{ "cells": [ { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "# Confidence and prediction intervals\n", "\n", "> Marcos Duarte \n", "> Laboratory of Biomechanics and Motor Control ([http://demotu.org/](http://demotu.org/)) \n", "> Federal University of ABC, Brazil" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "For a finite univariate random variable with a normal probability distribution, the mean $\\mu$ (a measure of central tendency) and variance $\\sigma^2$ (a measure of dispersion) of a population are the well known formulas:\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "\\mu = \\frac{1}{N}\\sum_{i=1}^{N} x_i\n", "\\label{mu}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "\\sigma^2 = \\frac{1}{N}\\sum_{i=1}^{N} (x_i - \\mu)^2\n", "\\label{sigma2}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "For a more general case, a continuous univariate random variable $x$ with [probability density function](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function) (PDF), $f(x)$, the mean and variance of a population are:\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "\\mu = \\int_{\\infty}^{\\infty} x f(x)\\: dx\n", "\\label{mub}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "\\sigma^2 = \\int_{\\infty}^{\\infty} (x-\\mu)^2 f(x)\\: dx\n", "\\label{sigma2b}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "The PDF is a function that describes the relative likelihood for the random variable to take on a given value. \n", "Mean and variance are the first and second central moments of a random variable. The standard deviation $\\sigma$ of the population is the square root of the variance.\n", "\n", "The [normal (or Gaussian) distribution](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution) is a very common and useful distribution, also because of the [central limit theorem](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem), which states that for a sufficiently large number of samples (each with many observations) of an independent random variable with an arbitrary probability distribution, the means of the samples will have a normal distribution. That is, even if the underlying probability distribution of a random variable is not normal, if we sample enough this variable, the means of the set of samples will have a normal distribution. \n", "\n", "The probability density function of a univariate normal (or Gaussian) distribution is:\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "f(x) = \\frac{1}{\\sqrt{2\\pi\\sigma^2}} \\exp\\Bigl(-\\frac{(x-\\mu)^2}{2\\sigma^2}\\Bigr)\n", "\\label{pdf}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "The only parameters that define the normal distribution are the mean $\\mu$ and the variance $\\sigma^2$, because of that a normal distribution is usually described as $N(\\mu,\\:\\sigma^2)$.\n", "\n", "Here is a plot of the PDF for the normal distribution:" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 1, "metadata": { "ExecuteTime": { "end_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:31.213336Z", "start_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:30.603877Z" } }, "outputs": [], "source": [ "# import the necessary libraries\n", "import numpy as np\n", "%matplotlib notebook\n", "import matplotlib.pyplot as plt\n", "from IPython.display import display, Latex\n", "from scipy import stats\n", "import sys\n", "sys.path.insert(1, r'./../functions') # directory of BMC Python functions" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 2, "metadata": { "ExecuteTime": { "end_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:32.320631Z", "start_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:32.259588Z" } }, "outputs": [ { "data": { "application/javascript": [ "/* Put everything inside the global mpl namespace */\n", "window.mpl = {};\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.get_websocket_type = function() {\n", " if (typeof(WebSocket) !== 'undefined') {\n", " return WebSocket;\n", " } else if (typeof(MozWebSocket) !== 'undefined') {\n", " return MozWebSocket;\n", " } else {\n", " alert('Your browser does not have WebSocket support. ' +\n", " 'Please try Chrome, Safari or Firefox ≥ 6. ' +\n", " 'Firefox 4 and 5 are also supported but you ' +\n", " 'have to enable WebSockets in about:config.');\n", " };\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure = function(figure_id, websocket, ondownload, parent_element) {\n", " this.id = figure_id;\n", "\n", " this.ws = websocket;\n", "\n", " this.supports_binary = (this.ws.binaryType != undefined);\n", "\n", " if (!this.supports_binary) {\n", " var warnings = document.getElementById(\"mpl-warnings\");\n", " if (warnings) {\n", " warnings.style.display = 'block';\n", " warnings.textContent = (\n", " \"This browser does not support binary websocket messages. \" +\n", " \"Performance may be slow.\");\n", " }\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.imageObj = new Image();\n", "\n", " this.context = undefined;\n", " this.message = undefined;\n", " this.canvas = undefined;\n", " this.rubberband_canvas = undefined;\n", " this.rubberband_context = undefined;\n", " this.format_dropdown = undefined;\n", "\n", " this.image_mode = 'full';\n", "\n", " this.root = $('
');\n", " this._root_extra_style(this.root)\n", " this.root.attr('style', 'display: inline-block');\n", "\n", " $(parent_element).append(this.root);\n", "\n", " this._init_header(this);\n", " this._init_canvas(this);\n", " this._init_toolbar(this);\n", "\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " this.waiting = false;\n", "\n", " this.ws.onopen = function () {\n", " fig.send_message(\"supports_binary\", {value: fig.supports_binary});\n", " fig.send_message(\"send_image_mode\", {});\n", " if (mpl.ratio != 1) {\n", " fig.send_message(\"set_dpi_ratio\", {'dpi_ratio': mpl.ratio});\n", " }\n", " fig.send_message(\"refresh\", {});\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.imageObj.onload = function() {\n", " if (fig.image_mode == 'full') {\n", " // Full images could contain transparency (where diff images\n", " // almost always do), so we need to clear the canvas so that\n", " // there is no ghosting.\n", " fig.context.clearRect(0, 0, fig.canvas.width, fig.canvas.height);\n", " }\n", " fig.context.drawImage(fig.imageObj, 0, 0);\n", " };\n", "\n", " this.imageObj.onunload = function() {\n", " fig.ws.close();\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.ws.onmessage = this._make_on_message_function(this);\n", "\n", " this.ondownload = ondownload;\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_header = function() {\n", " var titlebar = $(\n", " '
