\def\cwebtitle#1{\gdef\title{\expandafter\uppercase\expandafter{#1}}} \def\namedatethis{ \def\startsection{ \leftline{\sc Written by Marcel K. Goh. Last updated \today\ at \hours}\bigskip \let\startsection=\stsec\stsec } } \cwebtitle{lp-balls} \input fontmac \input epsf \def\bb{{\bf b}} \def\setZ{{\bf Z}} \def\RR{{\bf R}} \def\norm#1{\vert\!\vert#1\vert\!\vert} \namedatethis @* Introduction. This literate program contains various functions for experimenting with points in the unit ball of $L^p$-space over $\RR^d$. We will maintain a set of points in this space, and provide functionality for randomly generating new ones, as well as printing the current state of the point set. @ This is the main outline of the program. We have a couple of global variables storing $p\in (0,\infty]$, the dimension $d$, the set |points| of points we are working with (and the maximum size |max_points| of this array). The three parameters will be supplied by the user via command-line arguments. One specifies the case $p=\infty$ by supplying a negative number for $p$. We represent vectors in $\RR^d$ as \CEE/ |double| arrays of length $d+1$. While perhaps a bit wasteful, this allows us to index from $1$ to $d$ rather than from $0$ to $d-1$. @c #include #include #include #include #include @# @# double p; double p_inv; int d; int max_points; int num_points; double** points; @# @; @; @; @; @; @; int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { @; @; if (d == 2 && p < 0) random_locus(5, "locus.ps", 150, 30); } @* The point set. This section contains functions on points in $L^p$-space. First, we provide facilities to add new points, delete all points, and to list the current point set on the console. We use the current size of the point set, stored in the variable |num_points| to help index into the |points| array. Clearing the point set is done by setting |num_points| to $0$, so everything in the array at and after the index |num_points| possibly contains garbage values. @= void add_point(double *point) { if (num_points >= max_points) { printf("I failed to add point because array is full.\n"); return; } for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) points[num_points][i] = point[i]; ++num_points; } void clear_points() { num_points = 0; } void list_points() { for (int i=0; i= @; @; @; @; @ First, in the |main| function, we initialise a pseudorandom number generator with the current time. @= time_t t; srand((unsigned) time(&t)); for (int i=0; i<10; ++i) { rand(); } @ To generate our exponential random variable, we use von Neumann's algorithm, as described by L.~Devroye on p.~126 of {\sl Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation} (New York: Springer, 1986). @= double uniform01() { return ((double) rand())/RAND_MAX; } double exponential1() { int Z = 0; double Y; int k; do { Y = uniform01(); k=1; double W = Y; int stop = 0; do { double U = uniform01(); if (U > W) { stop = 1; } else { W = U; ++k; } } while (!stop); ++Z; } while (k % 2 == 0); return ((double) (Z-1))+Y; } @ We will also make use of the gamma distribution, which, for a parameter $a>0$, has density $$f(x) = {1\over \Gamma(a)}x^{a-1}e^{-x}.$$ We use an algorithm of R.~C.~H.~Cheng [{\sl Applied Statistics} {\bf 26} (1977), 71--75], described on p.~413 of {\sl Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation}, which works for $a\ge 1$. (Note that there is a mistake in the printed algorithm, but the corrigenda on Devroye's website contain the required amendments.) @= double gamma_dist(double a) { double b = a-log(4); double lambda = sqrt(2*a-1); double c = a + lambda; int accept = 0; double U, V, Y, X, Z, R; double S = 4.5*Z-(1+log(4.5)); do { U = uniform01(); V = uniform01(); Y = (1.0/lambda)*log(V/(1-V)); X = a*exp(Y); Z = U*V*V; R = b + c*Y - X; accept = (R >= S); if (!accept) accept = (R >= log(Z)); } while (!accept); return X; } @ To get a uniform random point from the unit ball in $L^p(\RR^d)$, we sample $d$ independent random variables, call them $X_1,\ldots, X_d$ from the density $$f(x) = {1\over 2\Gamma(1+1/p)} e^{-\vert x\vert ^p}.$$ This is called an exponential power distribution, and Devroye notes in {\sl Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation} that if $X = VY^{1/p}$ with $V$ uniformly distributed on $[-1,1]$ and $Y$ is gamma-distributed with parameter $1+1/p$, then $X$ has the density $f(x)$. We also sample an exponential random variable $Y$ with mean $1$, and then output the random vector $${(X_1, \ldots, X_d) \over (Y+ \sum_{i=1}^d \vert X_i\vert^p)^{1/p}}.