphil.net). Moratorium: none statutory; demolitions sometimes suspended around weather events / by LGU policy. **Confidence**: HIGH on RA 7279 / PD 772-repeal / Rule 70; MEDIUM on prescription nuances for registered vs unregistered land.

- **TH Thailand** — Risk: (a) overstaying tenant + (b) informal land squatting + (c) adverse possession against **titled** land. Eviction: civil suit for eviction; owner should immediately report unauthorised occupiers to police and/or file an eviction complaint with the court; courts will enforce eviction for non-payment but may allow staged repayment of arrears (Bangkok Post; thailandlawonline.com CCC s.537–571). Timeline: data not publicly available as a single national figure — verify with a Thai litigation firm; contested possession suits commonly run 1+ year. Fast-track: none specific. Self-help: not advisable — repossession should go through police complaint / court; foreign owners especially should avoid self-help given limited standing on land. Absentee: HIGH for **land** (foreigners generally cannot own land — Land Code s.86 — so exposure is via long lease / condo / structures), MODERATE for condos. **Adverse possession: 10 years of peaceful, open, continuous possession with intent to own (Civil & Commercial Code s.1382) — CRITICAL caveat: this applies only to fully titled land (Chanote/Nor Sor 4 Jor)**; possession of lesser/un-deeded land does not ripen the same way, and the 10-yr clock and a court judgment are required to transfer title (Tilleke & Gibbins; library.siam-legal.com CCC s.1367–1386). Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on the s.1382 10-yr rule + title-deed caveat + foreign land bar; LOW on a national eviction-timeline figure (not published).

- **HK Hong Kong** — Risk: (a) overstaying tenant + (b) adverse possession of land/lots (a live, litigated issue in HK, esp. NT village land and absentee-owner lots). Eviction: landlords apply for possession to the **Lands Tribunal** (under the Landlord and Tenant (Consolidation) Ordinance Cap. 7) or the courts at common law (judiciary.hk; elegislation.gov.hk Cap. 7). Timeline: data not publicly available as a single figure — verify with a HK solicitor; uncontested possession is relatively orderly, contested adverse-possession defences run long. Fast-track: none specific beyond the Lands Tribunal's streamlined jurisdiction. Self-help: not advisable; possession via court/Tribunal order. Absentee: **HIGH for vacant lots/land** — adverse possession is a documented HK land-grab risk against absentee owners, particularly New Territories land. Adverse possession (Limitation Ordinance Cap. 347): **12 years vs a private owner where possession began on/after 1 Jul 1991; 20 years where it began before 1 Jul 1991; 60 years against Government land**; on expiry the paper owner's title is extinguished and the burden of proof is on the possessor (info.gov.hk LCQ7 2024; devb.gov.hk; hkreform.gov.hk). A 2013 Law Reform Commission report exists; reform proposed but **no abolition enacted as of May 2026 — verify current status at hkreform.gov.hk**. Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on the 12/20/60yr Limitation Ordinance structure; MEDIUM that no reform has yet changed it (re-verify).

- **KR South Korea** — Risk: overstaying non-paying tenant (dominant); informal squatting rare. Eviction: court-only eviction suit (명도소송 / myeongdo-sosong); the **Housing Lease Protection Act (주택임대차보호법)** strongly protects residential tenants — guaranteed 2-year term + one renewal request for a further 2 years, and **a landlord may not self-evict without a court ruling even after the term ends** (elaw.klri.re.kr Housing Lease Protection Act; globalpropertyguide.com). Jeonse/deposit structures complicate recovery (deposit priority on registration). Timeline: data not publicly available as a single figure — verify with a Korean firm; contested 명도소송 commonly runs many months to ~1 yr+. Fast-track: none specific. Self-help: prohibited — court ruling + official enforcement required. Absentee: MODERATE — tenant protection slows recovery but title is not at risk on a residential lease; engage a property manager for absentee oversight; jeonse deposit return is the bigger absentee cash-flow risk. Adverse possession: 점유취득시효 (acquisitive prescription) — Civil Act **Art. 245** has two limbs: (1) **20 years** of peaceful open possession with intent to own → acquire ownership *by registration*; (2) Art. 245(2) — a registered possessor who has possessed for **10 years in good faith and without negligence** acquires ownership (the two-limb structure is well-corroborated by secondary legal sources but the precise statutory wording must be re-verified at elaw.klri.re.kr (Civil Act, Art. 245) — the KLRI English statute page is JS-rendered and did not expose the exact Art. 245 string in this pass). Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on Housing Lease Protection Act + court-only eviction; MEDIUM on the 20/10yr prescription cite (Civil Act Art. 245 — re-verify exact wording).

- **SG Singapore** — Risk: overstaying tenant (dominant); squatting/adverse possession effectively eliminated. Eviction: written termination notice → apply to the State Courts for a possession order + **Writ of Possession**; Sheriff/Bailiff executes on the Notice of Eviction date. Timeline: **typically ~2–6 months total; court proceedings ~1–2 months** when uncontested (judiciary.gov.sg; singaporelegaladvice.com). For non-payment of rent, **s.18A Conveyancing and Law of Property Act gives the tenant 4 weeks to pay all arrears** (relief against forfeiture). Fast-track: the writ-of-possession route is itself relatively quick for uncontested cases; no separate expedited track. Self-help: prohibited — Sheriff/Bailiff executes possession; landlord lock-outs are unlawful. Absentee: **LOW–MODERATE** — orderly, fast, title-safe; main absentee risk is the months of process for a contesting tenant, not loss of title. **Adverse possession: ABOLISHED for registered land by the Land Titles Act 1993 (in force 1 Mar 1994)** — only possessory claims fully accrued (12 yrs) before 1 Mar 1994 are preserved (s.177(3) LTA); post-1994 squatting cannot ripen into title (sso.agc.gov.sg LTA 1993; singaporelawwatch.sg Ch.29). Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH across the board (statutory + judiciary primary sources).

- **TW Taiwan** — Risk: overstaying tenant + adverse possession of **unregistered** land. Eviction: civil suit for return of possession (Civil Code / Code of Civil Procedure); statutory tenant protections apply (e.g. the Land Act / 土地法 rent provisions, and the 租賃住宅市場發展及管理條例 residential-rental act). Timeline: data not publicly available as a single figure — verify with a Taiwanese firm. Fast-track: none specific. Self-help: not advisable; court order required. Absentee: MODERATE — registered land is well protected (registration is conclusive — Land Act Art. 43; Civil Code Art. 758), so adverse possession bites mainly **unregistered** estates / superficies. **Adverse possession: Civil Code Arts. 769–770 — 20 years (or 10 years if possession began in good faith and without negligence) of peaceful continuous possession of *unregistered* land → may apply to be registered as owner** (Articles 769/770 expressly do NOT apply to registered estates) (law.moj.gov.tw Civil Code; Constitutional Court Interpretation No. 107; lexology.com). Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on the registered-vs-unregistered split + Arts. 769/770; MEDIUM on the 20/10yr split (re-verify wording) and LOW on eviction-timeline.

- **MY Malaysia** — Risk: (a) overstaying tenant + (b) squatting on state/private land. **Adverse possession is NOT recognised — Torrens system; National Land Code s.341 protects the registered proprietor against any squatter claim however long the occupation** (fareezlaw.com; thestar.com.my; koochinnam.com). Unlawful occupation of State land is itself a statutory offence (NLC s.425 — fine ≤ RM10,000 and/or ≤1 yr). Eviction: two routes — (1) writ of summons for trespass + eviction, or (2) **Order 89 Rules of Court 2012 summary originating-summons proceedings to recover possession**; after a possession order the owner files a writ of possession **within 3 months** (e-perundangan.pkns.gov.my; mahwengkwai.com). The Emergency (Clearance of Squatters) Regulations 1969 permit local-authority forced clearance in some cases. Fast-track: **Order 89 summary proceedings IS the fast-track for clear-cut trespass/no-tenancy occupiers**. Self-help: not advisable — use Order 89 / writ; do not self-evict. Absentee: **LOW on title risk** (no adverse possession), MODERATE on nuisance (squatting on absentee lots still requires a court process to clear). Foreign buyers: state-level minimum-price thresholds and consent apply — verify per state. Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on the no-adverse-possession / NLC s.341 / Order 89 framework.

- **ID Indonesia** — Risk: (a) land grabbing / "land mafia" syndicates (penyerobotan tanah) + (b) overstaying occupant + (c) overlapping-certificate disputes. Eviction: civil land-dispute litigation; **enforcement is the core problem — physical repossession after a court win is routinely resisted, with BPN (National Land Agency) record-correction delays and social/political friction** (kusumalawfirm.com; medium.com/@neighbours.agency). Multiple certificates over the same plot (weak BPN/LGU coordination + outdated mapping) force lengthy litigation. Adverse possession: Indonesia's UUPA/registration system does **not** grant title by mere long occupation in the common-law sense; rights flow from registered titles (Hak Milik / HGB / Hak Pakai) — but long undisputed occupation can feed competing-claim litigation in practice. Fast-track: none reliable; criminal complaint for penyerobotan possible where forgery/fraud present. Self-help: not advisable. Absentee: **HIGH** — foreigners cannot own land (only Hak Pakai / strata / leasehold via PT PMA); absentee/nominee structures plus weak enforcement make a contested occupier slow and costly to remove. Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM — strong on the enforcement-weakness and foreign-ownership facts; the precise statutory mechanics of long-occupation claims are not cleanly documented in English — verify with an Indonesian land lawyer / BPN.

- **VN Vietnam** — Risk: overstaying occupant / occupier of a land-use-right parcel; **no private land ownership exists — land is "owned by the entire people", State-administered; users hold Land Use Rights (LUR) with a LURC certificate** (foreigners 50-yr LURC; locals indefinite) (vietnam-briefing.com; Land Law 2024 No. 31/2024/QH15). Eviction: civil/administrative process to recover possession of the LUR parcel; the dominant repossession risk in Vietnam is the **State** reclaiming land for "socio-economic development / defence", not private adverse possession. Adverse possession: the common-law concept does not apply — title cannot accrue by occupation against the State land regime; disputes are over LUR allocation/recognition. Fast-track: none specific. Self-help: not advisable. Absentee: **MODERATE-HIGH** — process opacity + State-recovery powers mean an absentee LUR holder can face both slow occupier-removal and administrative reclamation; English-language primary law on private-occupier eviction timelines is sparse. Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM — high on the no-private-ownership / LUR structure; LOW on private-occupier eviction mechanics/timelines (not publicly documented in English — verify with a Vietnamese firm).

- **CN China** — Risk: overstaying tenant; informal occupation. **No private land ownership — urban land is State-owned, rural land collectively owned; buyers hold land-use rights / building ownership** (land-use term typically 70 yrs residential — verify current renewal rules). Eviction: civil suit; the Civil Code (2021) governs leases and possession claims. Adverse possession: **China does NOT recognise common-law adverse possession** — there is no acquisitive-prescription route to land title; the Civil Code's acquisitive-prescription provisions do not transfer real-property title by occupation (verify Civil Code Book II at npc.gov.cn — data not publicly available in a single English primary cite, verify with a PRC firm). Fast-track: none specific; some courts offer simplified procedure for clear cases. Self-help: not advisable — court enforcement required. Absentee: **MODERATE** — title not erodible by occupation, but court enforcement of possession against a resisting occupier can be slow and locally variable; foreign individuals face residence/eligibility restrictions on purchase (verify per city). Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: MEDIUM — high on "no private land ownership / no adverse possession"; LOW on eviction-timeline specifics (verify with a PRC firm — not searched in depth this pass).

- **LK Sri Lanka** — Risk: (a) overstaying tenant + (b) **prescriptive possession (the local adverse-possession analogue) — a real absentee-owner risk**. Eviction: declaration-of-title / ejectment action in civil court; rent-controlled premises (Rent Act) slow the process. **Prescription: 10 years of undisturbed, uninterrupted possession by a title adverse to / independent of the owner extinguishes the owner's title and vests it in the possessor — Prescription Ordinance (Cap. 81), Ord. No. 22 of 1871, s.3** (commonlii.org Cap.81; srilankalaw.lk; lawnet.gov.lk). A tenant's possession is derivative/not adverse (does not ripen against the landlord); an unsuccessful action against the possessor does **not** interrupt the running of prescription. Fast-track: none specific. Self-help: not advisable — title declaration via court. Absentee: **HIGH** — empty/ancestral land with no documented possession is the textbook 10-yr prescription loss for diaspora owners; mitigations mirror India (caretaker agreement acknowledging owner's title, documented periodic possession, tax records in owner's name, timely action to interrupt). Moratorium: none. **Confidence**: HIGH on the 10-yr Prescription Ordinance rule + tenant-not-adverse + no-interruption-by-failed-action; LOW on eviction-timeline specifics.