');\n", " var titletext = $(\n", " '
');\n", " titlebar.append(titletext)\n", " this.root.append(titlebar);\n", " this.header = titletext[0];\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._canvas_extra_style = function(canvas_div) {\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._root_extra_style = function(canvas_div) {\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_canvas = function() {\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " var canvas_div = $('
');\n", "\n", " canvas_div.attr('style', 'position: relative; clear: both; outline: 0');\n", "\n", " function canvas_keyboard_event(event) {\n", " return fig.key_event(event, event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " canvas_div.keydown('key_press', canvas_keyboard_event);\n", " canvas_div.keyup('key_release', canvas_keyboard_event);\n", " this.canvas_div = canvas_div\n", " this._canvas_extra_style(canvas_div)\n", " this.root.append(canvas_div);\n", "\n", " var canvas = $('');\n", " canvas.addClass('mpl-canvas');\n", " canvas.attr('style', \"left: 0; top: 0; z-index: 0; outline: 0\")\n", "\n", " this.canvas = canvas[0];\n", " this.context = canvas[0].getContext(\"2d\");\n", "\n", " var backingStore = this.context.backingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.webkitBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.mozBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.msBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.oBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.backingStorePixelRatio || 1;\n", "\n", " mpl.ratio = (window.devicePixelRatio || 1) / backingStore;\n", "\n", " var rubberband = $('');\n", " rubberband.attr('style', \"position: absolute; left: 0; top: 0; z-index: 1;\")\n", "\n", " var pass_mouse_events = true;\n", "\n", " canvas_div.resizable({\n", " start: function(event, ui) {\n", " pass_mouse_events = false;\n", " },\n", " resize: function(event, ui) {\n", " fig.request_resize(ui.size.width, ui.size.height);\n", " },\n", " stop: function(event, ui) {\n", " pass_mouse_events = true;\n", " fig.request_resize(ui.size.width, ui.size.height);\n", " },\n", " });\n", "\n", " function mouse_event_fn(event) {\n", " if (pass_mouse_events)\n", " return fig.mouse_event(event, event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " rubberband.mousedown('button_press', mouse_event_fn);\n", " rubberband.mouseup('button_release', mouse_event_fn);\n", " // Throttle sequential mouse events to 1 every 20ms.\n", " rubberband.mousemove('motion_notify', mouse_event_fn);\n", "\n", " rubberband.mouseenter('figure_enter', mouse_event_fn);\n", " rubberband.mouseleave('figure_leave', mouse_event_fn);\n", "\n", " canvas_div.on(\"wheel\", function (event) {\n", " event = event.originalEvent;\n", " event['data'] = 'scroll'\n", " if (event.deltaY < 0) {\n", " event.step = 1;\n", " } else {\n", " event.step = -1;\n", " }\n", " mouse_event_fn(event);\n", " });\n", "\n", " canvas_div.append(canvas);\n", " canvas_div.append(rubberband);\n", "\n", " this.rubberband = rubberband;\n", " this.rubberband_canvas = rubberband[0];\n", " this.rubberband_context = rubberband[0].getContext(\"2d\");\n", " this.rubberband_context.strokeStyle = \"#000000\";\n", "\n", " this._resize_canvas = function(width, height) {\n", " // Keep the size of the canvas, canvas container, and rubber band\n", " // canvas in synch.\n", " canvas_div.css('width', width)\n", " canvas_div.css('height', height)\n", "\n", " canvas.attr('width', width * mpl.ratio);\n", " canvas.attr('height', height * mpl.ratio);\n", " canvas.attr('style', 'width: ' + width + 'px; height: ' + height + 'px;');\n", "\n", " rubberband.attr('width', width);\n", " rubberband.attr('height', height);\n", " }\n", "\n", " // Set the figure to an initial 600x600px, this will subsequently be updated\n", " // upon first draw.\n", " this._resize_canvas(600, 600);\n", "\n", " // Disable right mouse context menu.\n", " $(this.rubberband_canvas).bind(\"contextmenu\",function(e){\n", " return false;\n", " });\n", "\n", " function set_focus () {\n", " canvas.focus();\n", " canvas_div.focus();\n", " }\n", "\n", " window.setTimeout(set_focus, 100);\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_toolbar = function() {\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " var nav_element = $('
');\n", " nav_element.attr('style', 'width: 100%');\n", " this.root.append(nav_element);\n", "\n", " // Define a callback function for later on.\n", " function toolbar_event(event) {\n", " return fig.toolbar_button_onclick(event['data']);\n", " }\n", " function toolbar_mouse_event(event) {\n", " return fig.toolbar_button_onmouseover(event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " for(var toolbar_ind in mpl.toolbar_items) {\n", " var name = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][0];\n", " var tooltip = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][1];\n", " var image = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][2];\n", " var method_name = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][3];\n", "\n", " if (!name) {\n", " // put a spacer in here.\n", " continue;\n", " }\n", " var button = $('');\n", " button.click(method_name, toolbar_event);\n", " button.mouseover(tooltip, toolbar_mouse_event);\n", " nav_element.append(button);\n", " }\n", "\n", " // Add the status bar.\n", " var status_bar = $('');\n", " nav_element.append(status_bar);\n", " this.message = status_bar[0];\n", "\n", " // Add the close button to the window.\n", " var buttongrp = $('