$$ This method and extensions thereof are described by F.~Barthe, O.~Guedon, S.~Mendelson, and A.~Naor [{\sl Annals of Probability} {\bf 33} (2005), 480--513]. The function we write returns a point by modifying an array that is passed as an argument. @= void random_point(double *point) { double *X = malloc((d+1)*sizeof(double)); for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) X[i] = 0.0; if (p < 0) { @; } else { @; } free(X); } @ When $p=\infty$, we simply return a point uniformly from the box $[-1,1]^d$. @= for (int i=1;i<=d;++i) point[i] = 2*uniform01() - 1; @ In all the other cases, we sample using the method described above. @= for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) { double V = 2*uniform01() - 1; X[i] = V*pow(gamma_dist(1+p_inv), p_inv); } double Y = exponential1(); double pow_sum = Y; for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) pow_sum += pow(fabs(X[i]), p); double scale_factor = 1.0/(pow(pow_sum, p_inv)); for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) point[i] = scale_factor*X[i]; @ I originally needed a normal random deviate to handle the case $p=2$, so I added this function, but it is no longer necessary since we now have a general function. I left it here just for kicks. We generate the normal using the Box-Muller transform, due to G.~E.~P.~Box and M.~E.~Muller [{\sl Annals of Mathematical Statistics} {\bf 29} (1958), 610--611]. If $U_1$ and $U_2$ are two independent random variables uniformly distributed in $[0,1]$, then $$V_1 = \sqrt{-2\ln U_1}\cos(2\pi U_2)\qquad\hbox{and}\qquad V_2 = \sqrt{-2\ln U_1}\sin(2\pi U_2)$$ are independent normal random variables with mean $0$ and variance $1$. To make the return type of our function simpler, we simply output one of these values (so we will end up calling this function twice as often as is actually necessary). @= double normal01() { double U1 = uniform01(); double U2 = uniform01(); double scale = sqrt(-2.0*log(U1)); return scale*cos(2*M_PI*U2); } @* File output. When $d=2$, it is easy to plot our set of points graphically. Our program does this by generating a PostScript file. @= void plot_single_point(FILE *file, double red, double green, double blue, double x, double y){ fprintf(file, "%f %f %f setrgbcolor %f %f dot\n", red, green, blue, x, y); } void to_postscript(const char *filename, int radius) { if (d != 2) { printf("I cannot output PostScript unless d equals 2!\n"); return; } FILE *file = fopen(filename, "w"); @; @; fprintf(file, "showpage\n"); fclose(file); } @ We first add a bare-bones preamble to the file to draw the axes and declare various PostScript functions. The axes are drawn with center at $(|radius|, |radius|)$ @= char *preamble = "%!PS\n\ /dot { 1.5 0 360 arc closepath fill } def\n\ /square { /r exch def /y exch def /x exch def\n\ newpath x r sub y r sub moveto 0 r 2 mul rlineto\n\ r 2 mul 0 rlineto 0 r 2 mul neg rlineto\n\ r 2 mul neg 0 rlineto closepath fill} def\n\ 0.5 setlinewidth\n"; fprintf(file, "%s", preamble); fprintf(file, "%d %d translate\n", radius, radius); fprintf(file, "newpath 0 %d moveto 0 %d lineto ", -radius, radius); fprintf(file, "%d 0 moveto %d 0 lineto stroke\n", -radius, radius); @ Next, we plot each of the elements of the |points| array, with a colour gradient to indicate the relative orderings of points. The first point in the array is drawn in |colour1|, the final point is drawn in |colour2|, and points in between have their colours interpolated accordingly. @= double colour1[] = {1.0, 0.0, 0.0}; /* red */ double colour2[] = {0.0, 0.0, 1.0}; /* blue */ for (int i=0; i= @; @; @ First we need to compute distances between two points $x = (x_1,\ldots, x_d)$ and $y = (y_1,\ldots, y_d)$ in $L^p(\RR^d)$. When $p\neq\infty$, this is given by the formula $$\norm{x-y}_p = \Bigl(\sum_{i=1}^d \vert x_i-y_i\vert ^p\Bigr)^{1/p},$$ and when $p=\infty$, we simply take the maximum of the coordinate-wise distances: $$\norm{x-y}_\infty = \max_{1\leq i\leq d} \vert x_i - y_i\vert$$ @= double p_dist(double *x, double *y) { if (p < 0) { double max = DBL_MIN; for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) { double diff = fabs(x[i] - y[i]); if (diff > max) max = diff; } return max; } else { double sum = 0; for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) sum += pow(fabs(x[i] - y[i]), p); return pow(sum, 1.0/p); } } @ Now we present the algorithm for growing the committee, which takes a parameter indicating how many rounds of voting should be undertaken. We start by clearing the point set and initialising the committee with a point chosen uniformly at random