- **PK Pakistan** *(mixed common-law + Islamic-law jurisdiction; the **land-record layer is provincial — there is no national cadastre**, records sit with each province's Board of Revenue + ICT, Punjab the most digitised (PLRA); title is a **Record of Rights** — the mutation/*intiqal* entry in the *jamabandi*/*fard* + a registered deed under the Registration Act 1908 — which is **presumptive, NOT a Torrens guaranteed title**; the practical foreign-buyer market is the **diaspora** (NRPs / POC holders via the SBP Roshan Digital Account → Roshan Apna Ghar), with non-origin foreigners needing Ministry-of-Interior approval under the 1980 Order; final court for civil/property = Supreme Court of Pakistan.)* Risk: the structural exposure is **title-dispute / contested-possession risk rather than a clean codified squatter regime** — because the Record of Rights is *presumptive not conclusive*, a foreign/diaspora owner of an unwatched plot faces mutation-record manipulation, overlapping claims and informal occupation, and there is **no single authoritative parcel register to settle it the way a Torrens register would** (per the PK playbook). Eviction / process / realistic duration: **`data not publicly available — verify`** — the eviction route and any timeline were **not captured at a primary source this pass; verify with a Pakistani property attorney / the relevant provincial Board of Revenue / [supremecourt.gov.pk](https://www.supremecourt.gov.pk/)**. Fast-track: none identified — verify locally. Self-help: not advisable; recover possession through the courts. Absentee exposure: **HIGH for the diaspora profile by construction** — NRP/POC owners are by definition absentee and the presumptive-record system rewards continuous documented possession; the practical controls are an up-to-date mutation/*fard* in the owner's name, a registered caretaker arrangement, and periodic documented inspection (the same discipline the IN/LK entries prescribe). Adverse possession / limitation period: Pakistan shares the colonial-era **Limitation Act** lineage with pre-partition India (where 12-yr adverse possession of private land is the rule under the Limitation Act 1963), but the **exact Pakistani statutory period and instrument are NOT captured at a primary source this pass — `data not publicly available — verify` with the Limitation Act 1908 (Pakistan) / a local attorney**; do **not** import the Indian 12-yr figure as a confirmed PK number. Moratorium: none documented. Sources: PK playbook (primary-sourced: PLRA punjab-zameen.gov.pk + PLRA Act 2017; Registration Act 1908 framing; Foreigners Act 1946 / 1980 Order at fia.gov.pk; SBP RDA / Roshan Apna Ghar; Supreme Court of Pakistan). **Confidence**: MEDIUM on the presumptive-record / no-national-cadastre / diaspora-absentee framing (playbook-grounded); LOW on the adverse-possession period + eviction timeline (genuinely not captured for PK — flagged, not slot-filled).

- **KH Cambodia** — data not publicly available — verify Cambodia 2001 Land Law adverse-possession / informal-settlement regime with primary source (Ministry of Land Management). **Confidence**: LOW.

- **KZ Kazakhstan** — Risk: overstaying occupant; informal occupation. Eviction: civil court action to recover possession under the Civil Code; data on timelines not publicly available in English — verify with a Kazakh firm / via Adilet legal database (adilet.zan.kz). Adverse possession: Kazakhstan's Civil Code recognises **acquisitive prescription (приобретательная давность)** — long good-faith open possession of immovable property over a statutory period (commonly cited as 15 years for immovables in CIS-pattern civil codes) can ripen into ownership; **exact period and conditions: data not publicly available in this pass — verify the Civil Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Art. 240, at adilet.zan.kz**. Fast-track: none documented. Self-help: not advisable. Absentee: **MEDIUM** — sparse English-language primary sourcing; foreigners face agricultural-land restrictions (foreigners generally cannot own agricultural land — verify Land Code). Moratorium: none documented. **Confidence**: LOW — acquisitive prescription exists in principle; the specific period/process is unverified here — treat as "verify before relying".

- **UZ Uzbekistan** — Risk: overstaying occupant; informal occupation. **Land in Uzbekistan is predominantly State-owned; private ownership of land is restricted (recent reforms permit private ownership of certain residential/commercial plots — verify current Land Code / 2022–2025 reforms via lex.uz)**. Eviction: civil court action; timelines not publicly available in English — verify with an Uzbek firm / lex.uz. Adverse possession: civil-code acquisitive prescription may exist for buildings/immovables but is constrained by the State-land regime; **specifics: data not publicly available in this pass — verify the Civil Code of the Republic of Uzbekistan and current Land Code at lex.uz**. Fast-track: none documented. Self-help: not advisable. Absentee: **MEDIUM-HIGH** — State-land dominance + opaque process + sparse English sourcing make absentee enforcement uncertain; foreign land ownership heavily restricted. Moratorium: none documented. **Confidence**: LOW — honest sparsity; verify all specifics with primary Uzbek sources.

- **MV Maldives** — Risk: overstaying occupant; informal occupation (geographically constrained — limited private freehold; much land is State / island-lease). Eviction: civil court process; **the Maldives applies a civil-law-influenced framework with significant State land control; foreign freehold land ownership is heavily restricted (foreign ownership historically only via long lease; a 2015 constitutional amendment permitting freehold for very large investments was later repealed — verify current position at majlis.gov.mv / agoffice.gov.mv)**. Adverse possession: **data not publicly available — the common-law 12-yr model does NOT automatically apply; verify the Maldives Land Act and Civil Procedure framework with a Maldivian firm**. Fast-track: none documented. Self-help: not advisable. Absentee: **MEDIUM** — small jurisdiction, sparse English primary law; main foreign exposure is leasehold/structure, not freehold land. Moratorium: none documented. **Confidence**: LOW — honest sparsity; everything land-tenure-specific must be verified with Maldivian primary sources.

- **MO Macau** — Risk: overstaying tenant; adverse possession of land. Eviction: civil court action; tenancy governed by the Macau Civil Code (Portuguese-civil-law tradition). Adverse possession: Macau, like Portugal, recognises **usucapião (acquisitive prescription)** under its Civil Code — open, continuous, peaceful possession over a statutory period can ripen into title; **periods vary by good faith / registration (Portuguese-pattern usucapião commonly ~15–20 years without registered title, shorter with) — exact Macau Civil Code articles/periods: data not publicly available in this pass — verify the Código Civil de Macau (Decreto-Lei n.º 39/99/M), Arts. on usucapião, at io.gov.mo**. Most Macau land is now subject to the public land-concession regime (Lei de terras), which constrains private adverse-possession of land. Fast-track: none documented. Self-help: not advisable. Absentee: **MEDIUM** — usucapião is a real concept here for absentee owners, but land-concession dominance limits exposure; sparse English sourcing. Moratorium: none documented. **Confidence**: LOW — usucapião applies in principle (Portuguese tradition); exact Macau periods unverified — verify Código Civil de Macau.

- **VU Vanuatu** *(South Pacific Melanesian republic; **there is NO freehold — full stop**: the 1980 Constitution (Ch. 12, Arts 73–75) abolished all freehold and vested ALL land permanently in the indigenous custom owners; foreigners — and non-custom-owner ni-Vanuatu — hold land ONLY via a **registered lease under the Land Leases Act [Cap 163]** (75 yr is the ceiling, not a default); a "purchase" is an assignment of an existing lease + annual ground rent, gated by registration + Lessor's Consent at the Department of Lands; final court = Court of Appeal of Vanuatu, no UK Privy Council link.)* Risk: the **occupation/title-loss analysis is structurally unlike a freehold market** — because no one (foreign or ni-Vanuatu) owns freehold, there is **no freehold title for a squatter to extinguish by long possession**; the live risks are instead (a) occupation of, or a dispute over, the *leasehold interest* you actually hold, and (b) **custom-ownership disputes** over who the rightful custom-owner lessor is (a recurring, well-documented Vanuatu land issue) — which can cloud or unwind a lease at its root. Eviction: recovery of possession runs through the courts; **tenancy notice/deposit/eviction process is `data not publicly available here; verify at the State Law Office / a Vanuatu lawyer`** (VU playbook). Fast-track: none identified — verify locally. Self-help: not advisable; use the court route. Absentee exposure: the structural foreign-owner profile is an absentee lessee of an island/coastal lease — exposure is to **lease-validity / custom-owner-consent defects and years-remaining erosion**, not to freehold adverse possession; diligence weight sits on the lease chain + Lessor's Consent, not on a prescription clock. Adverse possession / acquisitive prescription: **not the operative risk against custom land** — common-law adverse possession does not run to vest freehold where freehold does not exist; any prescription-style rule operating *within* the lease/registration regime is **`data not publicly available — verify` with the Land Leases Act [Cap 163] / State Law Office** (PacLII blocks automated fetch — exact Cap-163 wording must be confirmed in a browser, per the VU research note). Moratorium: none documented. Sources: VU playbook (primary-sourced: consolidated Constitution Ch. 12 Arts 73–75 at gov.vu; Land Leases Act [Cap 163]; Department of Lands; Judiciary of Vanuatu). **Confidence**: MEDIUM-HIGH on the no-freehold / leasehold-only / custom-ownership structure (Constitution + Land Leases Act, playbook-grounded — and this structure *is* the headline finding); LOW on tenancy-eviction mechanics + any within-regime prescription rule (not publicly captured — flagged honestly).

### Confidence

MEDIUM-HIGH overall. HIGH on IN/JP/PH/TH/HK/SG/MY/KR/LK/TW statutory frameworks (primary gov + statute sources). The headline absentee trap is IN India (12yr private / 30yr govt, Limitation Act 1963), secondarily LK Sri Lanka (10yr Prescription Ordinance) and HK Hong Kong (12yr private land). SG/MY are the two clean no-title-risk jurisdictions (HIGH). LOW on KZ/UZ/MV/MO and on eviction-timeline figures for VN/CN/ID — explicitly flagged, not slot-filled. KH Cambodia: data not publicly available — placeholder pending primary-source verification (Ministry of Land Management / 2001 Land Law); LOW. No seasonal eviction moratorium of the European/COVID type as a standing rule anywhere in this region (verified-by-absence for the densely-researched countries; "none documented" for the sparse ones). **Last verified**: 2026-05-15.

## LATAM + Caribbean

### Regional pattern

Self-help eviction is illegal everywhere below (criminal liability for the owner) unless explicitly noted. Adverse possession ("usucapião"/"usucapión"/"prescripción adquisitiva"/"adverse possession") is the dominant LATAM absentee-owner trap — vacant land and unwatched 2nd homes are the prime targets; a documented caretaker plus dated possession evidence (utility bills, photos, ronda/vigilancia) is the only practical mitigant. Most jurisdictions offer an expedited route only for *fresh* intrusions (BR's 1-yr-and-1-day possessory rite; CO's ≤30-day police *lanzamiento*; criminal *usurpación/despojo/invasión* with anticipated restitution; CL's Ley 21.461 monitorio) — miss the short window and it reverts to a slow ordinary civil suit. The single most powerful Caribbean/Torrens mitigant is registered title: in DR there is **no acquisitive prescription against a Torrens-registered (saneado) parcel** regardless of occupation length. Pandemic-era eviction moratoria across the region have expired; none current as of 2026-05-15 — if a country reintroduces one, treat as a Tier-1/2 regulatory-watch trigger.

### Country one-liners

- **BR Brazil** — Occupation types: *invasão* of vacant land / unwatched 2nd homes, organised land-occupation movements (MTST/MST on idle parcels), informal *favela* expansion, non-paying tenant (*inquilino inadimplente*); targeting of vacant urban lots and coastal 2nd homes is high. Eviction: dispossession (*esbulho*) → *ação de reintegração de posse*; rent default → *ação de despejo*. Fast-track: special possessory rite applies if filed **within 1 year and 1 day** of the dispossession ("posse/força nova", CPC art. 558); liminar de reintegração granted *without hearing the defendant* once plaintiff proves possession + dispossession + a date < 1yr+1day (CPC art. 562) — fast in theory but court backlogs commonly stretch enforcement to many months/years; dispossession older than 1yr+1day ("posse/força velha") = ordinary rite (CPC art. 558 sole para.), slow. Self-help: barred; *desforço imediato* (CC art. 1210 §1) permitted only *immediately* after dispossession and without excess — narrow. Absentee exposure: very high — usucapião is THE absentee trap; an unwatched vacant lot can be lost; mitigate with caretaker + posse evidence + periodic site visits. Adverse possession (Código Civil Lei 10.406/2002): *usucapião extraordinária* art. 1238 = **15 yr** (no title/good faith), reduced to **10 yr** if possessor resides or made productive works; *usucapião ordinária* art. 1242 = **10 yr** (with justo título + boa-fé), reduced to **5 yr** in certain residence/onerous-title cases; *usucapião especial urbana* (CF art. 183 / CC art. 1240) = **5 yr** for ≤250 m² urban used as sole home; *especial rural* = **5 yr** ≤50 ha. Extrajudicial usucapião available via notary since 2015 (CPC art. 1071). Moratorium: none current (COVID-era Lei 14.216/2021 suspensions expired 2021). Source: [Art. 1238 CC — Jusbrasil](https://www.jusbrasil.com.br/topicos/10652639/artigo-1238-da-lei-n-10406-de-10-de-janeiro-de-2002), [CC comentado art. 1238 — direitocom](https://www.direitocom.com/codigo-civil-comentado/artigo-1238), [Prazo de ano e dia (CPC art. 558/562) — Boletim Jurídico](https://www.boletimjuridico.com.br/artigos/direito-civil/4673/prazo-ano-dia-nas-acoes-possessorias-efeitos-liminar), [Art. 560–566 NCPC comentado — Projuris](https://www.projuris.com.br/novo-cpc/art-560-ao-566-do-novo-cpc/). **Confidence**: HIGH.