');\n", " var button = $('');\n", " button.click(function (evt) { fig.handle_close(fig, {}); } );\n", " button.mouseover('Stop Interaction', toolbar_mouse_event);\n", " buttongrp.append(button);\n", " var titlebar = this.root.find($('.ui-dialog-titlebar'));\n", " titlebar.prepend(buttongrp);\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._root_extra_style = function(el){\n", " var fig = this\n", " el.on(\"remove\", function(){\n", "\tfig.close_ws(fig, {});\n", " });\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._canvas_extra_style = function(el){\n", " // this is important to make the div 'focusable\n", " el.attr('tabindex', 0)\n", " // reach out to IPython and tell the keyboard manager to turn it's self\n", " // off when our div gets focus\n", "\n", " // location in version 3\n", " if (IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager) {\n", " IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager.register_events(el);\n", " }\n", " else {\n", " // location in version 2\n", " IPython.keyboard_manager.register_events(el);\n", " }\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._key_event_extra = function(event, name) {\n", " var manager = IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager;\n", " if (!manager)\n", " manager = IPython.keyboard_manager;\n", "\n", " // Check for shift+enter\n", " if (event.shiftKey && event.which == 13) {\n", " this.canvas_div.blur();\n", " event.shiftKey = false;\n", " // Send a \"J\" for go to next cell\n", " event.which = 74;\n", " event.keyCode = 74;\n", " manager.command_mode();\n", " manager.handle_keydown(event);\n", " }\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype.handle_save = function(fig, msg) {\n", " fig.ondownload(fig, null);\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.find_output_cell = function(html_output) {\n", " // Return the cell and output element which can be found *uniquely* in the notebook.\n", " // Note - this is a bit hacky, but it is done because the \"notebook_saving.Notebook\"\n", " // IPython event is triggered only after the cells have been serialised, which for\n", " // our purposes (turning an active figure into a static one), is too late.\n", " var cells = IPython.notebook.get_cells();\n", " var ncells = cells.length;\n", " for (var i=0; i= 3 moved mimebundle to data attribute of output\n", " data = data.data;\n", " }\n", " if (data['text/html'] == html_output) {\n", " return [cell, data, j];\n", " }\n", " }\n", " }\n", " }\n", "}\n", "\n", "// Register the function which deals with the matplotlib target/channel.\n", "// The kernel may be null if the page has been refreshed.\n", "if (IPython.notebook.kernel != null) {\n", " IPython.notebook.kernel.comm_manager.register_target('matplotlib', mpl.mpl_figure_comm);\n", "}\n" ], "text/plain": [ "" ] }, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "display_data" }, { "data": { "text/html": [ "" ], "text/plain": [ "" ] }, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "display_data" } ], "source": [ "rc={'axes.labelsize': 12, 'font.size': 12, 'legend.fontsize': 12, 'axes.titlesize': 12}\n", "plt.rcParams.update(**rc)\n", "fig, ax = plt.subplots(1, 4, sharey=True, squeeze=True, figsize=(9, 3))\n", "x = np.linspace(0, 1, 100)\n", "for i, n in enumerate([1, 2, 3, 10]):\n", " f = np.mean(np.random.random((1000, n)), 1)\n", " m, s = np.mean(f), np.std(f, ddof=1)\n", " fn = (1/(s*np.sqrt(2*np.pi)))*np.exp(-(x-m)**2/(2*s**2)) # normal pdf \n", " ax[i].hist(f, 20, density=True, color=[0, 0.2, .8, .6], edgecolor='black') \n", " ax[i].set_title('n=%d' %n, fontsize=12)\n", " ax[i].plot(x, fn, color=[1, 0, 0, .6], linewidth=2)\n", " ax[i].xaxis.label.set_size(12)\n", "plt.suptitle('Demonstration of the central limit theorem for a uniform distribution', fontsize=12, y=1.0)\n", "plt.tight_layout()\n", "plt.show()" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "**Statistics for a sample of the population**\n", "\n", "Parameters (such as mean and variance) are characteristics of a population; statistics are the equivalent for a sample. For a population and a sample with normal or Gaussian distribution, mean and variance is everything we need to completely characterize this population or sample. \n", "\n", "The difference between sample and population is fundamental for the understanding of probability and statistics. \n", "In Statistics, a sample is a set of data collected from a population. A population is usually very large and can't be accessed completely; all we have access is a sample (a smaller set) of the population. \n", "\n", "If we have only a sample of a finite univariate random variable with a normal distribution, both mean and variance of the population are unknown and they have to be estimated from the sample:\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "\\bar{x} = \\frac{1}{N}\\sum_{i=1}^{N} x_i\n", "\\label{mean}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "s^2 = \\frac{1}{N-1}\\sum_{i=1}^{N} (x_i - \\bar{x})^2\n", "\\label{s2}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "The sample $\\bar{x}$ and $s^2$ are only estimations of the unknown true mean and variance of the population, but because of the [law of large numbers](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_large_numbers), as the size of the sample increases, the sample mean and variance have an increased probability of being close to the population mean and variance.\n", "\n", "**Prediction interval around the mean**\n", "\n", "For a sample of a univariate random variable, the area in an interval of the probability density function can't be interpreted anymore as the proportion of the sample lying inside the interval. Rather, that area in the interval is a prediction of the probability that a new value from the population added to the sample will be inside the interval. This is called a [prediction interval](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction_interval). However, there is one more thing to correct. We have to adjust the interval limits for the fact that now we have only a sample of the population and the parameters $\\mu$ and $\\sigma$ are unknown and have to be estimated. This correction will increase the interval for the same probability value of the interval because we are not so certain about the distribution of the population. \n", "To calculate the interval given a desired probability, we have to determine the distribution of the z-score equivalent for the case of a sample with unknown mean and variance: \n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "\\frac{x_{n+i}-\\bar{x}}{s\\sqrt{1+1/n}}\n", "\\label{zb}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "Where $x_{n+i}$ is the new observation for which we want to calculate the prediction interval. \n", "The distribution of the ratio above is called Student's t-distribution or simply $T$ distribution, with $n-1$ degrees of freedom. A $T$ distribution is symmetric and its pdf tends to that of the\n", "standard normal as $n$ tends to infinity. \n", "\n", "Then, the prediction interval around the sample mean for a new observation is:\n", "\n", "\\begin{equation}\n", "\\left[\\bar{x} - T_{n-1}\\:s\\:\\sqrt{1+1/n},\\quad \\bar{x} + T_{n-1}\\:s\\:\\sqrt{1+1/n}\\right]\n", "\\label{pi}\n", "\\end{equation}\n", "\n", "Where $T_{n-1}$ is the $100((1+p)/2)^{th}$ percentile of the Student's t-distribution with n−1 degrees of freedom.