{ "cells": [ { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "# Steel\n" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "-" } }, "source": [ "
" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "## Introduction" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "-" } }, "source": [ "" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "-" } }, "source": [ "Steel is made up of mainly iron, carbon and other trace elements. Carbon usually is less than 2% by weight of steel. Rather than cover the history of steel myself I'm just providing links to a couple of videos that do a pretty good job.\n", "\n", "[History of Steel (video)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nTLcA8sNUkY&list=PL5dzbOMJw6Gc_tZGMxoeTQQLK79Qvxwbd) (This ends with a commercial for a steel manufacturer but it is still good.)\n", "\n", "[Manufacturing (video)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9l7JqonyoKA)\n", "\n", "Steel is also a pretty advanced building material. This [link](http://mx3d.com/projects/bridge/) is to a Dutch firm that is going to use 3D-printing to make a bridge out of steel.\n", "\n", "One last think before you click onto the 3D printed bridge, the organization that writes the portion of the building code that relates to steel construction is the [American Institute of Steel Construction](https://www.aisc.org/) (AISC)." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "## Sustainability" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "In order to make steel sustainability it needs to be recycled. Fortunately steel is one of the more recycled metals on the planet.\n", "\n", ">The steel industry has been recycling steel scrap for more than 150 years, using electric arc furnaces (EAF), which accounted for about 60% of the total raw steel produced in 2012. ([source](http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/iron_&_steel_scrap/myb1-2012-fescr.pdf))\n", "\n", "Since recycling steel uses much less energy than refining iron ore into steel, about 88% of the steel produced in the United States in 2012 was recycled. The energy savings were equivalent to 1 years of electrical consumption by 18 million houses. By recycling, it also reduces the need for new landfill facilities. \n", "\n", "Generally steel is one of the more sustainable building products. In the construction industry it shows up in many forms, steel beams, joists, decking, fasteners, reinforcement, etc. Additionally, in some forms, it is readily deconstructible and ready to be recycled." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "## Toxicity and the Environment" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "Steel is generally nontoxic to the environment. It simply reverts to iron oxide which occurs naturally as iron ore. Some steel alloys do contain toxic elements, however these are generally very low and exposure is typically limited to workers in the manufacturing process. Overall steel is safe material to work with in regards to toxicity and the environment.\n", "\n", "Working with steel however can involve cutting, and/or grinding it. During these processes small particles of steel and its coating can become airborne. These airborne particles do have some associated health risks. These include allergies which irritate the lungs, skin, and/or eyes. There can be problems if you consume large quantities of this steel dust, but this is exceedingly rare. (source - [Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)](http://www.russelmetals.com/en/Locations/Documents/Material%20Safety%20Data%20Sheets/MSDS%20-%20Steel.pdf))\n", "\n", "One thing you should be made aware of is that some steel may be coated with paint containing lead. ([Lead: The Original Artificial Sweetener (video)](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CM1u29BeqC0) - note this refers to household paint.) The reason why it is included in the initial coat of paint, is that lead is improves coverage and durability. This can present a problem if you have to cutting it with a torch, or grind off the surface, to do some welding. Cutting will release lead vapors, which are toxic, and grinding the paint away will create a fine dust that is also toxic. Special measures may have to be taken to prevent toxic exposure depending on the amount of exposure." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "## Recycling" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "As mentioned previously steel can be recycled very easily and steel scrap is currently in high demand. Recycled steel comes from cars, buildings, bridges, cans, appliances, any thing made from steel has the potential to be recycled. Recycling provides an added benefit in that modern high strength steels have only become possible due to the high quality raw material from recycling. Making high strength steel requires delicate control over the ingredients used in its manufacturing. It has only been in the last few decades that the highly refined raw material used in making high strength steel has become available.\n" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "## Reuse" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "Though reuse is even simpler than recycling, there are a lot potential difficulties with reusing steel. Though it is not unheard in the automotive industry, in construction it is far less common. Firstly, finding a specified size or shape, for a new building, may not be possible if you are reusing parts from older structures.\n", "\n", "Additionally, though I have not said anything about it before, the loading history of the material can be important. There is a failure mode, that I have not previously mentioned, known as fatigue. Fatigue is caused by repeated loading of a material, at a level below the yield stress. This repeated loading causes the growth of microfractures, and can eventually lead to a fracture failure. This is known as the endurance limit and can occur with loading even lower than half the maximum strength (depending on the material), as long as the loading cycle is repeated enough times. With steel, however, there is a lower limit of loading (the ultimate endurance limit) at which a part can be repeatedly loaded and unloaded, forever, with no risk of fatigue. The ultimate endurance limit is just found by extrapolating the endurance limit at an infinite number of cycles. Also, if a part can be reheated or annealed then the atoms of the material surrounding the microfractures can move around enough to reform the previously broken bonds. Unfortunately, this is a process that is impractical when a part is in place inside a building.\n", "\n", "Another potential problem with reusing steel is that the part needed may have some type of surface contamination. This coating would need to be removed prior to using the part in the new application. There are other concerns as well but I think you get the idea. For these reasons steel is typically recycled rather than reused. It is not always the case with other construction material, but for metals structural components it happens more often than not." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "## Material Properties" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "continuous\n", "Steel is a solid metal at room temperature. It is mainly comprised of iron and carbon atoms (a maximum of 2.0% by weight) arranged in a series of interlocking grains formed from metallic crystals. Steel alloys may contain other elements like tungsten, cobalt, nickel, chromium, manganese and even (more recently) aluminum. These alloys result in modifications in the strength, stiffness, density, corrosion resistance, hardness, and/or the attraction to magnets among other properties. There have been thousands of varieties of steel developed to meet specific needs.\n", "\n", "In the construction industry we are mainly interested in the steel used in bars, beams, girders, trusses, fasteners and cables. These are item used to resist the loads present in structures, and the building construction process. Most structural steel sections are formed from large castings and are then reduced in size, elongated, and shaped by rolling. The temperature at which these rollings take place has an effect on the final properties of the element. As for the chemistry, the structural steel that we concern ourselves with will have carbon content that is generally less than 0.30%.\n", "\n", "\n", "One of the reasons steel is so popular for construction is that not only can it be fastened together by bolting, but two pieces can be joined in a process known as welding that effectively creates one continuous piece. Welding can create connections that are stronger than are possible using traditional fasteners such as bolts or [rivets](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivet). It also reduces the size of the members at these connections by eliminating the need for overlapping pieces. Welding allows for the creations of structures that would otherwise be impossible to produce.\n", "\n", "Lastly, steel is also resistant to combustion. Not saying that heat does have an effect, it can have a very important effect (discussed later) but in a lot structures, steel does not even need to be protected against fire exposure." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "### Temperature Effects:" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "-" } }, "source": [ "" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "-" } }, "source": [ "Aside from the affect that temperature has on the material properties themselves, which I will be covering in a little bit, temperature also has an effect on a part's geometry. Steel will increase or decrease in size based on the change in temperature from when the element was installed. This change in size is generally rather small and at times can be ignored but this is not always the case. \n", "\n", "Bridges need to account for this change in length due to temperature, otherwise the bridge can tear itself apart. This is not only true for steel but numerous other types of construction material. The way these changes in size are allowed for is the use of expansion joints." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": { "slideshow": { "slide_type": "slide" } }, "source": [ "## Strength" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 1, "metadata": { "collapsed": true, "slideshow": { "slide_type": "skip" } }, "outputs": [], "source": [ "%matplotlib inline\n", "%run Modulus.py" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "\n", "As we have seen previously, the ability of steel to resist strain can depend on the amount of strain the steel has previously undergone. The red curve is more representative of the behavior of an actual sample vs. an what is seen in idealized graph. The plotted behavior is also called the \"engineering\" stress-strain relationship. It is called that since it reflects the engineering properties of a particular sample instead of the actual properties. \n", "\n", "OK, that isn't really clear. The engineering stress-strain relationship is typically found by taking a cylindrical sample of the material (steel in this case) and first measuring the cross sectional area of the sample, then applying a tension force to it, and recording the resulting strain. The stress is calculated by dividing the applied force, by the original cross sectional area of the sample. This is as apposed to the instantaneous cross section of the sample. Using the instantaneous cross section results in the dark blue line which represents the true stress-strain relationship.\n", "\n", "Alright, that still isn't clear. The reason there is a difference between the true and engineering stress-strain curves is due to something called necking. As tension is applied to a ductile sample it starts to pull apart, like taffy or gum. This causes a reduction in the diameter of the sample, and a reduction of the instantaneous cross sectional area. The \"true\" stress-strain curve has its stress calculated by dividing the tension force by the cross sectional area continuously throughout the test. When the reduction in area is accounted for, then the strength of steel will generally only go up with additional straining. This is actually one process that is used to create high strength wire. The steel is drawn through a small dye, and the resulting staining results in a wire that has higher strength than the original steel.\n", "\n", "Back to the engineering stress-strain curve. The reason why we look at the engineering curve is that it is representative of the behavior of an installed steel element. We see that the yield point (#2) is slightly higher that the curve just to the right. This means that once the yield point is reached, the effective strength of the element drops, and it must immediately strain much more to reach the stain hardening portion of the curve. This is the reason that idealized curves have a straight line across in the plastic section. If a continuous force is applied to the element it will rapidly lengthen until it starts to strain harden. This is what you see in the next section of the curve (#4). The ultimate strength is reached at point #1, if the force remains constant after that the element lengths and fractures. However if the force is not constant, but rather it is simply a function of displacement (like during testing) then the element will have a reduction in carrying capacity until it reaches point #3, the fracture point. The section of the curve where the strength is falling (#5) is where the majority of necking occurs.\n", "\n", "Below is the idealized engineering stress-strain curve for A36 steel. The 36 in the designation refers to the $36,000 ksi$ at the yield point on the stress-strain curve. Additionally, since you cannot rely on any strength beyond the ultimate strength, it is often not shown on the curve." ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 2, "metadata": { "collapsed": false }, "outputs": [ { "data": { "image/png": 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kzsUOIGGuyMJbTWxjgAOBDbDEdmfuEcWjFpuISAJanfyxOTASOBrYJBw/AhgP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\nY4CngLHA0zX2WcLApuvmwI3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