- **MX Mexico** — Occupation types: *despojo* (criminal dispossession, often "invasores"/"paracaidistas" on vacant lots & 2nd homes), *asentamientos irregulares* on ejido/peri-urban land, non-paying tenant (*inquilino moroso*), tenant-who-won't-leave. State-by-state civil codes — figures below are Código Civil Federal / typical CDMX; verify the relevant state code. Eviction: *juicio de desahucio* / *juicio especial de desocupación* (lease) or *acción reivindicatoria* / criminal *querella por despojo* (intruder); civil eviction typically slow (commonly 6–18+ months; varies by state — verify locally). Fast-track: *despojo* is a criminal offence (e.g. CPF art. 395) enabling a Ministerio Público *querella* and faster restitution than the civil route; some states added expedited lease-recovery rites — verify per state. Self-help: barred; owner re-entry by force itself constitutes *despojo* (criminal exposure for the owner). Absentee exposure: high — vacant lots and absentee 2nd homes are prime *prescripción positiva* targets; coastal/ejido title complexity compounds it; caretaker + registered title + periodic possession acts essential. Adverse possession — *prescripción positiva / usucapión* (CCF arts. 1151–1157): ordinarily **5 yr** with good faith + just title (and continuous, peaceful, public, *animus domini* possession), **10 yr** without good faith / bad faith; longer where possession is violent/clandestine or via intermediary. State codes vary (e.g. some set 5/10; verify the property's state — and ejido/agrarian and coastal/restricted-zone (fideicomiso) land carry distinct, higher title-and-occupation risk). Moratorium: none current. Source: [CCF arts. 1151–1157 Prescripción Positiva — Justia](https://mexico.justia.com/federales/codigos/codigo-civil-federal/libro-segundo/titulo-septimo/capitulo-ii/), [Desalojo de vivienda guide — Moradauno](https://www.moradauno.com.mx/blog/desalojo-de-vivienda). **Confidence**: MEDIUM-HIGH (CCF arts. 1151–1157 primary; state-code variation is the main caveat — flag per-state verification).

- **AR Argentina** — Occupation types: *usurpación* / *intrusión* of vacant property & 2nd homes (criminal, CP art. 181), *tomas* (organised land occupations, esp. Greater Buenos Aires), non-paying tenant (*inquilino*). Eviction: *juicio de desalojo* — by intrusion/usurpación, by contract end, or by non-payment; intruder *desalojo* can be relatively quicker than tenant cases but still months; criminal *usurpación* route allows requesting urgent restitution during the criminal process. Fast-track: courts may order *restitución anticipada* in the *usurpación* criminal proceeding (CPPN); a 2025–2026 "desalojo exprés" reform package was under legislative debate (per news reports — **proposed, NOT yet enacted law as of 2026-05-15**; appears in Infobae/HCDN/Legislatura project PDFs only). The Alquileres reform context: pre-suit *intimación* (≥10 corridos days) required for rent-default residential eviction (Ley 27.551 framework; note Ley 27.551 was substantially altered/repealed by DNU 70/2023 — the locación regime is in flux, cited as framework context only, verify current rule). Self-help: barred (force = criminal liability). Absentee exposure: high for vacant land/2nd homes — *prescripción adquisitiva larga* runs without title/good faith; caretaker + dated possession acts (fencing, painting, taxes) essential. Adverse possession (Código Civil y Comercial, Ley 26.994): *prescripción adquisitiva breve* art. 1898 = **10 yr** (with justo título + buena fe); *larga* art. 1899 = **20 yr** (no title/good-faith needed). Possession must be pública, pacífica, continua, *ánimo de dueño*. Moratorium: none current (COVID-era DNU 320/2020 rent/eviction freeze expired 2021). Source: [CCyC arts. 1898/1899 — conceptosjuridicos](https://www.conceptosjuridicos.com/ar/usucapion-extraordinaria/), [Ley 27551 texto — argentina.gob.ar](https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-27551-339378/texto), [Desalojar a un usurpador — Estudio Diz](https://www.estudiojuridicodiz.com.ar/faq-items/como-puedo-desalojar-a-un-ocupante-ilegal-usurpador/). **Confidence**: HIGH on adverse-possession bands (CCyC arts. 1898/1899 primary); MEDIUM on the fast-track ("desalojo exprés" proposed, not enacted — flagged).

- **CO Colombia** — Occupation types: *ocupación de hecho* / *invasión* of vacant lots & 2nd homes (criminal *invasión de tierras* CP art. 263), informal settlements (esp. urban periphery), *tenedor que no restituye* / non-paying tenant; Bogotá/Medellín peri-urban vacant land heavily targeted. Eviction: *proceso de restitución de inmueble arrendado* (lease) or *acción reivindicatoria* + *querella policiva de lanzamiento por ocupación de hecho* (within ≤30 days of occupation, before the *Inspección de Policía*, Ley 1801/2016 Código de Policía) for fresh intrusions; ordinary civil restitution for older ones — slow. Fast-track: the police *lanzamiento por ocupación de hecho* (querella to the alcaldía/inspección de policía) is the expedited administrative route but the ≤30-day window from the occupation is strict — miss it and it's the slow civil route; criminal *invasión de tierras* complaint also available. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: high — vacant lots / 2nd homes targeted; *prescripción extraordinaria* runs 10 yr with no title needed (buena fe presumed by law); caretaker + possession evidence essential. Adverse possession (Código Civil, as amended by Ley 791/2002): *prescripción ordinaria* = **5 yr** for inmuebles (regular possession, just title, good faith); *prescripción extraordinaria* = **10 yr** (no title; buena fe presumed de derecho). Moratorium: none current (Decreto 579/2020 COVID lease-process suspension expired). Source: [Código Civil de la posesión/prescripción — Corte Suprema](https://cortesuprema.gov.co/corte/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/DE-LA-POSESION-PRESCRIPCION-ADQUISITIVA-Y-ACCION-POSESORIA-P.pdf), [Ley 791 de 2002 — Función Pública](https://www.funcionpublica.gov.co/eva/gestornormativo/norma.php?i=6921), [Código Civil texto — Secretaría Senado](http://www.secretariasenado.gov.co/senado/basedoc/codigo_civil_pr078.html). **Confidence**: HIGH (Código Civil + Ley 791/2002 primary; corroborated by Corte Suprema relatoría).

- **PE Peru** — Occupation types: *usurpación* / *invasión* of vacant land & 2nd homes (organised "traficantes de terrenos" mafias are a notorious nationwide problem; criminal CP art. 202), *asentamientos humanos* (informal settlements), *ocupante precario* / non-paying tenant; Peru has one of the region's most acute land-invasion problems for absentee/vacant land. Eviction: *proceso de desalojo* (incl. *desalojo por ocupación precaria* and the expedited *desalojo notarial / desalojo express* under Ley 30933 for leases with eviction clause), or criminal *usurpación* with *desalojo preventivo / ministración provisional* (CPP art. 311) restoring possession during the criminal case. Fast-track: (1) *desalojo preventivo* in the criminal *usurpación* process — relatively fast restitution; (2) *desalojo notarial* (Ley 30933, 2019) for qualifying lease contracts; ordinary judicial *desalojo* otherwise — slow. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: very high — vacant land is a top mafia target; *prescripción adquisitiva* runs 10 yr without title; active caretaker/guachimán + walls + dated possession + SUNARP registration essential. Adverse possession (Código Civil art. 950): **10 yr** (continuous, peaceful, public possession *como propietario*); **5 yr** where there is *justo título + buena fe*. Procedural route: *proceso abreviado* (CPC art. 486) or notarial (Ley 27157). Moratorium: none current. Source: [Art. 950 CC jurisprudencia — LP Derecho](https://lpderecho.pe/articulo-950-del-codigo-civil-prescripcion-adquisitiva/), [Prescripción adquisitiva explicada — LP Derecho](https://lpderecho.pe/prescripcion_adquisitiva_de_dominio-derechos-reales/). **Confidence**: HIGH on the art. 950 bands (Código Civil primary).

- **CR Costa Rica** — Occupation types: *precaristas* (organised precario invasions of vacant/idle land — a well-known CR phenomenon, esp. rural & coastal/Maritime-Zone parcels), *invasión de terrenos*, non-paying tenant; idle absentee land is the classic precarista target. Eviction: *proceso de desahucio* (Ley General de Arrendamientos Urbanos y Suburbanos for leases / mera tolerancia) or *acción reivindicatoria* + administrative *desalojo administrativo* (Ministerio de Seguridad Pública) for intruders; desahucio against a *poseedor en precario o por pura tolerancia* is available but enforcement can be slow. Fast-track: administrative *desalojo* request to the Ministerio de Seguridad Pública for clear intrusions (faster than full civil suit) — but contested/long-standing precario goes to court. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: high — idle/vacant land is the prime precarista target; *usucapión* runs 10 yr; agrarian precario possessors who put idle land into subsistence production gain protected status faster (informaciones posesorias after 10 yr); caretaker + fencing + productive use or active monitoring essential. Maritime Zone (ZMT) concession land is a distinct, higher-risk title regime — verify separately. Adverse possession: usucapión (Código Civil) = **10 yr** of continuous, public, uninterrupted, *animus domini* possession; agrarian usucapión has special precario rules (≥1 yr of necessity-driven productive possession → precario status; ≥10 yr → registrable via información posesoria). Moratorium: none current. Source: [Usucapión civil y agraria — CIJUL/UCR](https://cijulenlinea.ucr.ac.cr/portal/descargar.php?q=MjIxMQ%3D%3D), [Derechos de ocupantes ilegales CR — Quatro Legal](https://quatro.legal/derechos-civiles-ocupantes-ilegales-costa-rica-lo-que-propietarios-deben-saber/), [Ley Gral. Arrendamientos — PGR](http://www.pgrweb.go.cr/scij/busqueda/normativa/normas/nrm_texto_completo.aspx?nValor1=1&nValor2=23655). **Confidence**: HIGH on the 10-yr usucapión period (Código Civil / CIJUL primary-derived; agrarian precario well-documented).

- **PA Panama** — Occupation types: *invasión* / *precaristas* on vacant land & 2nd homes (notable on titled-vs-Rights-of-Possession land and in interior/coastal areas), informal settlements, non-paying tenant; untitled "Rights of Possession" (derechos posesorios) land is a distinct, elevated squatter/title risk vs. titled land. Eviction: *juicio de lanzamiento / desahucio* (lease) or *acción reivindicatoria* + *proceso de lanzamiento por intruso*; administrative options via the Ministerio de Vivienda / land authorities for certain invasions; slow in contested cases. Fast-track: lanzamiento *por intruso* is available; for clear recent intrusions some administrative/police restitution may be invoked — verify locally; data on a codified express timeline **not publicly available — verify with Órgano Judicial de Panamá**. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: high, especially on derechos-posesorios / untitled land; prescription runs against private titled land but **State, municipal and autonomous-entity land is imprescriptible** (cannot be lost to adverse possession); caretaker + title (not just ROP) + possession evidence essential. Adverse possession (Código Civil de Panamá): *prescripción adquisitiva extraordinaria* = **15 yr** of public, peaceful, uninterrupted, *animus domini* possession (no title/good faith); *ordinaria* = **10 yr between presentes / 20 yr between ausentes** with good faith + just title (CC art. 1694). Natural interruption if possession ceases > 1 yr. Moratorium: none current. Source: [Código Civil de Panamá (PDF) — Justia](https://docs.panama.justia.com/federales/codigos/codigo-civil.pdf), [La prescripción adquisitiva en Panamá — Lex Diarium](https://www.lexdiarium.com/civil/la-prescripci%C3%B3n-adquisitiva-del-dominio-en-panam%C3%A1), [Derechos posesorios — Revista Sapientia, Órgano Judicial](https://revistasapientia.organojudicial.gob.pa/index.php/sapientia/article/download/172/131/266). **Confidence**: MEDIUM-HIGH (Código Civil de Panamá primary; 15-yr extraordinary + 10/20 ordinary with the *ausentes* doubling well-attested; express-eviction timeline unverified).

- **CL Chile** — Occupation types: *tomas* (organised land occupations — a significant national issue, esp. peri-urban Santiago/Valparaíso/north), *ocupación ilegal* / *usurpación* of vacant 2nd homes, non-paying tenant / occupant *precario*. Eviction: *procedimiento monitorio* of **Ley 21.461 "Devuélveme Mi Casa"** (published 30 Jun 2022) — judicial receiver notifies, occupant has **10 corridos days** to oppose; absent/baseless opposition → restitution & eviction judgment, with an early *medida precautoria de restitución anticipada* available; also covers non-paying / gravely-breaching tenants. Pre-2022 *comodato precario* civil suit was slow; the monitorio rite materially accelerated recovery (in theory weeks-to-months vs. years; enforcement still depends on court/receiver capacity). For mass *tomas*, Carabineros restitution + criminal *usurpación* (the criminal-usurpación reinforcement referenced from memory as "Ley 21.090/2024-era" is NOT a verified statute number — **verify the exact law/number** before citing) also apply. Fast-track: yes — Ley 21.461 monitorio + restitución anticipada is the fast-track. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: high for vacant 2nd homes; *prescripción extraordinaria* runs 10 yr with no title and good faith presumed *de derecho*; caretaker + possession evidence essential. Adverse possession (Código Civil): *prescripción adquisitiva ordinaria* = **5 yr** for inmuebles (regular possession from just title + good faith); *extraordinaria* = **10 yr** (irregular possession, no title needed, good faith presumed de derecho). Moratorium: none current. Source: [Ley 21.461 — BCN LeyChile](https://www.bcn.cl/leychile/Navegar?idNorma=1178004), [Devuélveme mi Casa — ChileAtiende](https://www.chileatiende.gob.cl/fichas/107794-devuelveme-mi-casa-ley-n-21-461), [La Prescripción — Orrego Acuña](https://www.juanandresorrego.cl/assets/pdf/apu/ap_4/La%20prescripcion.pdf). **Confidence**: HIGH (Código Civil bands + Ley 21.461 primary/well-documented; the specific usurpación-reform law number flagged for verification).