\n", "\n", "For instance, the prediction interval with 95% of probability for a sample ($\\bar{x}=0,\\;s^2=1$) with size equals to 10 is:" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 7, "metadata": { "ExecuteTime": { "end_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:41.584589Z", "start_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:41.580586Z" } }, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ "array([-2.16463507, 2.16463507])" ] }, "execution_count": 7, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } ], "source": [ "np.asarray(stats.t.interval(alpha=0.95, df=25-1, loc=0, scale=1)) * np.sqrt(1+1/10)" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "For a large sample (e.g., 10000), the interval approaches the one for a normal distribution (according to the [central limit theorem](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_limit_theorem)):" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 8, "metadata": { "ExecuteTime": { "end_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:42.958644Z", "start_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:42.954642Z" } }, "outputs": [ { "data": { "text/plain": [ "array([-1.96029927, 1.96029927])" ] }, "execution_count": 8, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "execute_result" } ], "source": [ "np.asarray(stats.t.interval(alpha=0.95, df=10000-1, loc=0, scale=1)) * np.sqrt(1+1/10000)" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "Here is a plot of the pdf for the normal distribution and the pdf for the Student's t-distribution with different number of degrees of freedom (n-1):" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 9, "metadata": { "ExecuteTime": { "end_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:44.309050Z", "start_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:44.275025Z" } }, "outputs": [ { "data": { "application/javascript": [ "/* Put everything inside the global mpl namespace */\n", "window.mpl = {};\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.get_websocket_type = function() {\n", " if (typeof(WebSocket) !== 'undefined') {\n", " return WebSocket;\n", " } else if (typeof(MozWebSocket) !== 'undefined') {\n", " return MozWebSocket;\n", " } else {\n", " alert('Your browser does not have WebSocket support. ' +\n", " 'Please try Chrome, Safari or Firefox ≥ 6. ' +\n", " 'Firefox 4 and 5 are also supported but you ' +\n", " 'have to enable WebSockets in about:config.');\n", " };\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure = function(figure_id, websocket, ondownload, parent_element) {\n", " this.id = figure_id;\n", "\n", " this.ws = websocket;\n", "\n", " this.supports_binary = (this.ws.binaryType != undefined);\n", "\n", " if (!this.supports_binary) {\n", " var warnings = document.getElementById(\"mpl-warnings\");\n", " if (warnings) {\n", " warnings.style.display = 'block';\n", " warnings.textContent = (\n", " \"This browser does not support binary websocket messages. \" +\n", " \"Performance may be slow.\");\n", " }\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.imageObj = new Image();\n", "\n", " this.context = undefined;\n", " this.message = undefined;\n", " this.canvas = undefined;\n", " this.rubberband_canvas = undefined;\n", " this.rubberband_context = undefined;\n", " this.format_dropdown = undefined;\n", "\n", " this.image_mode = 'full';\n", "\n", " this.root = $('
');\n", " this._root_extra_style(this.root)\n", " this.root.attr('style', 'display: inline-block');\n", "\n", " $(parent_element).append(this.root);\n", "\n", " this._init_header(this);\n", " this._init_canvas(this);\n", " this._init_toolbar(this);\n", "\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " this.waiting = false;\n", "\n", " this.ws.onopen = function () {\n", " fig.send_message(\"supports_binary\", {value: fig.supports_binary});\n", " fig.send_message(\"send_image_mode\", {});\n", " if (mpl.ratio != 1) {\n", " fig.send_message(\"set_dpi_ratio\", {'dpi_ratio': mpl.ratio});\n", " }\n", " fig.send_message(\"refresh\", {});\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.imageObj.onload = function() {\n", " if (fig.image_mode == 'full') {\n", " // Full images could contain transparency (where diff images\n", " // almost always do), so we need to clear the canvas so that\n", " // there is no ghosting.\n", " fig.context.clearRect(0, 0, fig.canvas.width, fig.canvas.height);\n", " }\n", " fig.context.drawImage(fig.imageObj, 0, 0);\n", " };\n", "\n", " this.imageObj.onunload = function() {\n", " fig.ws.close();\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.ws.onmessage = this._make_on_message_function(this);\n", "\n", " this.ondownload = ondownload;\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_header = function() {\n", " var titlebar = $(\n", " '
');\n", " var titletext = $(\n", " '
');\n", " titlebar.append(titletext)\n", " this.root.append(titlebar);\n", " this.header = titletext[0];\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._canvas_extra_style = function(canvas_div) {\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._root_extra_style = function(canvas_div) {\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_canvas = function() {\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " var canvas_div = $('
