.

On
the mortality of language learning methods

xXxxxxxx

xx

Wilfried
Decoo

Dept.
of French & Italian

Brigham
Young University

On

given
as the James L. Barker lecture on November 8th 2001 at Brigham
Young University.

This
text is more detailed than the actual lecture, which did not allow,
because of time constraints, to mention many nuances and citations.

Corrections,
comments, or criticisms are very welcome.

Please
respond to Wilfried Decoo at JKHB 4018 - BYU
(e-mail: [email-masked]).

1.
Introduction

1.1.
A sweeping change

1.2.
Definition of method.

2.
Main trends in the 20th century.

3.
Variables that make the success of a new method

3.1.
A "new" idea

3.2.
Denigration of others.

3.3.
Success guaranteed.

3.4.
Scientific "proofs"

3.5.
The ultimate medium.

3.6.
Official endorsement.

3.7.
Commercial push.

3.8.
Grasp on teacher training..

4.
Reasons for the decline and death of a method..

4.1.
Disappointment.

4.2.
Inappropriate for other situations

4.3.
Inappropriate for other languages.

4.4.
Shift in the main educational trend..

4.5.
On the gravestone: the neglected component(s)

5.
Conclusions.

5.1.
The swing of the pendulum..

5.2.
The ignorance about the past.

5.3.
The function of scientific research.

5.4.
The great illusion..

5.5.
The next method?.

6.
References & related readings.

Abstract:

Considerations
on the rise and decline of methods to learn foreign languages. An assessment
of why methods are born, bloom,

disappear
and... resurrect or reincarnate.

I
am honored to give the Barker Lecture today. I pay tribute to the personality
and work of James L. Barker, whom BYU remembers as an internationally renowned
scholar in linguistics and a major contributor to the actual strength of our
language programs.

My
topic is "mortality of language learning methods". In the interest
of time I will often say "methods", meaning "foreign language
learning methods".

1.
Introduction

1.1.
A sweeping change

A
number of years ago, our methods experienced a sweeping change. Up to then,
more grammatical approaches had been used, with word-lists and translation,
and an emphasis on writing. The critique against this approach started in the
sixties when the communicative nature of language was stressed. Since then the
movement became all encompassing, but few people here know the names and
publications of the Europeans who did the groundwork for this sweeping change.
To cite a few:

-
Already in the sixties the German Gottlieb Heness stressed in his Der
Leitfaden für den Unterricht in der Deutschen Sprache,
natural communication as the core activity of
language learning.

-
Also in the sixties the Frenchman Claude Marcel stressed in L'art de
penser dans une langue étrangère the need to connect directly to the
foreign language, thus avoiding the discursive detours of grammar and mother
tongue.

In
the seventies the ideas of these and other pioneers caught on and we saw an
international maturing of the conviction that something fundamentally
different had to be done to improve language learning. In many countries,
methods based on direct communication and on authentic input sprang up.
Word-lists, grammar, and translation were ousted.

-
In France François Gouin next produced his L'art d'enseigner et d'étudier
les langues, proposing methods that use enactment and physical response to
integrate lively language around "centres d'intérêt", without
grammar and translation, and which met with immense success.

-
In Germany, Wilhelm Viëtor embodied the principles of the new movement
in his famous Der Sprachunterricht muss umkehren - a plea for the
spoken language as basis for instruction.

During
the eighties and nineties, this vast movement took further shape, with
hundreds of studies and new textbooks published and appropriate media
developed to back this direct way to teach languages.

As
Schweitzer and Simmonot wrote at the turn of the century in their Méthodologie
des langues vivantes: "No period in the history of living languages
has shown as noticeable progress as the last few years. Everywhere, under the
impetus of the necessities of modern life, the teaching of foreign languages
has undergone profound reforms, whose happy results can now be seen".

Indeed,
what a movement of change and reform it was!

I
should add the dates of the works I have mentioned: Heness: 1867, Marcel:
1867, Gouin: 1880, Viëtor: 1882, and the period summary by Schweitzer &
Simmonot: 1903:1, cited and translated in Kelly 1969:382.