- **UY Uruguay** — Occupation types: *ocupación* / *intrusión* of vacant property & 2nd homes, *asentamientos irregulares* (informal settlements — a recognised national issue), non-paying tenant (*precario urbano*). Eviction: *juicio de desalojo* (incl. *desalojo precario urbano*) before Juzgado de Paz/Letrado; intruder/precario route exists; LUC (Ley 19.889, 2020) introduced an accelerated lease/eviction track for certain contracts; enforcement timelines moderate-to-slow. Fast-track: LUC 2020 created faster lease-eviction processes for qualifying contracts; for pure intrusion the precario *desalojo* is the route — codified express-timeline for intruders **not clearly publicly available — verify with Poder Judicial Uruguay**. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: moderate-high for vacant land; long *treintañal*/twenty-year prescription means slower clock than Andean peers but still real; caretaker + dated possession acts essential. Adverse possession (Código Civil, arts. 1211 & 463/464): historically *prescripción treintañal* = **30 yr** (no title/bad faith); **10 yr** between present persons with just title + good faith, **20 yr** between absent persons or without good title; **LUC Ley 19.889 (2020) shortened several prescription periods** — the current applicable numeric term must be verified per case against arts. 463/464 as amended. Moratorium: none current. Source: [Código Civil art. 1211 — IMPO](https://www.impo.com.uy/bases/codigo-civil/16603-1994/1211), [Reforma LUC plazos prescripción — LS Abogados](https://lsabogados.com.uy/la-reforma-que-introdujo-la-luc-en-materia-de-plazos-de-prescripcion), [Código Civil texto — OAS](https://www.oas.org/dil/esp/codigo_civil_uruguay.pdf). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (Código Civil + LUC reform direction sourced; exact post-LUC numeric terms need per-case verification — flagged).

- **PY Paraguay** — Occupation types: *invasión* / *ocupación* of vacant land (rural land invasions, esp. organised *carperos*/landless movements on idle large estates, are a significant national issue) & 2nd homes, *ocupante precario*, non-paying tenant; idle absentee rural land is a high-profile target. Eviction: *juicio de desalojo* against locatario/sublocatario/*ocupante precario* whose duty to restore is enforceable; ordinary civil rite. Ley 6979 modified/expanded CPC art. 621 (desalojo) — verify current accelerated provisions. Fast-track: Ley 6979 (amending CPC art. 621) broadened expedited desalojo grounds — verify exact scope/timeline against the statute; criminal *invasión de inmueble ajeno* (Código Penal) also available for fresh intrusions. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: high for idle rural land; *usucapión larga* 20 yr runs with no title/good faith; active possession/caretaker + título + perimeter works essential; idle large estates are politically and practically exposed. Adverse possession (Código Civil Ley 1.183, Libro Cuarto): *usucapión larga* = **20 yr** uninterrupted, no title or good faith needed; *usucapión corta* = **10 yr** with justo título + buena fe. Moratorium: none current. Source: [Código Civil Ley 1.183 Libro Cuarto — BACN](https://www.bacn.gov.py/leyes-paraguayas/524/codigo-civil-iv-parte-libro-cuarto), [Ley 6979 modifica CPC art. 621 — BACN](https://www.bacn.gov.py/leyes-paraguayas/10672/ley-n-6979-modifica-y-amplia-el-articulo-621-de-la-ley-n-13371998-codigo-procesal-civil), [Ley de desalojo en Paraguay — El Inmobiliario](https://www.elinmobiliario.com.py/post/procedimientos-de-ley-del-desalojo-en-paraguay). **Confidence**: MEDIUM-HIGH (Código Civil Ley 1.183 bands well-attested; desalojo-reform Ley 6979 scope flagged for verification).

- **EC Ecuador** — Occupation types: *invasión de tierras* (organised land invasions — a recognised, recurrent national issue, esp. Guayaquil/coastal periphery; criminal *invasión* under COIP), *ocupación* of vacant 2nd homes, non-paying tenant; vacant peri-urban/coastal land heavily targeted. Eviction: *juicio de desahucio* (lease) or civil restitution + criminal *invasión de tierras* (COIP) for organised invasions; ordinary timelines slow. Fast-track: criminal COIP *invasión* route + police restitution for fresh organised invasions; codified civil express-eviction timeline **not clearly publicly available — verify with Función Judicial Ecuador / COGEP**. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: high for vacant land; *prescripción extraordinaria* 15 yr, no title needed; caretaker + fencing + dated possession + registry essential. Adverse possession (Código Civil, arts. 2410–2411): *prescripción adquisitiva ordinaria* = **5 yr** for inmuebles (just title + good faith); *extraordinaria* = **15 yr** (no title; mere material possession, public/peaceful/uninterrupted/exclusive). Moratorium: none current. Source: [Prescripción extraordinaria art. 2410 — Procupedia, PGE Ecuador](https://procupedia.pge.gob.ec/index.php/Prescripci%C3%B3n_Extraordinaria_Adquisitiva_de_Dominio), [Proceso civil prescripción extraordinaria — Corte Nacional](https://www.cortenacional.gob.ec/cnj/images/pdf/sentencias/sala_civil/2012b/141-2010.pdf) ❌ DEPRECATED — dead on 2026-09-18; verify with the authority named in this row. **Confidence**: HIGH on the 5/15-yr bands (Código Civil arts. 2410–2411 primary); MEDIUM on eviction timeline (flagged).

- **BS Bahamas** — Occupation types: squatting on vacant land & undeveloped foreign-owned lots (a recognised issue on family/out islands and undeveloped subdivisions), trespasser-occupiers; landlord-tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law / statutory possession action through the Supreme Court; for adverse-possession-tainted title, a *Quieting Titles Act (Ch. 393)* action is used to settle/defend title; slow if title is clouded. Fast-track: no specific codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the Supreme Court of The Bahamas / a Bahamian attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; pursue possession proceedings (common-law jurisdiction — owner self-help carries breach-of-peace/liability risk; verify). Absentee exposure: **high and well-documented** — undeveloped foreign-owned land is a classic adverse-possession target; quiet-title clouding is a known buyer-due-diligence issue; active monitoring, caretaker, signage, periodic inspection and a clean quiet-title chain essential. Adverse possession: Limitation Act 1995 = **12 yr** limitation to recover land (older Real Property Limitation Act 1874 = 20 yr for certain historical claims); Quieting Titles Act Ch. 393 governs adjudication. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Squatting in the Bahamas — Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squatting_in_the_Bahamas), [Bahamas Court of Appeal judgment (limitation/quieting)](https://www.courtofappeal.org.bs/download/021982300.pdf), [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (12-yr Limitation Act period + Quieting Titles Act well-attested via Court of Appeal/secondary; express-eviction track not found — flagged).

- **DO Dominican Republic** — *(DO = Dominican Republic; not to be confused with DM Dominica, which is out of scope — no Dominica data is included or implied.)* Occupation types: *invasión* / *ocupación* of vacant land & 2nd homes, informal occupation of unregistered/untitled rural parcels, non-paying tenant (*inquilino*); untitled/un-saneado land carries materially higher squatter & prescription risk than Torrens-registered land. Eviction: *desalojo* (civil/administrative) or proceedings before the *Tribunal de Tierras* / *Jurisdicción Inmobiliaria* for registered-land disputes; for unregistered land, *saneamiento* before the Tribunal de Tierras adjudicates competing possession claims; slow on contested untitled land. Fast-track: administrative/police *desalojo* may be available for clear recent intrusions; codified express civil timeline **not clearly publicly available — verify with the Jurisdicción Inmobiliaria / Suprema Corte de Justicia**. Self-help: barred. Absentee exposure: **high for untitled land; materially lower for Torrens-registered (saneado) land** — there is **no acquisitive prescription against a registered (Torrens) parcel** even after 20+ yr of occupation (Ley 108-05 / 1542 principle); the single most effective absentee mitigant in DR is holding (and keeping) a clean *Certificado de Título* from the Jurisdicción Inmobiliaria. Adverse possession: unregistered land — usucapión generally **20 yr** (veintenal; doctrine also recognises 5/10-yr quinquenal/decenal in good-faith/just-title scenarios — verify per case); **registered land — imprescriptible (no adverse possession)**. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Prescripción derechos registrados Ley 108-05 — El Nuevo Diario](https://elnuevodiario.com.do/prescripcion-del-derecho-y-la-accion-en-materia-a-de-derechos-registrados-a-la-luz-del-principio-iv-de-la-ley-108-05/), [Ley 1542 Registro de Tierras — RI.gob.do](https://ri.gob.do/wp-content/uploads/Marco_Legal/Leyes/Ley_1542.pdf), [TC-0838-18 — Tribunal Constitucional](https://tribunalsitestorage.blob.core.windows.net/media/18913/tc-0838-18.pdf). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (the registered-land-imprescriptible rule + 20-yr unregistered baseline well-attested via Tribunal Constitucional / doctrine; sub-20-yr variants need per-case verification — flagged).

- **JM Jamaica** — Occupation types: squatting on vacant land & captured/undeveloped lots (a long-recognised national issue — "capture"/informal settlement is widespread; gov't estimates large squatter populations), trespasser-occupiers; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession action / ejectment through the courts; registered-title defence under the Registration of Titles Act; adverse-possession claims litigated (Recreational Holdings (Jamaica) Ltd v Lazarus line of authority); slow if possession period is contested. Fast-track: no specific codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with a Jamaican attorney / the Supreme Court of Judicature**. Self-help: not advisable; use court ejectment (peaceable re-entry doctrines are narrow and risky — verify). Absentee exposure: **high and well-documented** — overseas-owned undeveloped land is a classic adverse-possession ("you snooze, you lose") target; Jamaican counsel routinely advise active monitoring/possession steps. Adverse possession: Limitation of Actions Act = **12 yr** for privately owned land; **60 yr** for government land; possession must be open, exclusive, continuous & uninterrupted for the full 12 yr. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Adverse possession in Jamaica — Winston R. Roberts](https://www.winston-r-roberts.com/post/understanding-adverse-possession-in-jamaica-a-legal-overview), [Recreational Holdings v Lazarus — Myers Fletcher & Gordon](https://myersfletcher.com/acquiring-title-by-adverse-possession-the-case-of-recreational-holdings-jamaica-limited-v-carl-lazarus-and-the-registrar-of-titles/), [Adverse Possession Law in Jamaica (overview PDF) — Jamaica Homes](https://listings.jamaica-homes.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Adverse-Possession-Law-in-Jamaica_-A-Comprehensive-Overview.pdf). **Confidence**: HIGH on the 12-yr / 60-yr periods (Limitation of Actions Act + multiple Jamaican-firm secondary + case law); MEDIUM on eviction-process specifics (flagged).

- **BB Barbados** — Occupation types: squatting / adverse occupation of vacant land & undeveloped lots (less acute than JM but documented in case law, e.g. Tyrone Bishop v Lorna Ward), trespasser-occupiers; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the Barbados courts; adverse-possession defence litigated under the Limitation of Actions Act framework; slow if the 10-yr clock is contested. Fast-track: no specific codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with a Barbadian attorney / the Barbados courts**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: high for undeveloped/absentee land — Barbados has the region's **shortest common-law adverse-possession clock (10 yr)**, so absentee monitoring discipline matters more, not less; active possession steps + periodic inspection essential. Adverse possession: Limitation of Actions Act (1997) = **10 yr** from accrual of the right of action to recover land; legal action by the title-holder before the 10-yr clock matures defeats the adverse claim (occupant then = illegal occupier). Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Tyrone Bishop v Lorna Ward — Barbados Judicial System](https://www.barbadoslawcourts.gov.bb/judgments/tyrone-bishop-v-lorna-ward), [Adverse Possession (Barbados study guide) — UWI/Studocu](https://www.studocu.com/row/document/the-university-of-the-west-indies-st-augustine/property-law/adverse-possession/4603782), [Real Property & Adverse Possession — Terra Caribbean](https://terracaribbean.com/real-property-and-adverse-possession/). **Confidence**: MEDIUM-HIGH (10-yr period well-attested via Barbados Judicial System case + UWI/secondary; eviction-process specifics flagged).

- **BZ Belize** — Occupation types: squatting on national/unregistered land & remote/coastal lots; the practical risk profile is materially **lower than its Central American neighbours** — Belize is explicitly pro-landlord with strict anti-squatting enforcement and does **not** recognise informal "squatters' rights" the way CR/PA/HN do; tenant non-payment is separate. Eviction: recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the Supreme Court of Belize; trespass remedies; statutory possession action; pro-owner posture means contested squatter clearance is comparatively more owner-favourable than CR/PA — but court timelines still apply. Fast-track: no specific codified express-eviction track identified, but enforcement posture is owner-favourable — **verify specifics with a Belizean attorney / Supreme Court of Belize**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: lower than CR/PA but real on national/unregistered land; **adverse possession is hard to perfect** — requires Supreme Court proof of continuous, undisturbed possession of **30 yr on national & "conveyed" (unregistered/common-law) land**, or **12 yr on registered land**; hold registered title + monitor; national-land claims by squatters face the long 30-yr bar. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Are Squatters a Concern in Belize? — RE/MAX Belize](https://remaxbelizerealestate.com/belize-real-estate/are-squatters-a-concern-in-belize/), [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (the 30-yr national / 12-yr registered split and pro-landlord posture well-attested via real-estate/legal secondary; underlying Limitation/Law of Property statute citation not separately verified — flagged).