');\n", "\n", " canvas_div.attr('style', 'position: relative; clear: both; outline: 0');\n", "\n", " function canvas_keyboard_event(event) {\n", " return fig.key_event(event, event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " canvas_div.keydown('key_press', canvas_keyboard_event);\n", " canvas_div.keyup('key_release', canvas_keyboard_event);\n", " this.canvas_div = canvas_div\n", " this._canvas_extra_style(canvas_div)\n", " this.root.append(canvas_div);\n", "\n", " var canvas = $('');\n", " canvas.addClass('mpl-canvas');\n", " canvas.attr('style', \"left: 0; top: 0; z-index: 0; outline: 0\")\n", "\n", " this.canvas = canvas[0];\n", " this.context = canvas[0].getContext(\"2d\");\n", "\n", " var backingStore = this.context.backingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.webkitBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.mozBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.msBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.oBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.backingStorePixelRatio || 1;\n", "\n", " mpl.ratio = (window.devicePixelRatio || 1) / backingStore;\n", "\n", " var rubberband = $('');\n", " rubberband.attr('style', \"position: absolute; left: 0; top: 0; z-index: 1;\")\n", "\n", " var pass_mouse_events = true;\n", "\n", " canvas_div.resizable({\n", " start: function(event, ui) {\n", " pass_mouse_events = false;\n", " },\n", " resize: function(event, ui) {\n", " fig.request_resize(ui.size.width, ui.size.height);\n", " },\n", " stop: function(event, ui) {\n", " pass_mouse_events = true;\n", " fig.request_resize(ui.size.width, ui.size.height);\n", " },\n", " });\n", "\n", " function mouse_event_fn(event) {\n", " if (pass_mouse_events)\n", " return fig.mouse_event(event, event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " rubberband.mousedown('button_press', mouse_event_fn);\n", " rubberband.mouseup('button_release', mouse_event_fn);\n", " // Throttle sequential mouse events to 1 every 20ms.\n", " rubberband.mousemove('motion_notify', mouse_event_fn);\n", "\n", " rubberband.mouseenter('figure_enter', mouse_event_fn);\n", " rubberband.mouseleave('figure_leave', mouse_event_fn);\n", "\n", " canvas_div.on(\"wheel\", function (event) {\n", " event = event.originalEvent;\n", " event['data'] = 'scroll'\n", " if (event.deltaY < 0) {\n", " event.step = 1;\n", " } else {\n", " event.step = -1;\n", " }\n", " mouse_event_fn(event);\n", " });\n", "\n", " canvas_div.append(canvas);\n", " canvas_div.append(rubberband);\n", "\n", " this.rubberband = rubberband;\n", " this.rubberband_canvas = rubberband[0];\n", " this.rubberband_context = rubberband[0].getContext(\"2d\");\n", " this.rubberband_context.strokeStyle = \"#000000\";\n", "\n", " this._resize_canvas = function(width, height) {\n", " // Keep the size of the canvas, canvas container, and rubber band\n", " // canvas in synch.\n", " canvas_div.css('width', width)\n", " canvas_div.css('height', height)\n", "\n", " canvas.attr('width', width * mpl.ratio);\n", " canvas.attr('height', height * mpl.ratio);\n", " canvas.attr('style', 'width: ' + width + 'px; height: ' + height + 'px;');\n", "\n", " rubberband.attr('width', width);\n", " rubberband.attr('height', height);\n", " }\n", "\n", " // Set the figure to an initial 600x600px, this will subsequently be updated\n", " // upon first draw.\n", " this._resize_canvas(600, 600);\n", "\n", " // Disable right mouse context menu.\n", " $(this.rubberband_canvas).bind(\"contextmenu\",function(e){\n", " return false;\n", " });\n", "\n", " function set_focus () {\n", " canvas.focus();\n", " canvas_div.focus();\n", " }\n", "\n", " window.setTimeout(set_focus, 100);\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_toolbar = function() {\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " var nav_element = $('
');\n", " nav_element.attr('style', 'width: 100%');\n", " this.root.append(nav_element);\n", "\n", " // Define a callback function for later on.\n", " function toolbar_event(event) {\n", " return fig.toolbar_button_onclick(event['data']);\n", " }\n", " function toolbar_mouse_event(event) {\n", " return fig.toolbar_button_onmouseover(event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " for(var toolbar_ind in mpl.toolbar_items) {\n", " var name = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][0];\n", " var tooltip = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][1];\n", " var image = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][2];\n", " var method_name = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][3];\n", "\n", " if (!name) {\n", " // put a spacer in here.\n", " continue;\n", " }\n", " var button = $('');\n", " button.click(method_name, toolbar_event);\n", " button.mouseover(tooltip, toolbar_mouse_event);\n", " nav_element.append(button);\n", " }\n", "\n", " // Add the status bar.\n", " var status_bar = $('');\n", " nav_element.append(status_bar);\n", " this.message = status_bar[0];\n", "\n", " // Add the close button to the window.\n", " var buttongrp = $('
');\n", " var button = $('');\n", " button.click(function (evt) { fig.handle_close(fig, {}); } );\n", " button.mouseover('Stop Interaction', toolbar_mouse_event);\n", " buttongrp.append(button);\n", " var titlebar = this.root.find($('.ui-dialog-titlebar'));\n", " titlebar.prepend(buttongrp);\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._root_extra_style = function(el){\n", " var fig = this\n", " el.on(\"remove\", function(){\n", "\tfig.close_ws(fig, {});\n", " });\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._canvas_extra_style = function(el){\n", " // this is important to make the div 'focusable\n", " el.attr('tabindex', 0)\n", " // reach out to IPython and tell the keyboard manager to turn it's self\n", " // off when our div gets focus\n", "\n", " // location in version 3\n", " if (IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager) {\n", " IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager.register_events(el);\n", " }\n", " else {\n", " // location in version 2\n", " IPython.keyboard_manager.register_events(el);\n", " }\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._key_event_extra = function(event, name) {\n", " var manager = IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager;\n", " if (!manager)\n", " manager = IPython.keyboard_manager;\n", "\n", " // Check for shift+enter\n", " if (event.shiftKey && event.which == 13) {\n", " this.canvas_div.blur();\n", " event.shiftKey = false;\n", " // Send a \"J\" for go to next cell\n", " event.which = 74;\n", " event.keyCode = 74;\n", " manager.command_mode();\n", " manager.handle_keydown(event);\n", " }\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype.handle_save = function(fig, msg) {\n", " fig.ondownload(fig, null);\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.find_output_cell = function(html_output) {\n", " // Return the cell and output element which can be found *uniquely* in the notebook.