I
described what happened in the last quarter of the 19th century.
This vast movement of change was called the Reform movement with the Direct
Method as its main approach. Overall the principles were: immediate contact
with the target language, lively interaction, no translation, no word-lists,
inductive rule-formation for grammar, emphasis on oral use. All over the
Western world ministries of education and professional organizations adopted
these principles under various names and variants: reformed method, phonetic
method, intuitive method, natural method… .

And
then, in the early years of the 20th century, came the decline and
death of the Direct Method, in spite of all the enthusiasm that it had
engendered in many countries.

There
were two main reasons for it:

1.
The growing disappointment by teachers when the promises were not fulfilled:
even after several years of direct language learning, large numbers of
students remained at a level of frustrating inadequacy. In 1909 Breymann and
Steinmuller, who had thoroughly documented the movement, summarized its
downfall as follows: "The Reform has fulfilled its mission. It has laid
the ghosts of the grammatical method, which made a fetish of the study of
grammar with excessive attention to translation… But what the grammatical
method neglected, practical and correct use of the spoken language, the reform
movement has pushed to extremes. In making mastery of the spoken language the
chief objective, the nature and function of secondary schools was overlooked,
because such an objective under normal conditions of mass instruction is only
attainable in a modest degree… . Average pupils, not to mention weaker
ones… soon weary, are overburdened and revolt. Early adherents of the new
method, after their enthusiasm has been dashed by stern realities, have
gradually broken away" (cited in Titone 1968:39).

The
next year, 1910, the Direct Method received its coup de grâce in Paris: an
international conference of language teachers voted overwhelmingly to abolish
it.

2.
The second reason for the decline was thorough linguistic, psychological and
pedagogical analysis, conducted since the end of the 19th century,
which indicted the one-sidedness of the Direct Method and reevaluated the
place of all the components. The times, indeed, were highly scientific, laying
the foundation for many modern disciplines and leading to major discoveries
and inventions - think of Louis Pasteur, Marie Curie, Sigmund Freud, and
Thomas Edison. There were also brilliant language learning researchers such as

-
F. Franke, Die praktische Spracherlernung auf Grund der Psychologie
und der Physiologie der Sprache, 1896.

-
Otto Jespersen, How to teach a foreign language, 1904.

-
Paul Passy, De la méthode directe dans l'enseignement des langues
vivantes. Cambridge 1899.

-
Henry Sweet, The practical study of languages, 1899.

These
researchers took into account aspects such as the peculiar learning situation
in school environments, the psychological profile of the learner, the impact
of grammatical insight, the value of contrastive analysis and of the mother
tongue, the application of frequency norms to ensure better progression, the
dynamic relations between the skills, and so on. Though communication and
functionality were kept as the main goals of language learning, the research
led to a new era of well thought-out, balanced methods, which are often called
the eclectic methods, and which would last through the first half of the 20th
century.

This
introduction has set the tone for my lecture: a strong language learning
methodology that dominated Europe and the America's for about 30 years, from
1880 till 1910, finally died, to be replaced by a successor.

I
will structure the rest of my presentation as follows:

-
a quick overview of trends in the 20th century

-
variables that make the success of a method

-
reasons for the decline and death of a method

But
first I must define what I understand by this key word - "a method".

1.2.
Definition of method

A
method is a teaching-learning model that emphasizes a core concept as the key
solution to successful language learning.

It
can be viewed on three levels:

-
normal level: a specific method as a descriptive framework with its own
name, such as Suggestopedia, Community Language Learning or Total Physical
Response,

-
smaller level: a specific textbook of such a method, which is more
concrete as application, but may deviate more or less from the method it
claims to follow;

-
broader level: a grouping of specific methods that have a common
emphasis or core idea, such as, in fact, the Direct Method which I mentioned
in the introduction. The so-called communicative approach of the past 25 years
is also a conglomerate of various specific methods. In that sense the word
"approach" is better suited as it suggests a broader front in which
specific methods can exist. Sometimes the term "methodology" is
suggested as a grouping of similar methods.

In
this presentation I look essentially at methods in high school and college
environments, not at peculiar situations, such as natural immersion for
younger children.

2.
Main trends in the 20th century

It
would take me too long to even briefly overview methods since antiquity.
Suffice it to say that these centuries have had their own specific methods and
their great minds. I refer you to Louis Kelly's 25 Centuries of language
teaching (1969) or Christian Puren's Histoire des méthodologies de
l'enseignement des langues (1988).