- **KY Cayman Islands** *(British Overseas Territory — English common law; Grand Court of the Cayman Islands, NOT part of the ECSC; final appeal JCPC London. No general foreign-ownership restriction — non-Caymanians take freehold registered title freely.)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & unwatched 2nd homes; landlord-tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the Grand Court; under the **Torrens-style, state-guaranteed registered-title system (Registered Land Act (2018 Revision); Part X government indemnity)** the current Land Register is conclusive, so a registered proprietor's title is robust. Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the Grand Court / a Cayman attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; use court possession proceedings (common-law jurisdiction — owner self-help carries breach-of-peace/liability risk; verify). Absentee exposure: high for empty 2nd homes & undeveloped lots (SMB-corridor villas, condos) — the structural foreign-owner profile; active monitoring, caretaker, signage, periodic inspection essential. Adverse possession: ordinary action to recover land = **12 yr** limitation (Limitation Act (1996 Revision), s.19; 30 yr against the Crown). **REFORM IN PROGRESS — the Law Reform Commission's Final Report (10 March 2025) recommends amending the Registered Land Act to disapply the s.19 limitation for *registered* land and replace the title-by-possession procedure; the Registered Land (Amendment) Bill 2025 was submitted to the AG** — i.e. Cayman is moving toward the SG/MY/AU-style registered-title immunity but the reform is **NOT yet confirmed in force** (verify status at gov.ky / legislation.gov.ky before relying). Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Adverse Possession — Final Report, Cayman Islands Law Reform Commission (10 Mar 2025)](https://gov.ky/web/lrc/adverse-possession), [Limitation Law (1996 Revision)](https://legislation.gov.ky/cms/images/LEGISLATION/PRINCIPAL/1991/1991-0012/1991-0012_1996%20Revision.pdf), [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (12-yr limitation + Torrens-register frame well-attested via LRC primary + statute; the 2025 disapply-AP-vs-registered-land reform is genuinely pending — flagged not-yet-in-force; express-eviction track not found — flagged).

- **BM Bermuda** *(self-governing British Overseas Territory in the **North Atlantic — NOT the Caribbean**; English common law; Supreme Court of Bermuda; final appeal JCPC. One of the world's most restrictive foreign-buyer regimes — non-Bermudian needs an Alien Landholding Licence + ARV-floor.)* Occupation types: encroachment / adverse occupation of land, trespasser-occupiers; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the Supreme Court of Bermuda; **title is mid-transition to registered electronic title (Land Title Registration Act 2011, LTRO) — NOT every parcel is yet registered**, so a deeds-system (unregistered) parcel still carries chain-of-title and possession-history risk a registered parcel does not. Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the Supreme Court of Bermuda / a Bermudian attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: structurally constrained — the restrictive ALL/ARV regime means relatively few absentee foreign owners and high-density managed estates; the live exposure is **boundary encroachment** between neighbours rather than street-squatting (a documented local issue). Adverse possession: action to recover land barred after **20 yr** from accrual of the right of action (**Limitation Act 1984, s.16** — Bermuda is the Anglo-Caribbean outlier at 20 yr, vs the 12-yr regional norm); registered LTRA-2011 title is the stronger protection where the parcel is registered. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Dealing with land encroachment disputes — The Royal Gazette](https://www.royalgazette.com/local-business/business/article/20240408/dealing-with-land-encroachment-disputes/), [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (20-yr period via Limitation Act 1984 s.16 well-attested in local legal press + vLex; LTRO registered/unregistered split per the BM playbook; express-eviction track not found — flagged).

- **TC Turks and Caicos Islands** *(British Overseas Territory; English common law; Supreme Court of the Turks and Caicos Islands, NOT part of the ECSC. USD legal tender. Open to foreign freehold with no prior permission.)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & undeveloped/coastal lots, unwatched 2nd homes; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the Supreme Court; the **Torrens-style registered-title system (Registered Land Ordinance, Chapter 9.01)** gives a state-backed conclusive register (low title-risk vs deeds systems). Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the Supreme Court of the TCI / a TCI attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: high for empty Providenciales/outer-island villas & undeveloped lots (the dominant foreign-owner profile); active monitoring, caretaker, signage, periodic inspection essential. Adverse possession: action to recover land = **12 yr** (**Limitation of Actions Ordinance 2021**); critically, **adverse possession operates *through* s.135 of the Registered Land Ordinance — i.e. the register is NOT wholly immune: a possessor can perfect title by prescription under s.135 and the displaced owner's registered title is extinguished and re-registered on completion** (distinct from the DR/St-Lucia "registration extinguishes prescription" model — verify the s.135 mechanics + 2021-Ordinance commencement at gov.tc). Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Note on the Limitation of Actions Ordinance 2021 — Griffiths & Partners](https://www.griffithsandpartners.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2021/10/20211019-Note-on-the-Limitation-of-Actions-Ordinance-2021.pdf) ❌ DEPRECATED — dead on 2026-09-18; verify with the authority named in this row, [Registered Land Ordinance Ch. 9.01 (FAO mirror)](https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/tci107736.pdf), [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (12-yr period + s.135-RLO prescription route well-attested via Griffiths & Partners note + statute text; express-eviction track not found — flagged).

- **VG British Virgin Islands** *(British Overseas Territory; English common law; High Court of Justice (Virgin Islands), a division of the **Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (ECSC)**; final appeal JCPC. USD legal tender. Non-Belonger needs a Non-Belongers Land Holding Licence (NBLHL) before holding land.)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & unwatched 2nd homes; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the High Court (VI); the **registered-land (Torrens-style) system (Registered Land Act / Registered Land Ordinance 1970, CAP.229)** makes title turn on registration, not a chain of deeds (low title-risk). Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the High Court (VI) / a BVI attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: high for empty villas & undeveloped lots (the NBLHL-gated foreign-owner profile is structurally absentee); active monitoring, caretaker, periodic inspection essential. Adverse possession: action to recover land = **12 yr** (**Limitation Act 1991, CAP.43, s.6(3)** — right of action accrues on dispossession; registered owner's claim barred after 12 yr); the registered-land register controls subject to the limitation regime. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137), [Department of Land Registry FAQs — Government of the Virgin Islands](https://bvi.gov.vg/department-faqs/80) ❌ DEPRECATED — dead on 2026-09-18; verify with the authority named in this row, [Smith & Ors v Molyneaux (BVI) [2016] UKPC 35](https://www.casemine.com/judgement/uk/5b2897dc2c94e06b9e19c747). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (12-yr period pinned to Limitation Act 1991 CAP.43 s.6(3) via vLex Caribbean; CAP.229 registered-land frame per the VG playbook; express-eviction track not found — flagged).

- **KN St. Kitts and Nevis** *(English common-law twin-island federation, independent 1981; ECSC superior court (resident High Court division); final appeal JCPC. **Nevis has substantial constitutional autonomy (NIA) + a separate Land Registry branch** — verify Nevis parcels separately.)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & unwatched 2nd homes (incl. CBI-development units pre-occupancy); tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the courts; **TWO title systems run side-by-side — unregistered (a *deed* in the Register of Deeds, Conveyancing and Law of Property Act) vs registered (a *Certificate of Title / COT*, Title by Registration Act)** — a COT (registered) parcel conveys + defends cleaner than an unregistered deed parcel; confirm which system the target parcel sits under. Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with a St Kitts & Nevis attorney / the courts**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: high — CBI-driven foreign ownership is structurally absentee; empty units & undeveloped lots are the target; caretaker + COT (not just deed) + periodic inspection essential. Adverse possession: action to recover land = **12 yr** (**Limitation Act, CAP. 5.09, s.6** — "no action shall be brought to recover any land after the expiration of twelve years"); a COT/registered parcel is the stronger position but verify the registered-system carve-out mechanics + Nevis-specific practice with counsel. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Limitation Act CAP. 5.09 (St Kitts & Nevis Law Commission)](https://lawcommission.gov.kn/wp-content/documents/Act02and09TOC/Ch-05_09-Limitation-Act.pdf), [Real Estate 2025 — St Kitts & Nevis (Chambers)](https://practiceguides.chambers.com/practice-guides/real-estate-2025/st-kitts-nevis), [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (12-yr period pinned to Limitation Act CAP. 5.09 s.6 primary statute; deed-vs-COT duality + Nevis autonomy per the KN playbook; express-eviction track not found, registered-system carve-out mechanics not separately verified — flagged).

- **AG Antigua and Barbuda** *(English common-law twin-island state, independent 1981; ECSC superior court (resident High Court division in Antigua); final appeal JCPC. Operates a CBI programme.)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & unwatched 2nd homes; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the High Court; the **Torrens-style registered-title system (Registered Land Act, No. 17 of 1975, run on Landfolio)** brought all Antigua land — Crown + private — under registered ownership, so the register is the conclusive title record (low title-risk). Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the High Court / an Antiguan attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: high for empty villas & undeveloped lots (CBI-/second-home-driven absentee profile); active monitoring, caretaker, signage, periodic inspection essential. **Barbuda is a fundamentally different, contested land regime — historically held in COMMON (communal, no individual freehold), with post-Irma leasehold introduced; do NOT assume Barbuda land is freehold and do NOT apply the Antigua registered-title/AP analysis to Barbuda — treat separately, verify tenure.** Adverse possession: action to recover land / acquisition by prescription = **12 yr** (**Limitation Act, No. 8 of 1997, s.17(1)**; the Registered Land Act 1975 ss.135-136 govern "acquisition of land by prescription" + registration of the prescriptive title) — one secondary source cited a 20-yr figure on specific case facts, but the **statutory bar is 12 yr** per the vLex Caribbean cross-jurisdiction digest; verify ss.135-136 mechanics at the statute. Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137) (Limitation Act No. 8 of 1997 s.17(1) = 12 yr), [Registered Land Act, CAP. 374 (Antigua & Barbuda)](https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/ant45444.pdf), [Barbuda land rights — Barbudaful](https://barbudaful.net/barbudaful-history/the-land-issue/). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (12-yr statutory bar pinned to Limitation Act No. 8 of 1997 s.17(1) via vLex; RLA-1975 Torrens/Landfolio frame + Barbuda communal caveat per the AG playbook; statute-text of RLA ss.135-136 not directly extractable from FAOLEX PDF — flagged; express-eviction track not found).

- **LC Saint Lucia** *(English common-law island state with a French-derived Civil Code overlay; ECSC superior court (resident High Court division); final appeal **CCJ** (Saint Lucia has adopted the CCJ's appellate jurisdiction).)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & unwatched 2nd homes; "family land" (old undivided inherited holdings) a recurring complication; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law / Civil-Code recovery-of-possession action through the High Court; the **state-guaranteed title-registration system (Land Registration Act 1984; indefeasible except for fraud)** makes the register conclusive. Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the High Court / a Saint Lucian attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: high for empty villas & undeveloped lots; "family land" + boundary disputes compound it; active monitoring, caretaker, periodic inspection essential. Adverse possession: title by **prescription = 30 yr** of sole, continuous, undisturbed possession (**Civil Code art. 2103A** — the long French-derived period, NOT the 12-yr common-law norm). **CRITICAL Torrens-style immunity: the Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ, 26 Nov 2024) AFFIRMED that *first registration* under the Land Registration Act 1984 / Land Adjudication Act WIPES OUT unregistered prescription — an occupier who did not register a prescriptive claim during the titling process cannot later assert it against the registered title-holder** (the same registered-title-defeats-prescription mitigant as DR's Torrens rule). Moratorium: none identified. Source: [CCJ Affirms First Registration Wipes Out Prescription to Land in Saint Lucia — The Voice (Nov 2024)](https://thevoiceslu.com/2024/11/ccj-affirms-first-registration-wipes-out-prescription-to-land-in-saint-lucia/), [Land Registration Act Chapter 5.01 (FAO mirror)](https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/stl176302.pdf), [Long Possession & Prescriptive Rights — Fosters](https://www.fosters.law/news/long-possession-prescriptive-rights). **Confidence**: MEDIUM-HIGH (30-yr Civil-Code prescription + the CCJ-2024 first-registration-extinguishes-prescription rule well-attested via CCJ-reported decision + St Lucia legal press; express-eviction track not found — flagged).

- **GD Grenada** *(English common-law island state; ECSC superior court (resident High Court division); final appeal JCPC. **Deeds-registration system — NOT Torrens** — so the registered-title immunity that protects KY/TC/AG/LC parcels does NOT apply here.)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & unwatched 2nd homes; **"family land" (old undivided inherited holdings) + statutory-declaration / adverse-possession claims are a recurring, well-documented Grenadian title complication**; tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the High Court; title runs on a **deeds-registration / abstract-of-title model (Deeds and Land Registry Act, Cap. 79)** — a clean chain (post-2019 reform: 30-yr good-title search, reduced from 60) matters more than a headline price, and adverse-possession exposure is structurally higher than in the Torrens islands. Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with the High Court / a Grenadian attorney**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process. Absentee exposure: high for empty villas & undeveloped lots, **acute on deeds-system / "family land" parcels** — an occupier who holds for 12 yr can register a possessory title against an absentee owner; active monitoring, caretaker, signage, periodic inspection + a clean 30-yr chain essential. Adverse possession: claim barred for land in another's undisputed possession for **12 yr** (**Limitation Act, s.4**); the historic practice is registering a **statutory declaration** of 12-yr possession (giving possessory — not good — title), and since **19 Aug 2016 the Possessory Titles Act No. 22 of 2016** lets a 12-yr adverse possessor apply to court for a Certificate of Title (possessory-title order). Moratorium: none identified. Source: [Claiming Land by Statutory Declaration — NOW Grenada](https://nowgrenada.com/2014/04/claiming-land-statutory-declaration/), [The Possessory Titles Act No. 22 of 2016 — Mitchell & Co.](https://mitchellsco.com/2017/06/21/the-possessory-titles-act-no-22-of-2016-of-the-laws-of-grenada-legal-update/), [Adverse Possession (Caribbean) — vLex](https://caribbean.vlex.com/vid/adverse-possession-1067805137). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (12-yr period + statutory-declaration practice + Possessory Titles Act 2016 well-attested via Grenadian legal press + firm note; deeds-not-Torrens frame per the GD playbook; express-eviction track not found — flagged).