\n", " // Note - this is a bit hacky, but it is done because the \"notebook_saving.Notebook\"\n", " // IPython event is triggered only after the cells have been serialised, which for\n", " // our purposes (turning an active figure into a static one), is too late.\n", " var cells = IPython.notebook.get_cells();\n", " var ncells = cells.length;\n", " for (var i=0; i= 3 moved mimebundle to data attribute of output\n", " data = data.data;\n", " }\n", " if (data['text/html'] == html_output) {\n", " return [cell, data, j];\n", " }\n", " }\n", " }\n", " }\n", "}\n", "\n", "// Register the function which deals with the matplotlib target/channel.\n", "// The kernel may be null if the page has been refreshed.\n", "if (IPython.notebook.kernel != null) {\n", " IPython.notebook.kernel.comm_manager.register_target('matplotlib', mpl.mpl_figure_comm);\n", "}\n" ], "text/plain": [ "" ] }, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "display_data" }, { "data": { "text/html": [ "" ], "text/plain": [ "" ] }, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "display_data" } ], "source": [ "fig, ax = plt.subplots(1, 1, figsize=(9, 5))\n", "ind = np.arange(1, 101)\n", "ax.axhline(y=0, xmin=0, xmax=n+1, color=[0, 0, 0])\n", "ax.plot([ind, ind], ci, color=[0, 0.2, 0.8, 0.8], marker='_', ms=0, linewidth=3)\n", "ax.plot([ind[out], ind[out]], ci[:, out], color=[1, 0, 0, 0.8], marker='_', ms=0, linewidth=3)\n", "ax.plot(ind, m, color=[0, .8, .2, .8], marker='.', ms=10, linestyle='')\n", "ax.set_xlim(0, 101)\n", "ax.set_ylim(-1.1, 1.1)\n", "ax.set_title(\"Confidence interval for the samples' mean estimate of a population ~ $N(0, 1)$\",\n", " fontsize=14)\n", "ax.set_xlabel('Sample (with %d observations)' %n, fontsize=14)\n", "plt.show()" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "Four out of 100 95%-CI's don't contain the population mean, about what we predicted.\n", "\n", "And the standard deviation of the samples' mean per definition should be equal to the standard error of the mean:" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 14, "metadata": { "ExecuteTime": { "end_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:51.230552Z", "start_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:51.226549Z" } }, "outputs": [ { "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ "Samples' mean and standard deviation:\n", "m = 0.010 s = 1.018\n", "Standard deviation of the samples' mean:\n", "0.234\n", "Standard error of the mean:\n", "0.228\n" ] } ], "source": [ "print(\"Samples' mean and standard deviation:\")\n", "print('m = %.3f s = %.3f' % (np.mean(m), np.mean(s)))\n", "print(\"Standard deviation of the samples' mean:\")\n", "print('%.3f' % np.std(m, ddof=1))\n", "print(\"Standard error of the mean:\")\n", "print('%.3f' % (np.mean(s)/np.sqrt(20)))" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "Likewise, it's common to use 1.96 for the 95% confidence interval even when dealing with a sample; let's quantify the error of this approximation for different sample sizes: " ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 15, "metadata": { "ExecuteTime": { "end_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:52.496459Z", "start_time": "2018-07-01T20:45:52.491457Z" } }, "outputs": [ { "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ "\n", "Approximation error for n = 1000\n", "Using Normal distribution: -0.1%\n", "\n", "Approximation error for n = 100\n", "Using Normal distribution: -1.2%\n", "\n", "Approximation error for n = 10\n", "Using Normal distribution: -13.4%\n" ] } ], "source": [ "T = lambda n: stats.t.ppf(0.975, n-1) # T distribution\n", "N = stats.norm.ppf(0.975) # Normal distribution\n", "for n in [1000, 100, 10]:\n", " print('\\nApproximation error for n = %d' %n) \n", " print('Using Normal distribution: %.1f%%' % (100*(N-T(n))/T(n)))" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "For n=1000, the approximation is good, for n=10 it is bad, and it always underestimates. \n", "\n", "For the case of a multivariate random variable, see [Prediction ellipse and prediction ellipsoid](http://nbviewer.ipython.org/github/demotu/BMC/blob/master/notebooks/PredictionEllipseEllipsoid.ipynb)." ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "### Verification of the relation between standard deviation and standard error of the mean" ] }, { "cell_type": "code", "execution_count": 16, "metadata": {}, "outputs": [ { "data": { "application/javascript": [ "/* Put everything inside the global mpl namespace */\n", "window.mpl = {};\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.get_websocket_type = function() {\n", " if (typeof(WebSocket) !== 'undefined') {\n", " return WebSocket;\n", " } else if (typeof(MozWebSocket) !== 'undefined') {\n", " return MozWebSocket;\n", " } else {\n", " alert('Your browser does not have WebSocket support. ' +\n", " 'Please try Chrome, Safari or Firefox ≥ 6. ' +\n", " 'Firefox 4 and 5 are also supported but you ' +\n", " 'have to enable WebSockets in about:config.');\n", " };\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure = function(figure_id, websocket, ondownload, parent_element) {\n", " this.id = figure_id;\n", "\n", " this.ws = websocket;\n", "\n", " this.supports_binary = (this.ws.binaryType != undefined);\n", "\n", " if (!this.supports_binary) {\n", " var warnings = document.getElementById(\"mpl-warnings\");\n", " if (warnings) {\n", " warnings.style.display = 'block';\n", " warnings.textContent = (\n", " \"This browser does not support binary websocket messages. \" +\n", " \"Performance may be slow.\");\n", " }\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.imageObj = new Image();\n", "\n", " this.context = undefined;\n", " this.message = undefined;\n", " this.canvas = undefined;\n", " this.rubberband_canvas = undefined;\n", " this.rubberband_context = undefined;\n", " this.format_dropdown = undefined;\n", "\n", " this.image_mode = 'full';\n", "\n", " this.root = $('