Let
me only give a very brief overview of the 20th century.

After
the demise of the Direct Method, the period between 1910 and 1940 was one of
intense research and in-depth clarification. Here was a generation of
researchers who had witnessed the death of a major movement. They had seen how
dogmatism and narrow-mindedness had led to excesses and they realized the need
for a balance between the components. In 1917 H.E. Palmer published his famous
The scientific study and teaching of languages, pinpointing the
criteria to place language learning on a scientific foundation. Between 1927
and 1931 the MLA published its 17 volumes of the American and Canadian Foreign
Languages Study treating all aspects of foreign language learning.

I
could continue to cite dozens of major works of that period. The methods
themselves, commonly called "eclectic methods", reflect this search
for balance. There were many variants under various names, one of the most
widely used being "the active method". Indeed, these methods did not
reject the good that the Reform Movement had stressed, namely communication as
a vital aspect of language learning. Dialogues in daily situations remained
the core material in most textbooks, but with open book, in careful gradation,
and preceded or followed by the clear identification of new lexicon and
grammar, with many appropriate exercises for correct integration, including
translation exercises. One of these textbooks was Effective French for
Beginners, written by James L. Barker, whom we remember today by this
lecture. It was published in New York in 1925 and is a most remarkable product
of insight and balance.

At
one point one strategy was especially stressed: the importance of progressive
reading in the foreign language. Intensive reading of graded readers was
therefore strongly recommended, to the point that the 1930s are sometimes
referred to as the period of the Reading Method.

By
1940, however, behaviorism and a view of language as habit-formation became
the emerging trend. As the Second World War brought with it a sudden, extreme
need to know foreign languages, in the U.S. the Army Method was developed, a
very intense language program for intelligence officers. It was a rigid, drill
and practice approach, but which still used translation for efficacy and some
grammar to provide a framework (Angiolillo 1947; Moulton 1961). After the war,
the method survived in a limited way. But overall the eclectic methods
remained the most widely used until the end of the 1950s.

Then
two historic events gave an incredible impetus to the sleeping methodology of
behaviorist habit-formation.

(1)
In the U.S. it was the Sputnik shock of 1957: the realization that the
Russians were ahead in space spurred important reforms in education. For
foreign languages a revised Army Method was launched as the miracle method for
schools: the audio-lingual method, also called the New Key. It stressed drill
and practice with stiffened guidelines: no translation, no grammar, emphasis
on audio-oral habit-formation, in the line of the predominant psychological
school: behaviorism.

(2)
In France it was the independence of the French colonies around 1960 that gave
the impetus to profound reform. In order to keep these new states within the
French realm, and to counter the danger of Anglo-American cultural take-over,
the French government made a massive effort to impose French as the lingua
franca. A specific method, SGAV ("Structuro-global audio-visuel"),
based on behaviorist principles with audio, pictures and slides, was adopted
as the miracle solution. It was launched with incredible means through newly
created national agencies and through the French embassies that were
reinforced with so-called Bureaux pédagogiques, not only in all the
ex-colonies, but also in almost every country. SGAV was hailed as the ultimate
method to save the French hegemony through language.

In
many countries, the audio-revolution was imposed by the educational system and
gratefully stimulated by the publishers and the vendors of tape recorders and
language labs.

In
the U.S., however, devastating critiques, one of the best known being Wilga
Rivers' The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher in 1964,
quickly undermined the movement. The acute question was: "Could the New
Key be a wrong key?" (Mueller 1970). It led to one of the largest
experimental investigations ever conducted in methods' comparison, the
Pennsylvania project by Philip Smith, between 1965 and 1969 (Smith 1970).
Though such a huge project had inevitable weaknesses, the results were
convincing: the audio-approach offered no advantages, while a more cognitive
approach, using the mother-tongue and a grammatical framework, led to better
results. Audio-lingualism died almost instantly and was replaced by former
eclectic methods, though experimentations with new probings continued, such as
with transformational grammar.

In
France and its satellite countries, however, the audio-visual method would
continue for many years. First, the French were totally unaware of what was
happening in the U.S., and second, their political, economic, and academic
grip on the method was enormous.