- **TT Trinidad and Tobago** *(English common-law twin-island republic in the southernmost Caribbean; final appeal goes to the **UK Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC), NOT the CCJ** (T&T acceded only to the CCJ's Original Jurisdiction); a foreign buyer faces a threshold + licence regime under the Foreign Investment Act Chap. 70:07 (Trinidad: ≤1 acre residential licence-free; **Tobago: ALL foreign land acquisition needs a President's licence regardless of size**); **DUAL land-title system** — most land (**~75–80%, est. per Fitzwilliam Stone**) is **Old-Law deeds with NO state title guarantee**, the minority is **RPA / Real Property Act (Chap. 56:02) 1945 Torrens** title.)* Occupation types: squatting / trespasser-occupation of vacant land & unwatched 2nd homes — **the TT playbook flags squatting and adverse-possession as *real risks* specifically on the Old-Law deeds class** (no state guarantee, chain-of-title traced by an attorney); landlord-tenant non-payment separate. Eviction: common-law recovery-of-possession / ejectment through the courts (final appeal JCPC); the **tenancy framework is the Rent Restriction Act / common-law landlord-tenant principles — current statutory eviction framework + notice periods `VERIFY with a T&T attorney before relying on any number`** (TT playbook). Fast-track: no codified express-squatter eviction track identified — **not publicly available; verify with a T&T attorney / the courts**. Self-help: not advisable; use court process (common-law jurisdiction — owner self-help carries breach-of-peace/liability risk). Absentee exposure: high for empty villas & undeveloped lots — and **structurally higher on the ~75–80% Old-Law deeds land** (no conclusive register; chain gaps + adverse-possession exposure) than on an RPA/Torrens parcel; the practical mitigants are holding (or converting to) an **RPA Certificate of Title**, an attorney's chain-of-title search, active monitoring, caretaker and periodic inspection. Adverse possession: **explicitly a live risk in both systems per the playbook** — on **Old-Law deeds** land squatting/adverse-possession can defeat an unwatched owner, and even an **RPA/Torrens "INDEFEASIBLE" Certificate of Title is "challengeable only for fraud or adverse possession"** (RPA Chap. 56:02, 1945) — i.e. unlike the DR/St-Lucia register-extinguishes-prescription model, TT's Torrens register does **NOT** wholly immunise against adverse possession; the **exact statutory limitation period is NOT captured at a primary source this pass — `data not publicly available — verify` the Real Property Limitation / Limitation of Certain Actions Act period with a T&T attorney / [laws.gov.tt](https://laws.gov.tt/)** (do not assume the 12-yr regional norm without confirming). Moratorium: none identified. Source: TT playbook (primary-sourced: RPA Chap. 56:02 text hosted at [finance.gov.tt](https://www.finance.gov.tt/); Foreign Investment Act Chap. 70:07 via [tradeind.gov.tt](https://tradeind.gov.tt/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Foreign-Investment-Act-70.07.pdf); [laws.gov.tt](https://laws.gov.tt/); Fitzwilliam Stone on the dual-title split — cite the ~75–80% as a law-firm estimate). **Confidence**: MEDIUM (dual deeds/Torrens split + the RPA "fraud or adverse possession" carve-out + JCPC-final frame well-attested in the TT playbook's primary sources; the numeric limitation period + express-eviction track not captured — flagged honestly, not slot-filled).

### Confidence

HIGH on the numeric adverse-possession bands sourced to a Código Civil article or Limitation Act (primary or primary-derived): BR (CC 1238/1242), CO (CC + Ley 791/2002), PE (CC art. 950), CR (Código Civil 10-yr), AR (CCyC 1898/1899), EC (CC arts. 2410–2411), CL (Código Civil bands + Ley 21.461 primary), JM (Limitation of Actions Act 12/60-yr). MEDIUM-HIGH: MX (CCF arts. 1151–1157 primary; 32 state-code variation is the main caveat — verify per state), PA (Código Civil + 15-yr extraordinary / 10-20 ordinary; express-eviction timeline unverified), PY (Ley 1.183 bands; Ley 6979 scope flagged), BB (10-yr well-attested; procedural specifics flagged). MEDIUM: UY (LUC shortened periods — verify per case), DO (registered-land-imprescriptible rule + 20-yr unregistered baseline well-attested; sub-20-yr variants per-case), BS (12-yr + Quieting Titles attested; express-eviction track not found), BZ (30/12-yr split well-attested; underlying statute citation not separately verified). The DO no-prescription-against-Torrens rule and PA imprescriptible State land are the two highest-value structural mitigants. No codified express-squatter-eviction statute exists for the Caribbean common-law cluster (BS/JM/BB/BZ) — recovery is via ordinary court ejectment; self-help/peaceable-re-entry doctrines are narrow and liability-prone (use court process; verify with local counsel). All procedural/timeline statements that could not be pinned to a codified express provision are marked "not publicly available — verify with <authority>" rather than estimated. COVID-era moratoria (BR Lei 14.216/2021; AR DNU 320/2020; CO Decreto 579/2020; MX state-level) have all expired; no current seasonal/general eviction moratorium in any of the 16.

## Africa + Anglo non-EU

### Regional pattern

In the US, Canada, and Australia eviction procedure, the 2024-25 squatter reforms, and the adverse-possession period are state/province-level — exemplars are named (FL/GA/NY; NSW/Vic/SA; Ontario), not generalised; the 2024-25 US fast-track laws (FL HB 621, GA Squatter Reform Act, NY FY2025 budget) target scam/holdover-removal speed, NOT the centuries-old adverse-possession doctrine (which they were drafted not to alter). In civil-law Africa (MA/TN/EG/CV/MU/SC) the operative concept is acquisitive prescription / usucaption / *usucapião* / *hiyaza*, not common-law "adverse possession", and there is generally a registered-land carve-out (Torrens-style *titre foncier* / land registration defeats prescriptive claims). Self-help eviction is unlawful everywhere here — the ZA position is the sharpest: under the PIE Act 19/1998 + constitutional s26(3), any removal of an occupier from a *home* without a court order is unlawful and exposes the owner to a spoliation order and contempt, even where the occupier never had any right. The headline absentee exposure is vacant/undeveloped land left unmonitored (ZA, NG, KE, GH, the Caribbean-style Anglo jurisdictions) where the 12-30-year prescription clock resets only if the owner sues, retakes possession, or formally acts before expiry.

### Country one-liners

- **ZA South Africa** — Risk: unlawful occupier of a built dwelling **and** vacant-land/2nd-home invasion — the highest-profile absentee-owner exposure in this group; informal-settlement formation on under-watched land. Eviction: governed by the **Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act 19 of 1998 (PIE Act)** — a court order is **mandatory** (Constitution s26(3): no eviction from a home without a court order made after considering all relevant circumstances); court applies a **"just and equitable"** test, must serve ≥14 days' written notice on both the occupier *and* the municipality, and PIE **expressly excludes** the common-law *rei vindicatio* / spoliation self-help remedies for vindicating ownership; timeline is slow (months to well over a year when occupiers contest and the municipality must report on alternative accommodation). Fast-track: none as a statutory expedited track; an **urgent application under PIE s5** is the closest, but courts apply it narrowly — the applicant must show (a) a **real and imminent danger of substantial injury/damage** to a person or property if the occupier is not evicted forthwith, (b) the **hardship balance** favours urgent relief, and (c) **no other effective remedy** is available in time; an absentee owner can bring it via a mandatary / power of attorney, but must assemble a tight evidence pack (occupation/damage photos, security reports, managing-agent affidavits) — exactly what a remote owner is least able to produce quickly, so s5 is not a reliable absentee escape hatch. Self-help: absolute prohibition — any removal of an occupier from a *home* without a court order is unlawful and exposes the owner to a spoliation order and **contempt**, even where the occupier never had any right; this is *the* operative point for ZA absentee owners. Absentee exposure: vacant land, holiday/second homes and unoccupied estates are the canonical targets; active monitoring, perimeter security, caretaker presence and prompt legal action are effectively mandatory because the cost of delay compounds under the just-and-equitable test. Acquisitive prescription: **30 years** of open possession "as if owner" — **Prescription Act 68 of 1969 s1** (predecessors-in-title periods aggregate; interruption rules in s4). Moratorium: no general seasonal moratorium current; COVID-era eviction-stay regime has expired. Sources: Wikipedia (PIE Act 1998); De Rebus; Pinsent Masons out-law; SIZA; evictionlawyerssouthafrica.co.za / sdlaw.co.za (⚠️ practitioner — cross-checked vs PIE s5 statutory text); SAFLII / justice.gov.za / lawlibrary.org.za (Prescription Act 68/1969 s1). **Confidence**: HIGH (PIE Act 19/1998 + Prescription Act 68/1969 primary statutes; timeline qualitative).

- **NA Namibia** *(Roman-Dutch common-law + customary-law jurisdiction inherited from South Africa under the 1990 Constitution; Supreme Court of Namibia is both final court of appeal and constitutional court; deeds-system title under the **Deeds Registries Act 47 of 1937** — the 2015 Act was never validly commenced (set aside by the High Court in 2021); NAD pegged 1:1 to ZAR; foreign urban/residential freehold is open, agricultural farmland restricted under the Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act 6 of 1995.)* Risk: occupier without right of an empty unit, and vacant-land/2nd-home invasion — the same structural profile as the ZA parent system; informal-settlement formation on under-watched land. Eviction: **court order is mandatory under Roman-Dutch common law — eviction requires a court order exactly as in ZA** (NA playbook: "court-supervised under Roman-Dutch common law (as in ZA, an eviction requires a court order) — confirm the exact procedure with a Namibian attorney"); the precise statutory eviction route and realistic duration are **not captured at a primary source this pass — verify the operative procedure (and whether an analogue of the ZA PIE Act applies) with a Namibian attorney / at [NamibLII](https://namiblii.org/)**. Fast-track: none identified — **data not publicly available; verify at NamibLII / the Namibian Judiciary**. Self-help: barred by derivation from the Roman-Dutch model (eviction requires a court order); do not lock-change / cut utilities. Absentee exposure: vacant land, holiday/2nd homes and unoccupied estates are the canonical targets (same profile as ZA); active monitoring, perimeter security, caretaker presence and prompt legal action are the practical controls — and the foreign-buyer market sits in *freehold* (urban/residential), which is the exposed deeds-system class. Acquisitive prescription: the operative concept is Roman-Dutch **acquisitive prescription** (as in ZA, not common-law "adverse possession"); ZA's parent rule is 30 years (Prescription Act 68/1969), but the **exact Namibian statutory period and instrument are not captured at a primary source this pass — `data not publicly available — verify` with the Namibian Prescription statute at [NamibLII](https://namiblii.org/)** before relying on the 30-yr ZA figure for NA. Moratorium: none documented. Sources: NA playbook (primary-sourced: MoJ e-Justice Supreme Court portal; NamibLII Deeds Registries Act 47/1937; Bank of Namibia; Agricultural (Commercial) Land Reform Act 6/1995). **Confidence**: MEDIUM on the Roman-Dutch court-order eviction model + ZA lineage (playbook-grounded); LOW on the exact prescription period + eviction timeline (not primary-sourced for NA — flagged, not slot-filled).

- **BW Botswana** *(Roman-Dutch common-law heritage; **three tenure types** — tribal land (Land Boards under the Tribal Land Act, the largest share), state land (leasehold), and **freehold** (smallest share, concentrated in Gaborone / Lobatse / Francistown / the Tuli Block); freehold is the principal foreign-buyer route — non-citizens cannot buy tribal land and agricultural land needs Ministry consent under the Land Control Act 1975; Registrar of Deeds; final court = Court of Appeal of Botswana, no UK Privy Council appeal since the Court of Appeal Act 1973.)* Risk: occupier without title of an empty unit/lot, and informal occupation of under-watched land. Eviction: governed by **ordinary contract + Roman-Dutch common-law landlord-tenant principles** (BW playbook); a **specific primary tenancy statute and a dated eviction-timeline figure are not captured — `data not publicly available — verify with a Botswana conveyancing/property attorney`**. Fast-track: none identified — **data not publicly available; verify locally**. Self-help: barred by derivation from the Roman-Dutch model — use the court route. Absentee exposure: the foreign-buyer market is *freehold* (the deeds-registered class), so empty 2nd homes / undeveloped freehold lots are the exposed profile; monitoring + caretaker + a clean Registrar-of-Deeds title are the practical controls; **tribal land is not a foreign-buyer class at all** (Land Boards govern it). Acquisitive prescription: the operative concept is Roman-Dutch **acquisitive prescription** (as across the Southern-African Roman-Dutch cluster), but the **exact Botswana statutory period and instrument are not captured at a primary source this pass — `data not publicly available — verify` with the Botswana Prescription statute / a local attorney** (do not import the ZA 30-yr figure as a BW number). Moratorium: none documented. Sources: BW playbook (primary-sourced: Land Portal narrative on tenure/Land Control Act 1975; Bank of Botswana on exchange-control abolition; Court of Appeal frame). **Confidence**: MEDIUM on the tenure structure + Roman-Dutch / court-route framing (playbook-grounded); LOW on the prescription period + eviction timeline (explicitly not captured — flagged honestly).