');\n", " this._root_extra_style(this.root)\n", " this.root.attr('style', 'display: inline-block');\n", "\n", " $(parent_element).append(this.root);\n", "\n", " this._init_header(this);\n", " this._init_canvas(this);\n", " this._init_toolbar(this);\n", "\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " this.waiting = false;\n", "\n", " this.ws.onopen = function () {\n", " fig.send_message(\"supports_binary\", {value: fig.supports_binary});\n", " fig.send_message(\"send_image_mode\", {});\n", " if (mpl.ratio != 1) {\n", " fig.send_message(\"set_dpi_ratio\", {'dpi_ratio': mpl.ratio});\n", " }\n", " fig.send_message(\"refresh\", {});\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.imageObj.onload = function() {\n", " if (fig.image_mode == 'full') {\n", " // Full images could contain transparency (where diff images\n", " // almost always do), so we need to clear the canvas so that\n", " // there is no ghosting.\n", " fig.context.clearRect(0, 0, fig.canvas.width, fig.canvas.height);\n", " }\n", " fig.context.drawImage(fig.imageObj, 0, 0);\n", " };\n", "\n", " this.imageObj.onunload = function() {\n", " fig.ws.close();\n", " }\n", "\n", " this.ws.onmessage = this._make_on_message_function(this);\n", "\n", " this.ondownload = ondownload;\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_header = function() {\n", " var titlebar = $(\n", " '
');\n", " var titletext = $(\n", " '
');\n", " titlebar.append(titletext)\n", " this.root.append(titlebar);\n", " this.header = titletext[0];\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._canvas_extra_style = function(canvas_div) {\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._root_extra_style = function(canvas_div) {\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_canvas = function() {\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " var canvas_div = $('
');\n", "\n", " canvas_div.attr('style', 'position: relative; clear: both; outline: 0');\n", "\n", " function canvas_keyboard_event(event) {\n", " return fig.key_event(event, event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " canvas_div.keydown('key_press', canvas_keyboard_event);\n", " canvas_div.keyup('key_release', canvas_keyboard_event);\n", " this.canvas_div = canvas_div\n", " this._canvas_extra_style(canvas_div)\n", " this.root.append(canvas_div);\n", "\n", " var canvas = $('');\n", " canvas.addClass('mpl-canvas');\n", " canvas.attr('style', \"left: 0; top: 0; z-index: 0; outline: 0\")\n", "\n", " this.canvas = canvas[0];\n", " this.context = canvas[0].getContext(\"2d\");\n", "\n", " var backingStore = this.context.backingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.webkitBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.mozBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.msBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.oBackingStorePixelRatio ||\n", "\tthis.context.backingStorePixelRatio || 1;\n", "\n", " mpl.ratio = (window.devicePixelRatio || 1) / backingStore;\n", "\n", " var rubberband = $('');\n", " rubberband.attr('style', \"position: absolute; left: 0; top: 0; z-index: 1;\")\n", "\n", " var pass_mouse_events = true;\n", "\n", " canvas_div.resizable({\n", " start: function(event, ui) {\n", " pass_mouse_events = false;\n", " },\n", " resize: function(event, ui) {\n", " fig.request_resize(ui.size.width, ui.size.height);\n", " },\n", " stop: function(event, ui) {\n", " pass_mouse_events = true;\n", " fig.request_resize(ui.size.width, ui.size.height);\n", " },\n", " });\n", "\n", " function mouse_event_fn(event) {\n", " if (pass_mouse_events)\n", " return fig.mouse_event(event, event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " rubberband.mousedown('button_press', mouse_event_fn);\n", " rubberband.mouseup('button_release', mouse_event_fn);\n", " // Throttle sequential mouse events to 1 every 20ms.\n", " rubberband.mousemove('motion_notify', mouse_event_fn);\n", "\n", " rubberband.mouseenter('figure_enter', mouse_event_fn);\n", " rubberband.mouseleave('figure_leave', mouse_event_fn);\n", "\n", " canvas_div.on(\"wheel\", function (event) {\n", " event = event.originalEvent;\n", " event['data'] = 'scroll'\n", " if (event.deltaY < 0) {\n", " event.step = 1;\n", " } else {\n", " event.step = -1;\n", " }\n", " mouse_event_fn(event);\n", " });\n", "\n", " canvas_div.append(canvas);\n", " canvas_div.append(rubberband);\n", "\n", " this.rubberband = rubberband;\n", " this.rubberband_canvas = rubberband[0];\n", " this.rubberband_context = rubberband[0].getContext(\"2d\");\n", " this.rubberband_context.strokeStyle = \"#000000\";\n", "\n", " this._resize_canvas = function(width, height) {\n", " // Keep the size of the canvas, canvas container, and rubber band\n", " // canvas in synch.\n", " canvas_div.css('width', width)\n", " canvas_div.css('height', height)\n", "\n", " canvas.attr('width', width * mpl.ratio);\n", " canvas.attr('height', height * mpl.ratio);\n", " canvas.attr('style', 'width: ' + width + 'px; height: ' + height + 'px;');\n", "\n", " rubberband.attr('width', width);\n", " rubberband.attr('height', height);\n", " }\n", "\n", " // Set the figure to an initial 600x600px, this will subsequently be updated\n", " // upon first draw.\n", " this._resize_canvas(600, 600);\n", "\n", " // Disable right mouse context menu.\n", " $(this.rubberband_canvas).bind(\"contextmenu\",function(e){\n", " return false;\n", " });\n", "\n", " function set_focus () {\n", " canvas.focus();\n", " canvas_div.focus();\n", " }\n", "\n", " window.setTimeout(set_focus, 100);\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._init_toolbar = function() {\n", " var fig = this;\n", "\n", " var nav_element = $('