In
the U.S., meanwhile, a "new" movement was growing, but this time
outside the regular school system. Renewed attention was being paid to methods
that could help adults gain a quick practical command of a language, geared to
survival communication in business, diplomacy, and tourism. The movement
downplayed grammar and stressed the immediate use of practical sentences. It
received its academic impetus from research in second language acquisition by
adults in immersion situations, of which Stephen Krashen is, of course, the
most cited.

A
similar development took place in Europe where the young European Community
launched in the early 1970s a vast research movement around communicative
needs for adults to foster professional exchanges between the member states.
These were the Threshold Level inventories, where the keywords
"functions" and "notions" emerged, tying in with
linguistic research in pragmatics and the theory of speech acts, and with
socio-linguistics and the concept of intercultural competence.

From
these bubbling, diverse, and often ill-defined tendencies emerged a movement
called the communicative approach, very comparable to what had happened in the
1860s and 1870s: a rejection of the past, presented as a failure, a mistrust
of grammar, of translation and word-lists, an emphasis on the ability to do
something with the language in real-world situations, and of course a strong
commercial push to compel the educational system to follow the new principles.
The communicative approach includes many specific methods, some stressing the
immediate production of language, others asking to postpone speaking in favor
of a receptive phase, still others stressing the emotive aspects of language
learning. But all have as their core concept practicality-in-action. The
communicative approach lived its heydays in the 1980s. During the 1990s the
original concept went into a slow agony, of which its own supporters are not
yet always aware.

History
is indeed repeating itself: since the mid-1990s a growing current is
separating itself under the name post-communicative language learning. It
opposes the idea that language learners are just role players in a functional
world, directed by criteria of practicality, and that a method should impose
the way they learn. The post-communicative trend stresses the individual needs
and learning styles of the student, thus recognizing varieties of approaches,
including a revalorization of insight and structure if helpful, and within a
constructivist view of learning. These past few years eclectic approaches (or
"revised" communicative approaches) are thus again emerging in
various forms.

3.
Variables that make the success of a new method

3.1.
A "new" idea

A
new method draws its originality and its force from a concept that is stressed
above all others. Usually it is an easy to understand concept that speaks to
the imagination.

-
During the Reform Movement, the key word was "direct", in
contrast to the detour of indirect theory.

-
The Reading Method claimed that intensive reading was the obvious
activity that language learners could constantly practice on their own, to
better integrate language and strengthen the basis for the other skills.

-
The audio movement stressed habit-formation, "like a child learns
his mother tongue".

-
The communicative approach used the key-words "functional",
"real-world", "authentic", "proficiency", and
the easy slogan: "Teach the language, not about the language."

-
In the present, post-communicative approach, key concepts are
"learner-centered", "content-based",
"collaborative".

Typical
is that such a single idea, which only represents a component, becomes the
focal point as if being the total method. This publicity-rhetoric gives the
impression of total reform, while often all that happens is a shift in
accentuation, or the viewing from a different angle, because many common
components remain included in each method.

I
put "new" between quotation marks, because many "new"
ideas are rediscoveries of ideas that have blossomed in decades or even
centuries past. The package and the jargon are, of course, different.

"The language teaching field is more beset by fads than perhaps
any other area of education. The 'best' methodology
changes at incredibly frequent intervals, depending on which
charismatic 'scholar' happens to have drawn attention to him or herself
lately." (Kaplan 2000:ix).

3.2.
Denigration of others

To
succeed, a new method must proclaim that current methods are a failure. That
is not difficult to do, because language learning is a disappointing endeavor.
For every successful language student, a dozen others have stopped along the
road or find the end mark unsatisfactory. Only a small group finally breaks
through and becomes fluent. It is therefore easy to claim that previous
methods have failed, that the mastery of foreign languages is a national
disaster, that students study a language for years and are still unable to
order a meal or purchase bread.

The
fact that methods are often identified with a single concept (cf. 3.1)
makes it easy to focus criticism on that concept. The audio-methods accused
the former methods of being only grammatical or only concerned with reading,
not speaking. The communicative approach hammered the audio-methods for being
purely behaviorist and for training only lower-order skills. The present
post-communicative trend reproves the communicative approach for being only
functional and for neglecting the unique personality of each student.

Such
critiques are often unfair, because methods are complex and quite often
contain nearly all components. But each method pays the price for having
publicized its uniqueness as a single concept, which in turn will be attacked
by the following method.