- **US United States** — Risk: holdover tenant (former lawful tenant who won't leave — a contract/UD problem, *not* squatting) **and** true squatter (entered with no colour of right); out-of-state and foreign owners of vacant units are explicitly targeted in the 2023-24 squatting-scam wave. Eviction: **sub-national** — every state runs its own summary process (unlawful detainer / forcible entry & detainer / "summary possession"), filed in state/county court; uncontested cases can resolve in weeks, contested or backlogged dockets in months. Fast-track (state-level, name exemplars): **Florida HB 621 (2024)**, signed 27 Mar 2024, effective 1 Jul 2024 — new **Fla. Stat. §82.036** lets an owner request the **county sheriff to immediately remove** an unlawful occupant without a lawsuit (conditions: unlawful entry, owner has directed them to leave, person is not a current/former tenant in a genuine dispute); also creates misdemeanour/felony offences for falsified conveyance documents and ≥$1,000 occupier-caused damage. **Georgia Squatter Reform Act (2024)** criminalises "unlawful squatting" and requires a claimed occupant to produce proof of authorised residency within **3 days** or face arrest. **New York** — FY2025 budget (signed 22 Apr 2024) amended state property law so squatters are **not** "tenants" at any timeframe, removing the 30-day-occupancy tenant-rights argument. The 2024-25 reforms target scam/holdover-removal speed, *not* the centuries-old adverse-possession doctrine (drafted not to alter adverse-possession periods). Self-help prohibition + owner liability: near-universal across states — owner-executed lockouts, utility shutoffs or removals outside the court process trigger statutory penalties and wrongful-eviction liability (amounts/treble-damage rules are state-specific). Absentee exposure: out-of-state / foreign-held vacant homes are the documented targets of the squatting-scam playbook; remote monitoring, fast filing and (where available) the FL/GA-style law-enforcement route materially reduce exposure. Adverse possession (state-level, name exemplars): roughly **5-20 years** continuous, open, hostile possession, often shortened with **colour of title** and/or tax payment — e.g. **California 5 years + payment of all assessed property taxes** (Code Civ. Proc. §§318-325); **New York 10 years**; **Texas tiered — 3 years under colour of title, 5 years with a registered deed + taxes paid, 10 years bare** (Tex. Civ. Prac. & Rem. Code §§16.024-16.026); **Georgia 20 years, or 7 years with colour of title in good faith**. Moratorium: no current general moratorium; the federal/state COVID eviction moratoria have all expired. Sources: flgov.com (FL Gov. press release 27 Mar 2024); flsenate.gov (Fla. Stat. §82.036 / HB 621); FS Residential / Fox News / Innago (GA); Multifamily Dive / Smart Cities Dive (NY FY2025); Justia 50-state survey; Cornell LII Wex; Schorr Law (CA); Nolo. **Confidence**: HIGH for FL/GA/NY exemplars and the self-help rule; MEDIUM as a 50-state generalisation — verify the specific state.

- **AU Australia** — Risk: trespasser/squatter in a vacant dwelling and tenant-overstay; under **Torrens title** the registered-proprietor risk is mainly nuisance/holdover rather than title loss. Eviction: **sub-national** — residential tenancy disputes go to the state tribunal (e.g. **NCAT** NSW, **VCAT** Vic, **QCAT** Qld); pure trespass against a non-tenant is a Supreme Court / police-assisted recovery. Fast-track: no single national squatter-removal statute; recovery speed depends on state tribunal/court process and whether the occupant claims a tenancy. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: owners must use the tribunal/court process for anyone with a tenancy colourable claim; unlawful self-help eviction exposes the owner to liability under state residential-tenancies legislation. Absentee exposure: vacant investor/holiday stock is exposed; the practical defence is occupancy monitoring and prompt action before any 12-15-year clock matters. Adverse possession (state-level): **12 years** in NSW, Qld, WA, Tas (e.g. *Limitation Act 1969 (NSW)* ss27/38; *Limitation of Actions Act 1974 (Qld)*); **15 years** in Vic and SA's *Limitation of Actions Act*; **South Australia in practice does not recognise** squatter title under the *Real Property Act 1886 (SA)*; adverse possession generally **does not run against Crown land** and is heavily constrained on **registered Torrens land** (state-by-state nuance). Moratorium: no current general moratorium; COVID tenancy-protection measures have lapsed. Sources: Wikipedia (Adverse Possession in Australia); Melbourne University Law Review 35(3) (Burns); Limitation Act 1969 (NSW) / Limitation of Actions Act 1974 (Qld) / Real Property Act 1886 (SA). **Confidence**: HIGH for the 12/15-year split and Torrens nuance; MEDIUM on per-state procedural timelines.

- **NZ New Zealand** — Risk: trespasser/squatter in a vacant or unoccupied dwelling and tenant-overstay; under the **Land Transfer Act 2017** registered title is strongly protected. Eviction: the **Tenancy Tribunal** has jurisdiction even where **no tenancy agreement exists** — under the **Residential Tenancies Act 1986 s65 ("Eviction of squatters")** the Tribunal **must make a possession order** in the applicant's favour where a person is in possession as a squatter/trespasser without a lawful right of occupation; materially faster than waiting out any prescription period. Fast-track: the RTA s65 squatter route *is* effectively the expedited path; for non-residential trespass, police/court trespass-removal applies. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: owners are expected to use the Tribunal/court process rather than self-help where any occupancy claim exists. Absentee exposure: unoccupied holiday/investment homes are the exposure; monitoring + prompt s65 application is the mitigation. Adverse possession: **12 years** continuous, open, exclusive, undisputed occupation to bring deeds land under the LTA via an **adverse-possession application to LINZ** — but the Land Transfer Act 2017 sharply limits new claims against registered titles (LINZ guidance). Moratorium: no current general moratorium. Sources: legislation.govt.nz (Residential Tenancies Act 1986 s65); linz.govt.nz (LINZ adverse-possession land-registration guidance). **Confidence**: HIGH (RTA 1986 s65 + LINZ guidance primary).

- **CA Canada** — Risk: holdover tenant and trespasser/squatter; squatters do **not** get Residential Tenancies Act tenant protections in Ontario but still must be removed via legal process. Eviction: **sub-national** — in Ontario the **Landlord and Tenant Board (LTB)** handles tenancy disputes and has had **significant backlogs** (multi-month waits historically); a non-tenant trespasser is a court/police matter, not LTB. Fast-track: no dedicated national squatter-removal statute; speed is governed by provincial tribunal/court capacity. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: owners must use the LTB/court process for anyone with a tenancy colour of claim; self-help eviction exposes the owner to liability and reversal. Absentee exposure: vacant units are exposed mainly to holdover/occupation delay rather than title loss in **Land Titles** jurisdictions. Adverse possession: province-specific — in Ontario **~10 years** continuous, open, exclusive possession, **but Land Titles–registered parcels ("Land Titles Absolute") are immune** to new adverse-possession/prescriptive claims (the old Registry-system parcels are the residual exposure). **Kosicki v. Toronto (SCC, 2025)** clarified that municipal parkland is **not automatically exempt** from adverse-possession claims under Ontario's statute — relevant to encroachment-onto-public-land scenarios, not typical dwelling squatting. Moratorium: no current general moratorium. Sources: Hummingbird Law / iSure / Alloway (Ontario Land Titles immunity + ~10yr); Gowling WLG / Canadian Lawyer / Osgoode TheCourt.ca (Kosicki v. Toronto SCC 2025). **Confidence**: HIGH for the Land Titles immunity + Ontario 10-year figure; MEDIUM as a pan-provincial statement — verify the province.

- **NG Nigeria** — Risk: trespasser/squatter on land or in a built unit, plus large-scale informal occupation and "land-grabbing" of absentee-held land (a well-documented Lagos/SE-Nigeria problem). Eviction: **state-level recovery-of-premises law** — e.g. Lagos: *Recovery of Premises Law, Cap. 118 (1973)* and the *Tenancy Law of Lagos State 2011/2014*; **no statutory notice is required to remove a pure squatter/trespasser** (notice rules protect *tenants*, not those with no right) — recovery is by a **summary possession procedure**, and a claim may be brought against **"persons unknown"** where the occupier's identity is not known. Fast-track: the summary trespasser route is itself the fast path; the **Lagos State Tenancy and Recovery of Premises Bill 2025 (draft)** would tighten anti-self-help / anti-harassment rules — monitor, not yet law. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: the Supreme Court has held self-help eviction of a person in **lawful** occupation exposes the landlord to liability in trespass; against a pure squatter the risk of breach-of-peace / criminal-trespass counter-allegations still makes a court route advisable. Absentee exposure: absentee/diaspora-owned land is a primary land-grab target; perimeter, caretaker, fencing, prompt litigation and registered title are the standard defences. Adverse possession: **12 years** under state Limitation Laws bars the owner's recovery action and can extinguish title (mirrors the English/Ghanaian model; presented as the dominant state-Limitation-Law model, NOT a single national rule — state Limitation Laws vary, verify the specific state); **public land is excluded** from adverse possession. Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium. Sources: Lagos Min. of Justice gazette / Courtsarena / Mondaq (Recovery of Premises Law Cap.118 / Tenancy Law of Lagos State 2011/2014); lagoshouseofassembly.gov.ng (Lagos State Tenancy & Recovery of Premises Bill 2025 draft). **Confidence**: HIGH for the squatter-vs-tenant procedural distinction (Lagos); MEDIUM on the 12-year figure as a national statement — state Limitation Laws vary.

- **KE Kenya** — Risk: trespasser/squatter on land or in a dwelling, plus informal-settlement formation and the well-documented risk that **silence by the owner ripens into an ownership claim**. Eviction: civil suit / recovery proceedings before the Environment and Land Court or magistrate's court; informal-settlement occupants frequently obtain court protection against eviction, so contested removals are slow. Fast-track: no dedicated expedited squatter-removal statute identified — **data not publicly available; verify with the Kenyan Judiciary / Environment & Land Court rules** (absence-of-evidence finding, not a confirmed "no"). Self-help prohibition + owner liability: courts strongly disfavour self-help removals (especially of long-settled informal communities); a court order is the safe route. Absentee exposure: **the headline KE risk** — adverse possession runs against an inactive/absentee owner; the **12-year clock resets only if the owner sues, retakes possession, or formally acts** before expiry, so absentee owners must affirmatively act. Adverse possession: **12 years** of open, visible, notorious, non-consensual, peaceful occupation extinguishes the registered owner's right (Limitation of Actions Act; confirmed by Court of Appeal jurisprudence). Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium. Sources: Njaga Advocates; CM Advocates; AMG Advocates; Daily Nation. **Confidence**: HIGH for the 12-year adverse-possession rule + reset triggers; MEDIUM on eviction timeline (qualitative).

- **MU Mauritius** — Risk: *occupant sans titre* (occupier without title) of land or a built unit; civil-law jurisdiction so the operative risk concept is **acquisitive prescription**, not common-law squatting. Eviction: civil action for *ejectment* / recovery of possession before the courts under the **Code Civil Mauricien** framework (English-inspired civil procedure); recovery requires a court process. Fast-track: no dedicated expedited squatter statute identified — **data not publicly available; verify with the Mauritian Supreme Court / Attorney-General's Office**. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: civil-law systems require judicial recovery of possession; self-help is not the lawful route — owner should obtain a court order. Absentee exposure: non-resident / IRS-ESS-PDS scheme owners of unoccupied units are exposed to occupation delay and to the prescription clock if the unit is left wholly unwatched for decades; monitoring + a managing agent is the practical control. Acquisitive prescription: the **Acquisitive Prescription Act 2018** (in force 1 Sep 2019) governs prescriptive acquisition; the French-Code-Civil baseline is **30 years** of continuous, uninterrupted, peaceful, public, unequivocal possession *as owner* — **verify the exact statutory period and any registered-land exception in the Acquisitive Prescription Act 2018 (lawsofmauritius.govmu.org)** before relying on the 30-year figure (30yr is the French-Code baseline, not confirmed from primary text for MU). Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium identified. Sources: lawsofmauritius.govmu.org (Acquisitive Prescription Act 2018); Globalex Mauritian legal system; OHCHR Mauritius security-of-tenure submission. **Confidence**: MEDIUM (Acquisitive Prescription Act 2018 confirmed as governing instrument; exact period/exceptions need primary-text verification).

- **MA Morocco** — Risk: tenant-overstay and *occupation sans droit ni titre* (occupation without right or title); historically very large informal-settlement (*bidonville*) stock, addressed by the long-running **Villes Sans Bidonvilles** rehousing programme (a tenancy/policy adjacent issue, not squatting per se). Eviction: court order required — under tenancy law (**Loi 67-12** governs residential leases) a landlord cannot evict without a valid legal ground (e.g. non-payment, illegal use) and must follow the judicial process; pure occupation without title is a civil recovery action. Fast-track: no dedicated expedited squatter-removal statute identified — **data not publicly available; verify with the Moroccan Ministry of Justice**. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: civil-law judicial-recovery model — self-help eviction is not the lawful route. Absentee exposure: non-resident-owned riads/apartments left vacant are exposed to occupation and to the prescription clock; the standard mitigation is a resident *gardien*/manager and registered title (*titre foncier* via ANCFCC) which strengthens the owner's recovery position. Acquisitive prescription (*usucaption / hiyaza*): applies to **unregistered (non-immatriculé) land** under the Dahir des Obligations et Contrats / customary rules; **registered (immatriculé) land under the Torrens-style *titre foncier* system is protected from prescriptive acquisition** — `data not publicly available — verify the exact prescription period for unregistered land with the Moroccan Civil Code / ANCFCC` (figure not reliably establishable from secondary sources here). Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium identified. Sources: masaken.ma / 9anonai (Loi 67-12 tenant law); Wikipedia WikiProject Squatting/Africa (Villes Sans Bidonvilles context). **Confidence**: MEDIUM for the registered-vs-unregistered distinction and Loi 67-12 tenancy rule; LOW on the exact unregistered-land prescription period (not sourced).