from the unit ball (this counts as the first round of voting). In each round, we compute distances from each point to the two candidates and keep track of whether each candidate has votes. If at any point, both candidates have votes, we can continue to the next election, since that round is inconclusive. The return value is the size of the committee after all rounds have elapsed. @= int consensus(int max_t, double (*dist)(double *, double *)) { clear_points(); double *cand1 = malloc((d+1)*sizeof(double)); double *cand2 = malloc((d+1)*sizeof(double)); random_point(cand1); add_point(cand1); for (int t=0; t dist2) { voted1 = 1; } else { voted2 = 1; } if (voted1 && voted2) break; } if (voted1 && !voted2) add_point(cand1); if (voted2 && !voted1) add_point(cand2); } free(cand1); free(cand2); return num_points; } @* Illustrations and examples. Here are some examples of the output of the committee-generating algorithm. In each case, $1\,000,000$ rounds of voting were conducted. In each figure, redder points were added earlier and bluer points were added later. For $p=\infty$, a committee of 20 members was formed: $$\epsfbox{infinity.ps}$$ For $p=1$, a committee of $16$ members was formed: $$\epsfbox{one.ps}$$ And for $p=2$, a committee of $33$ members was formed: $$\epsfbox{two.ps}$$ These committee sizes seemed representative of typical behaviour, in that running the program multiple times with the same parameters did not produce wildly different values in any of the cases. @* Orthogonal committees. We now restrict ourselves to the case $p = 2$, when $L^p(\RR^d)$ is an inner-product space. We can perform the same experiment, but instead of measuring distance with the $L^p$-norm, we can measure distance between two vectors as the absolute value of their inner product. @= double inner_product(double *x, double *y) { if (p != 2) { printf("I can only take inner products when p = 2!\n"); return 0.0; } double sum = 0.0; for (int i=1; i<=d; ++i) sum += x[i]*y[i]; return sum; } double abs_inner_product(double *x, double *y) { return fabs(inner_product(x, y)); } double one_minus_inner_product(double *x, double *y) { return 1.0 - inner_product(x, y); } @* Locus of points further to committee than candidate. In this section, we consider the case when $p=\infty$ and $d=2$. Given a committee $G$ of points and a candidate $c$, we will draw the locus of all points $c'$ such that the committee $G$ will reach a consensus and elect $c$ over $c'$. @= @; @; @; @ First, we supply a facility to draw $L^\infty$ balls, which look like squares, in PostScript. @= void draw_square(FILE *file, double red, double green, double blue, double x, double y, double r) { fprintf(file, "%f %f %f setrgbcolor %f %f %f square\n", red, green, blue, x, y, r); } @ Next, given a set of points $G = \{g_1, \ldots, g_n\}$ representing a committee as well as a candidate point $c$, the locus we seek is $$[0,1]^2\setminus \bigcup_{i=1}^n B_\infty\bigl(g_i, d_\infty(g_i, c)\bigr),$$ where $d_\infty(x,y) = \norm{x-y}_\infty$ and $B_\infty(x,r)$ is the set of all points $y$ with $d_\infty(x,y) = void draw_locus(FILE *file, int committee_size, double **committee, double *candidate, int radius) { draw_square(file, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, radius); /* background drawn in red */ for (int i=0; i= void random_locus(int committee_size, const char *filename, int radius, int num_pages) { double *candidate = malloc((d+1)*sizeof(double)); double **committee = malloc(committee_size*sizeof(double*)); for (int i=0; i; for (int page=0; page= p = 2.0; d = 2; max_points = 300; num_points = 0; if (argc >= 2) { p = atof(argv[1]); p_inv = 1.0/p; } if (argc >= 3) { d = atoi(argv[2]); if (d < 0) { printf("I expect d to be >= 0.\n"); return 1; } } if (argc >= 4) { max_points = atoi(argv[3]); if (max_points < 10) { printf("I expect max_points to be >= 0.\n"); return 1; } } points = malloc(max_points*sizeof(double *)); for (int i=0; i= double sum = 0.0; int num_samples = 0; for (int i=0; i= double *point = malloc((d+1)*sizeof(double)); for (int i=0; i= int rounds = max_points*max_points; printf("L^p-distance voting for %d rounds produced a committee with %d members.\n", rounds, consensus(rounds, p_dist)); @ @= int rounds = max_points; printf("Orthogonal voting for %d rounds produced a committee with %d members.\n", rounds, consensus(rounds, abs_inner_product)); @ @= int rounds = max_points; printf("Close inner product voting for %d rounds produced a committee with %d members.\n", rounds, consensus(rounds, one_minus_inner_product)); @* Index.