3.3.
Success guaranteed

The
promises for success could be the topic of a study of educational rhetoric.
Methods and textbooks do not hesitate to claim that students will soon be able
to converse freely with natives, read books and articles fluently, listen
without frustration to the media, etc. In a textbook, in the objectives per
chapter or unit, one can read statements such as: "This Unit will enable
you to conduct conversations at work". The unit then contains one or two
standard dialogues in an office. The user is led to believe that those
dialogues are sufficient to be able to function in all circumstances.

3.4.
Scientific "proofs"

A
new method likes to claim it is scientifically proven. It refers to research
to support its principles. The publicity and the introduction to a textbook
will carry the familiar phrase: "Recent developments in foreign language
research have shown that… " or something to the same effect. There is,
of course, a great deal of valid language learning research going on, not only
in Second Language Acquisition, but also in the many related linguistic fields
-- pragmatics, socio-linguistics, ethnography. However, it is most remarkable
that true researchers rarely get involved in developing a method, while those
who did not do the research claim research results to back their method.

Such
use of scientific "proofs" for a method is, quite often, a delusive
art, based on the selective citation of statements and on quick
generalizations. Terms are often used without clear definitions, and certainly
without an understanding of their ambiguities and complexities -- terms such
as "inductive", "deductive", "functions",
"speech acts", "proficiency", "lower-order",
"higher-order", thus exploiting a slippery jargon that impresses the
uninitiated.

The
researchers themselves sometimes suffer to see their names and work misused to
back a method they did not invent. Sometimes they will protest it, but their
voices are only heard in the limited professional circle of their specialty,
not on the larger market where the method is being commercialized. For
example, Daniel Coste, the author of Un Niveau-Seuil, which was used as
the basis for the notional-functional methods, lamented the way in which these
methods totally neglected the grammatical component of his research (Coste
1980, 1982). Lozanov, the Bulgarian theoretician behind suggestopedia, has
been bewildered by the misuse of his name and theories in American
superlearning approaches.

A
common form of falsification is citing research that does not really prove
what is being claimed. I take the examples below from the field of language
learning, but virtually any field could produce similar examples:

-
"The advantages of this strategy are supported by the findings of
so-and-so (year) who reported significant effects on the reading skill."

-
"The importance of this psycholinguistic approach has been
demonstrated by so-and so (year)."

-
"Psychologists have long since discovered that language learning
happens outside conscious rule-formation."

Without
checking what so-and-so really said, or whether that person’s
"discovery" is actually supported by convincing evidence, or without
worrying about the identity of the "psychologists," new authors
reuse such references in citations and quotations, even reinforcing the
absolute character of the "discovery." It leads to the uncritical
acceptance of generalizations that can be passed on for decades. Under the
telling title "Future Schlock," Lawrence Baines (1997) analyzes such
"mythologizing data" as they are applied to educational reform.
(The preceding paragraph is taken from Decoo 2002:38).

3.5.
The ultimate medium

Since
the end of the 19th century, technological media have been closely
connected to a number of new methods. If I may paraphrase Marshall McLuhan's
famous statement "the medium is the message", I would say that quite
often "the medium makes the method". I mean by this that the
possibilities and limitations of the medium determine the boundaries of the
method, because the method can handily use the medium to promote itself, while
the normal way would be that the method evaluates to what extent the medium
could be useful. Examples are easy to find.

The
most recent is the Internet. We are being bombarded by statements that the new
information age will radically change education. Our methods, we are led to
believe, are to become web-based interactive programs allowing the student
lively and authentic contact with the target language and culture. Some
post-communicative methods mold themselves into that framework by adopting as
their core concept task-based activities on the web, while existing methods
jump on the bandwagon by including similar activities.

Thus,
to heighten its own raison d'être and its impact, a method will state that
the new medium is radically changing the perspective on education, implying
that methods without that medium have become obsolete. An atmosphere of high
expectations is created. If you don't follow, you're hopelessly out of
fashion.

But
this line of reasoning has been going on for more than a century. At the end
of the 19th century, the Phonetic method hails Edison's phonograph
as the ultimate revolution for language learning. In 1902 the International
Correspondence Schools adopts it as their core instrument. The American Army
introduces it in 1906 for language learning. The famous Linguaphone follows in
1920. In My Fair Lady it is the method used by professor Higgins to
teach Eliza Doolittle -- and the miracle happens.