');\n", " nav_element.attr('style', 'width: 100%');\n", " this.root.append(nav_element);\n", "\n", " // Define a callback function for later on.\n", " function toolbar_event(event) {\n", " return fig.toolbar_button_onclick(event['data']);\n", " }\n", " function toolbar_mouse_event(event) {\n", " return fig.toolbar_button_onmouseover(event['data']);\n", " }\n", "\n", " for(var toolbar_ind in mpl.toolbar_items) {\n", " var name = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][0];\n", " var tooltip = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][1];\n", " var image = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][2];\n", " var method_name = mpl.toolbar_items[toolbar_ind][3];\n", "\n", " if (!name) {\n", " // put a spacer in here.\n", " continue;\n", " }\n", " var button = $('');\n", " button.click(method_name, toolbar_event);\n", " button.mouseover(tooltip, toolbar_mouse_event);\n", " nav_element.append(button);\n", " }\n", "\n", " // Add the status bar.\n", " var status_bar = $('');\n", " nav_element.append(status_bar);\n", " this.message = status_bar[0];\n", "\n", " // Add the close button to the window.\n", " var buttongrp = $('
');\n", " var button = $('');\n", " button.click(function (evt) { fig.handle_close(fig, {}); } );\n", " button.mouseover('Stop Interaction', toolbar_mouse_event);\n", " buttongrp.append(button);\n", " var titlebar = this.root.find($('.ui-dialog-titlebar'));\n", " titlebar.prepend(buttongrp);\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._root_extra_style = function(el){\n", " var fig = this\n", " el.on(\"remove\", function(){\n", "\tfig.close_ws(fig, {});\n", " });\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._canvas_extra_style = function(el){\n", " // this is important to make the div 'focusable\n", " el.attr('tabindex', 0)\n", " // reach out to IPython and tell the keyboard manager to turn it's self\n", " // off when our div gets focus\n", "\n", " // location in version 3\n", " if (IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager) {\n", " IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager.register_events(el);\n", " }\n", " else {\n", " // location in version 2\n", " IPython.keyboard_manager.register_events(el);\n", " }\n", "\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype._key_event_extra = function(event, name) {\n", " var manager = IPython.notebook.keyboard_manager;\n", " if (!manager)\n", " manager = IPython.keyboard_manager;\n", "\n", " // Check for shift+enter\n", " if (event.shiftKey && event.which == 13) {\n", " this.canvas_div.blur();\n", " event.shiftKey = false;\n", " // Send a \"J\" for go to next cell\n", " event.which = 74;\n", " event.keyCode = 74;\n", " manager.command_mode();\n", " manager.handle_keydown(event);\n", " }\n", "}\n", "\n", "mpl.figure.prototype.handle_save = function(fig, msg) {\n", " fig.ondownload(fig, null);\n", "}\n", "\n", "\n", "mpl.find_output_cell = function(html_output) {\n", " // Return the cell and output element which can be found *uniquely* in the notebook.\n", " // Note - this is a bit hacky, but it is done because the \"notebook_saving.Notebook\"\n", " // IPython event is triggered only after the cells have been serialised, which for\n", " // our purposes (turning an active figure into a static one), is too late.\n", " var cells = IPython.notebook.get_cells();\n", " var ncells = cells.length;\n", " for (var i=0; i= 3 moved mimebundle to data attribute of output\n", " data = data.data;\n", " }\n", " if (data['text/html'] == html_output) {\n", " return [cell, data, j];\n", " }\n", " }\n", " }\n", " }\n", "}\n", "\n", "// Register the function which deals with the matplotlib target/channel.\n", "// The kernel may be null if the page has been refreshed.\n", "if (IPython.notebook.kernel != null) {\n", " IPython.notebook.kernel.comm_manager.register_target('matplotlib', mpl.mpl_figure_comm);\n", "}\n" ], "text/plain": [ "" ] }, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "display_data" }, { "data": { "text/html": [ "" ], "text/plain": [ "" ] }, "metadata": {}, "output_type": "display_data" }, { "name": "stdout", "output_type": "stream", "text": [ "n m s 1/np.sqrt(n)\n", " 1 0.1274 0.9783 1.0000\n", " 2 -0.0279 0.6698 0.7071\n", " 3 -0.0232 0.5716 0.5774\n", " 10 -0.0054 0.2846 0.3162\n", "100 -0.0014 0.0940 0.1000\n" ] } ], "source": [ "rc = {'axes.labelsize': 12, 'font.size': 12, 'legend.fontsize': 12, 'axes.titlesize': 12}\n", "plt.rcParams.update(**rc)\n", "fig, ax = plt.subplots(1, 5, sharey=True, squeeze=True, figsize=(9, 3))\n", "print('{0:10} {1:10} {2:5} {3:10}'.format('n', 'm', 's', '1/np.sqrt(n)'))\n", "for i, n in enumerate([1, 2, 3, 10, 100]):\n", " f = np.mean(np.random.randn(100, n), 1)\n", " m, s = np.mean(f), np.std(f, ddof=1)\n", " x = np.linspace(np.min(f), np.max(f), 100)\n", " fn = (1/(s*np.sqrt(2*np.pi)))*np.exp(-(x-m)**2/(2*s**2)) # normal pdf \n", " ax[i].hist(f, 10, density=True, color=[0, 0.2, .8, .6], edgecolor='black') \n", " ax[i].set_title('n=%d' %n, fontsize=12)\n", " ax[i].plot(x, fn, color=[1, 0, 0, .6], linewidth=2)\n", " ax[i].xaxis.label.set_size(12)\n", " print('{0:3} {1:10.4f} {2:10.4f} {3:10.4f}'.format(n, m, s, 1/np.sqrt(n)))\n", "plt.suptitle('Standard deviation and standard error of the mean', fontsize=12, y=1.0)\n", "plt.tight_layout()\n", "plt.show()" ] }, { "cell_type": "markdown", "metadata": {}, "source": [ "## References\n", "\n", "- Hahn GJ, Meeker WQ (1991) [Statistical Intervals: A Guide for Practitioners](http://books.google.com.br/books?id=ADGuRxqt5z4C). John Wiley & Sons. \n", "- Montgomery (2013) [Applied Statistics and Probability for Engineers](http://books.google.com.br/books?id=_f4KrEcNAfEC). John Wiley & Sons. " ] } ], "metadata": { "hide_input": false, "kernelspec": { "display_name": "Python 3", "language": "python", "name": "python3" }, "language_info": { "codemirror_mode": { "name": "ipython", "version": 3 }, "file_extension": ".py", "mimetype": "text/x-python", "name": "python", "nbconvert_exporter": "python", "pygments_lexer": "ipython3", "version": "3.7.3" }, "varInspector": { "cols": { "lenName": 16, "lenType": 16, "lenVar": 40 }, "kernels_config": { "python": { "delete_cmd_postfix": "", "delete_cmd_prefix": "del ", "library": "var_list.py", "varRefreshCmd": "print(var_dic_list())" }, "r": { "delete_cmd_postfix": ") ", "delete_cmd_prefix": "rm(", "library": "var_list.r", "varRefreshCmd": "cat(var_dic_list()) " } }, "types_to_exclude": [ "module", "function", "builtin_function_or_method", "instance", "_Feature" ], "window_display": false } }, "nbformat": 4, "nbformat_minor": 1 }