- **EG Egypt** — Risk: tenant-overstay (legacy "old rent" tenancies are a separate, severe absentee-owner problem in their own right — a tenancy/policy issue, not squatting per se), *occupation without title*, and very large **informal-settlement (*ashwa'iyyat*)** stock — ~40% of building stock by some estimates — much of it on **state** land where the state has periodically conducted forced clearances (2008, 2013). Eviction: civil recovery action through the courts; contested cases are slow and the legacy rent-control regime severely limits removal of old-law tenants — a major reason absentee owners cannot easily reclaim units. Fast-track: no dedicated private-owner squatter fast-track identified — **data not publicly available; verify with the Egyptian Ministry of Justice**. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: civil-law judicial-recovery model; self-help is not the lawful route for the owner. Absentee exposure: units left unoccupied/unmanaged are exposed both to occupation and to the **15-year** prescription clock; the practical control is occupancy + registered title; adverse possession **cannot be claimed against State-owned property** — the key caveat for the ashwa'iyyat-on-state-land scenario (occupants there gain no ownership). Acquisitive prescription: **15 years** of continuous, uninterrupted, peaceful, public, unequivocal possession transfers ownership of private (non-state) immovable property under the **Egyptian Civil Code (Law 131 of 1948)**. Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium identified (the rent-control freeze is a structural distortion, not a moratorium). Sources: Mondaq ("Long Term Acquisition Of Property By Prescription"); hrlibrary.umn.edu (civil code); Legal Agenda (ashwa'iyyat). **Confidence**: HIGH for the 15-year prescription + state-land exclusion (Civil Code 131/1948); MEDIUM on eviction timeline (qualitative).

- **TN Tunisia** — Risk: tenant-overstay and occupation without title; foreign ownership is restricted (non-tourist-zone / agricultural land barred to foreigners), so the foreign-owner exposure base is narrower than the Anglo group. Eviction: court order typically required — landlords may evict for cause (non-payment, lease breach) only via the legal process. Fast-track: no dedicated expedited squatter-removal statute identified — **data not publicly available; verify with the Tunisian Ministry of Justice**. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: civil-law judicial-recovery model — self-help is not the lawful route. Absentee exposure: foreign owners are concentrated in tourist-zone developments (often managed/serviced), which structurally reduces casual-squatter exposure relative to scattered absentee holdings; verify scheme-specific management. Acquisitive prescription: Tunisia is a French-civil-law jurisdiction with a Torrens-style land-registration system (*Conservation de la Propriété Foncière*); prescriptive acquisition applies primarily to **unregistered land** — the **exact prescription period is not establishable from sources here: `data not publicly available — verify` with the Tunisian Code des Droits Réels / Code des Obligations et des Contrats**. Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium identified. Sources: Generis Online; Legal 500 Tunisia Real Estate guide. **Confidence**: LOW (foreign-ownership restriction and judicial-eviction model confirmed; prescription period and timeline not sourced — flagged honestly).

- **GH Ghana** — Risk: trespasser/squatter on land or in a built unit; Ghana law distinguishes a **"squatter"** (settles with no claim/title) from a **"trespasser"** (enters and asserts an inconsistent interest) — both are inferior to a holder of legal title, but a long-undisturbed squatter can still extinguish the owner's recovery right. Eviction: civil land litigation (the courts) — recovery of possession action; Ghanaian land disputes are notoriously slow, so contested removals run long. Fast-track: no dedicated expedited squatter-removal statute identified — **data not publicly available; verify with the Ghanaian Judicial Service / Lands Commission**. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: a court route is advisable; self-help against an occupant risks breach-of-peace and counter-litigation. Absentee exposure: diaspora/absentee-owned plots are a documented target of unlawful occupation; registered title + active possession + fencing/caretaker are the standard defences (a registered, monitored, fenced plot resets the practical risk). Adverse possession: **12 years** — **Limitation Act 1972 (NRCD 54) s10** bars the owner's recovery action after 12 years and **extinguishes** the owner's title (confirmed in *GIHOC v. Hanna Assi*, where possessory title was usable as "sword and shield"); **public land is statutorily excluded** (Land Act 2020 (Act 1036) s236 — a trespasser/encroacher on public land acquires no interest). Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium. Sources: Ghana Law Hub; 233Legal; Brill GJCL 13(3) 2024 (Limitation Act 1972 NRCD 54 s10 + Land Act 2020 Act 1036 s236 + GIHOC v. Hanna Assi). **Confidence**: HIGH for the 12-year rule + public-land exclusion + the squatter/trespasser distinction; MEDIUM on eviction timeline (qualitative).

- **SC Seychelles** — Risk: tenant-overstay and occupation without title; foreign ownership is regulated (sanction/approval regime), so the exposed foreign-owner base is concentrated in approved/scheme developments. Eviction: court process — eviction must follow the lease terms and the Seychelles courts' legal procedure; a landlord may pursue legal remedies including eviction for breach (e.g. non-payment). Fast-track: no dedicated expedited squatter-removal statute identified — **data not publicly available; verify with the Seychelles Judiciary**. Self-help prohibition + owner liability: civil-law (French-influenced) judicial-recovery model — self-help is not the lawful route. Absentee exposure: foreign owners are largely in approved villa/resort schemes with management in place, which structurally limits casual-squatter exposure; verify scheme management. Acquisitive prescription: Seychelles applies a French-Code-Civil–derived prescription regime; the French baseline is **30 years** for ordinary acquisitive prescription, but the **exact Seychelles statutory period and any registered-land exception are not establishable from sources here: `data not publicly available — verify` with the Seychelles Civil Code 2020 / Land Registration Act** (30yr is the French baseline only). Moratorium: no current general statutory moratorium identified. Sources: Generis Online Seychelles; lawgratis.com Seychelles. **Confidence**: LOW (judicial-eviction model and foreign-ownership regulation confirmed; prescription period not sourced — flagged honestly).

- **CV Cabo Verde** — Risk: occupation without title; sparse jurisdiction. Cabo Verde is a Portuguese-civil-law jurisdiction, so the operative concept is **usucapião (acquisitive prescription)** under a Civil-Code framework, and recovery of possession is a judicial (court-order) process; self-help is not the lawful route under the civil-law model. Eviction / fast-track / absentee specifics: **data not publicly available — verify with the Cabo Verde Ministério da Justiça / Código Civil cabo-verdiano**. Acquisitive prescription (usucapião): a Portuguese-derived Civil Code typically provides graduated periods (shorter with registration/good faith, ~15-20 years without), but the **exact Cabo Verde periods are not establishable from sources here: `data not publicly available — verify` with the Código Civil de Cabo Verde**. Moratorium: none identified. Sources: no primary source located in scope; flagged `data not publicly available — verify`. **Confidence**: LOW — genuinely sparse; only the civil-law (judicial recovery, usucapião) framing is assertable, all numeric specifics flagged unverified.

- **RW Rwanda** — Risk: occupation without title; sparse jurisdiction. Rwanda runs a comprehensive **systematic land registration** system (Organic Land Law / Land Law framework) under which **registered title is strongly protected**, which structurally limits prescriptive-acquisition risk against registered parcels; recovery of possession is a judicial process via the courts / Abunzi (mediation) and land authorities — self-help is not the lawful route. Eviction / fast-track / absentee specifics: **data not publicly available — verify with the Rwanda Land Management and Use Authority (NLA) / Rwanda Law Reform Commission**. Adverse possession / prescription: with comprehensive registered title, prescriptive acquisition against registered land is expected to be tightly constrained, but the **exact statutory position and any period are not establishable from sources here: `data not publicly available — verify` with Rwanda's Law governing land / Civil Code**. Moratorium: none identified. Sources: no primary source located in scope; flagged `data not publicly available — verify`. **Confidence**: LOW — genuinely sparse; only the registered-title-protection framing is assertable, all numeric specifics flagged unverified.

### Confidence

HIGH for ZA (PIE Act 19/1998 + Prescription Act 68/1969 primary statutes), US (FL/GA/NY exemplars + self-help rule; MEDIUM as a 50-state generalisation), AU (12/15-yr split + Torrens nuance; MEDIUM on per-state timelines), NZ (RTA 1986 s65 + LINZ guidance primary), CA (Land Titles immunity + Ontario 10-yr; MEDIUM pan-provincial), NG (squatter-vs-tenant procedural distinction in Lagos; MEDIUM on the 12-yr as a national statement — state Limitation Laws vary), KE (12-yr adverse-possession + reset triggers; MEDIUM on eviction timeline), GH (12-yr + public-land exclusion + squatter/trespasser distinction; MEDIUM on eviction timeline), EG (15-yr prescription + state-land exclusion under Civil Code 131/1948; MEDIUM on eviction timeline). MEDIUM for MU (Acquisitive Prescription Act 2018 confirmed as governing instrument; exact period/exceptions need primary-text verification) and MA (registered-vs-unregistered distinction + Loi 67-12 confirmed; LOW on the exact unregistered-land prescription period — not sourced). LOW for TN, SC, CV, RW (judicial-eviction / registered-title / civil-law framing assertable; numeric prescription periods and timelines not sourced — flagged honestly, not slot-filled). MA/TN/EG/CV/MU/SC use civil-law acquisitive prescription / usucaption / *hiyaza* with a registered-land carve-out, not common-law adverse possession; US/AU/CA eviction-procedure and adverse-possession periods are sub-national (exemplars named, not generalised — verify the specific state/province). **Last verified**: 2026-05-15.

## 7 universal mitigations

1. **Never self-help** — changing locks / cutting utilities / removing belongings makes the owner the liable party; use the statutory eviction route from day one.
2. **Treat an empty property as a monitored asset** — appoint a local caretaker / property manager (cross-ref `--property-management`), schedule physical inspections, and keep documentary evidence of possession (the antidote to adverse-possession claims).
3. **Buy anti-occupation / legal-expenses insurance where the market exists** (ES anti-okupa policies, UK/EU legal-expenses cover) and confirm it covers eviction legal costs, not just damage.
4. **Verify the eviction timeline before the offer, not after** — in slow jurisdictions (ES inquiokupa, IT sfratto, IN civil suit) the carrying cost of a months-to-years eviction is a material line in the decision.
5. **Fence, register, and physically mark unattended land** — adverse possession turns on un-interrupted hostile possession; a registered title, fencing, and periodic re-entry reset or defeat the clock.
6. **Confirm whether the parcel is registered (Torrens / Land Titles)** — registered title is largely immune to adverse possession; old-system/unregistered land is the exposed case and changes the diligence weight entirely.
7. **For tenanted purchases, confirm the occupant's legal status in writing pre-completion** — a "sitting" non-paying tenant or protected legacy tenant (CY/MT/LB) can be functionally equivalent to a squatter and must be priced or excluded before the deed.

## Status

**Confidence**: see per-region `### Confidence` lines. HIGH where the eviction route, fast-track instrument and adverse-possession period are primary-sourced (ES, FR, IT, UK, NL, IE, GR, PL, CZ, HU, ZA, US, AU, NZ, CA, IN, JP, BR, MX, AR); MEDIUM where the framework is sourced but eviction-month ranges are court-dependent estimates; LOW where periods are not publicly citable (much of the Western Balkans, Caucasus, Central Asia, smaller GCC/African/Caribbean markets, microstates where squatting is undocumented) — flagged `data not publicly available — verify` rather than fabricated. Universal baselines (self-help illegal everywhere; a tenant never runs the prescription clock) stated once with per-country twists.

**Last verified**: 2026-05-15.

**Pairs strongly with**:
- `--property-management` (the caretaker/monitoring relationship that mitigates absentee exposure)
- `--crime` (burglary/security context — adjacent but distinct from lawful-adverse occupation)
- `--rental` (sitting-tenant / protected-tenancy status that converts into occupation risk)
- `--notary` (occupant-status warranties at the deed)
- `--integrity` (the "is it really vacant on completion" honesty check)
- `--tco` (eviction legal cost + carrying cost during occupation as a contingency line)

**Methodology note**: researched via 6 parallel region agents (W1 Western Europe + EFTA + microstates + UK / W2 CEE + Western Balkans + Baltics + Caucasus / W3 MENA + GCC + Israel + Türkiye / W4 APAC + Central Asia + South Asia / W5 LATAM + Caribbean / W6 Africa + Anglo non-EU) — confidence labelled per country. Anti-hallucination posture: adverse-possession periods and fast-track instruments asserted only where primary-sourced (ES Ley Orgánica 1/2025 in force 3 Apr 2025; FR loi 2023-668 + CPCE L412-6; UK LASPO 2012 s.144 residential-only; IN Limitation Act 1963 Art. 65 + s.27; ZA Prescription Act 68/1969 30-yr; US FL HB 621 2024). The country-Georgia vs US-state-Georgia and DR vs Dominica conflations were actively guarded; KH Cambodia carried as an explicit `data not publicly available` placeholder rather than fabricated. Torrens-immunity stated where structurally true.