In
the 1930s the radio is discovered as the miracle means to bring education to
the millions. The Modern Language Journal hails it as the system by which
"high school classes everywhere may learn French, German or Spanish given
by a native speaking his own language" (Monroe 1931:213, cited in Kelly
248). The existing phonographs already did the same, but the fact that it
would now come from a magic distance made it into a hype. And indeed, one must
concede that at least till the eighties, the radio, and especially the
overseas services of the BBC and the Voice of America, have provided an
enormous amount of language courses, especially ESL.

Then
there is the invention of the tape recorder. In the 1950s "Hear your own
voice" becomes the slogan of new methods. Around this medium the language
lab is developed. The audio-methods mold their drill and practice to it, while
hailing the medium as the new ultimate method. In the sixties, under great
pressure to be in, all schools install language labs and proudly display them
in open houses to attract students.

But
then television breaks through. School television is soon hailed as the new
miracle in education. The medium makes the method, for suddenly the keywords
become "visual contact", "real-life experiences". In fact,
in the 1950s and 60s school television triggered the same hype as now with the
Internet, with exactly the same words. Language courses flourished on
television since the early 1950s and a whole pedagogy was developed to have
the students take active part in the lessons.

Then
follows the computer. The promotional articles of 20 years ago promised us
that within a few years language learning would have become a totally
individualized interactive experience, with only marginal need for teachers or
classrooms. It is also interesting to see that in the middle of the
communicative movement, early computer assisted language learning veered back
to a lot of lexical and grammatical drill & practice and that this was
accepted without murmuring. The medium made the method.

And
now Internet. The irony of Internet as the new panacea is that it has less
functionality compared to a well-designed CD-rom for language learning. Even
so, it is newer and thus creates a momentum on which new methods jump to
enhance their own credibility.

To
avoid misunderstandings, I have not said that media cannot have a significant
impact on language learning. I only pointed at the use of the medium as a
variable in making a method succeed and at the tendency of some to inflate the
potential impact of a new medium.

3.6.
Official endorsement

Essential
for the broad implementation of a method is official endorsement by ministries
of education, school boards, and professional organizations. Schools and
teachers come under great pressure to adopt the method, if officially
endorsed.

However,
official bodies are usually slow to recognize a new method, because of
bureaucratic procedures, or caution, or because of the financial implications
of the change. For example, the Direct Method, which started in the 1880s and
had already spread all over the Western world by 1900, was only officially
adopted in 1901 by the French ministry of education. The irony was that the
official adoption came at the time when the method was already dying. In 1910
the international conference of language teachers voted to abolish the Direct
method, but it would taken until 1925 for the French ministry of education to
do the same.

On
the other hand, ministries may sometimes be quick to impose a new method. Such
was the case with the audio-methods of the 1960s, under pressure of political
circumstances and of the hype with language labs.

The
relation between a method and official endorsement raises questions as to the
collusion of power and interests in the introduction of methods. Who are the
actors in the decision-making process? When the same people have ties with
publishers, media-producers, professional organizations, testing services,
school boards, consultancy positions, and ministries of education, we cannot
speak any more of a "clean" situation. It brings us to the next
variable.

3.7.
Commercial push

Methods
represent money, huge amounts of money. Language business is a billion-dollar
business. New methods generate new money. Publishers like to see a trend die
and a new powerful one stand up, especially if it matches their timing to
bring out new series. Textbook authors become commercial representatives,
touting the merits of their method and the weaknesses of the competition.

3.7.1.
An ethical issue

However,
if the author is also a researcher or university professor, we may have a
problem of academic ethics. In medicine and pharmacology, society has become
very sensitive to the absolute neutrality and objectivity of research. Strict
rules, under the control of official bodies like the Office of Research
Integrity, govern these disciplines. Such scrupulousness is not surprising
since false data in the health sciences have the potential to affect people's
lives directly. It is misconduct to assert unproven scientific statements to
promote a medical technique or a certain medication, or to manipulate research
data to prove their excellence. The motivation for such misconduct is money
and academic recognition. Nowadays the system punishes such practices
severely.

However,
in language methods, it is not uncommon to see academic authors of textbooks
or of software make unproven statements or refer to non-existant experimental
research to promote their product, in ways that would be totally unacceptable
in the health sciences.

I
do not mean to say that professors cannot be involved in the production of
educational material, but such requires from them a lot of probity and
self-control.

The
ethical problem also extends to the choice of a textbook at the author's own
institution. In some European schools, there is a rule that if a teacher
writes a textbook, that textbook will not be used in at his or her
institution, so as to avoid manipulations and ill feelings. If that rule does
not exist, then the minimal agreement is that the author will totally withdraw
from the choice-making process.

3.7.2.
Commercial reincarnation

Another
aspect of commercialization is the ability of existing textbooks to adapt to
new trends, for a publisher does not want to loose his piece of the market.
For example, during the audio-revolution of the 1960s, eclectic textbooks were
quick to add audio-tapes, eliminate translation exercises and grammar
overviews, keep all the rest, and call themselves audio-lingual. A similar
movement happened with traditional methods of the 1970s that transformed
themselves into communicative ones. The same is happening now with
communicative textbooks of the 1990s. As the post-communicative movement is
emerging with new keywords, "revised" editions of the communicative
textbooks are quick to integrate fashionable jargon in their introduction,
even if the authors have only a fuzzy idea of what it means - terms such as
process-oriented, holistic, higher-order, constructivism… . The
original method dies quietly, but the same content is reborn with some slight
adaptations. Since we talk in terms of mortality, this procedure might be
called the reincarnation of methods.

3.8.
Grasp on teacher training

Up
to the 18th century teachers became teachers solely because of
their knowledge. Their function was to pass on content. The strategies to do
so were mainly left to the personality and creativity of the teacher.

With
the development of more specific methods in the 19th century,
strategies in presenting and training materials became very precise. The
inventors of these methods wanted teachers to conform to their views and
follow their techniques, taught in training sessions, usually in summer
schools. We see the founding of private language schools, such as Berlitz in
1878, with specific class procedures.

In
the 20th century, teacher training in the educational system
started to impose specific techniques inasmuch as ministries of education or
school systems adopted methods officially. This was the case with the Direct
Method in the early 20th century. In the 1960s a very strict
obedience to specific classroom strategies was required of teachers to
implement audio-lingual and audio-visual approaches. Lesson plans and
activities were laid out per minute. Teachers were made to believe that any
diversion from that order would endanger the efficacy of the method.

Nowadays
much depends on the viewpoint of the teacher trainer, whether in pre-service
or in-service. The one trainer will give a balanced overview of methods and a
sense of complexity and variables, entrusting more responsibility to the
individual teacher in making classroom decisions. Another trainer, convinced
there is only one best method, will impose it. This is particularly the case
if the teacher trainer is also the author of a method. This leads to
mono-methodological indoctrination and strict guidelines to follow set
procedures.

Teacher
organizations may also have a similar impact according to who is calling the
shots at the top. Pluralism and variety may be replaced by narrow-mindedness
and fanaticism if board members are selected because of their adherence to one
method.

Publishers
like to cooperate with those who are involved in teacher training or in
teacher organizations because of the impact this can have on the sale of their
textbooks, especially if one "best method" is the cement that binds
them. However, this raises ethical questions because of the collusion of
interests when the leaders of a teacher organization push one method in close
collaboration with publishers, or if a person is paid to train teachers and at
the same time imposes on them the method that brings in royalties.

4.
Reasons for the decline and death of a method

4.1.
Disappointment

Methods
often make promises they cannot keep. Even if some methods succeed in being
more effective for certain skills, language learning as a whole does not
become easier. In drawers and in attics all over the world one can find the
textbooks, cassettes, tapes or software programs that people once bought to
learn a foreign language, enticed by the publicity that promised them fluency
in a few months or even weeks. And they abandoned it.

The
next items give more precise reasons for the disappointments.

4.2.
Inappropriate for other situations

New
methods always work well as they are being launched by skilled and
enthusiastic personalities, and presented in experimental or commercially
prepared situations, with brilliant teachers, well behaved and responsive
students, and small classes. Many of us have seen such convincing
demonstrations with methods such as the Silent Way, Total Physical Response,
and Suggestopedia.

Problems
arise when such methods are transferred to less ideal situations, where
classes are large, 30 or more students, motivation is low, and discipline
difficult. Experimental findings cannot easily be generalized to other
situations. Methods die in such places because of a growing dissatisfaction
over the promises made, often also because teachers do not have the
personality or the energy to act as the method demands. However, in privileged
circumstances with motivated teachers such methods may continue to thrive.
Such is the case with the Silent Way or Suggestopedia, which continue to find
supporters throughout the world.

Inappropriateness
can also be the consequence of a major breach between learning situations as
such. The most spectacular one of the past two decades is no doubt the
transfer of the original communicative approach to school situations. The
approach of the 1970s was meant to provide motivated adults with quick
survival contact-skills, usually through a short and intensive training, and
with immediate application in the real world. However, in high schools and in
colleges, the situation is usually different: younger students, broader
objectives, a non-intensive program, and often no urgent need for contact with
natives. Original communicative methods may not fit this different
environment.

4.3.
Inappropriate for other languages

A
new method is usually developed from the perspective of a specific language.
But next the principles are applied to any language as if language learning is
the same for all. This is not the case. Each language has its variables - like
the amount of elements to be mastered to come to a certain level of
communication, the syntactic complexity, the linguistic distance between
mother tongue and foreign language, the degree of cultural dissociation, etc.
These variables require methodological adaptations.

The
communicative approach, for example, was mainly developed in the context of
ESL, but in its initial years ESL is an easy language enabling to quickly
reach a fair level of communication. If you compare ESL to French, French
requires six times more elements to be mastered to reach a similar first year
communicative level. Already in the first year of study, French requires a
student to learn some 20 different articles in front of a substantive
(definite, indefinite, contracted, partitive, each in combination with
masculine, feminine, singular, plural, and tied to negation and place of the
adjective); it requires a staggering amount of verbal forms, agreements of
adjectives and pronouns, etc. To neglect this complexity in a so-called
authentic language approach is fatal for the not-so bright student:
integration of the elements falters, frustration grows and motivation
plummets. German, Norwegian, Russian, Japanese -- each of these languages
requires more or less adapted methods. If a so-called universal method is
imposed, it may lead to disappointment and to its decline.

4.4.
Shift in the main educational trend

Language
learning methods are nearly always the reflection of a broader educational
movement. When the trend changes, methods follow.

The
grammar-translation method of the 18th and 19th
centuries was part of a school system that greatly valued training in mental
discipline, in reasoning, in grammatical and literary analysis. But around
1870, a profound educational reform, rooted in the industrialization of
society, opened the windows to the world and wanted students to become active,
modern, and engaged. Creative and experimental work was requested in the arts,
sciences and mathematics. The Direct Method in foreign languages was simply
part of that movement.

Next,
the return to more traditional, eclectic methods in the first half of the 20th
century was rooted in a movement of protection or restoration of values,
against leftist and unconventional forces that attacked traditions and
undermined power and stability.

The
communicative approach was part of the vast educational reform of the 1970s,
which again stressed real-world experience, authentic encounter with life,
with the industry, and with applications.

We
should also note that specific educational movements lay at the root of
specific language methods. Caleb Gattegno's The Silent Way or Lozanov's
Suggestopedia actually encompass all disciplines. Language learning is only
one of them.

The
post-communicative movement is part of the educational trends of the past
years, which turns the school into a house of personal learning and discovery,
task-based, collaborative, with process-input, the teacher as guide, and the
like.

It
will be interesting to see to what extent the September 11th shock
may feed the next educational reform, just like the Sputnik-shock of 1957.
When society has to become protective and strictly controlled for its own
safety, it may also infuse into education more rigid norms, more discipline
and a tighter grip on knowledge. Within that spirit, language teaching may
also return to the stressing of grammatical rules for correctness. Language
methods are seldom independent islands: they are deeply embedded in the
broader spectrum.

At
the same time, the controversies that rock language learning methods are part
of the general battles that oppose modernists versus traditionalists,
cognitivists versus mentalists, proponents of standardized tests versus those
who favor portfolio assessment, etc.

But
the bottom-line is: when the overarching educational trend dies, the related
language methods die too.

4.5.
On the gravestone: the neglected component(s)

Although
the decline and death of a method is due to various factors, as described
above, there is usually only one factor that history identifies and remembers
as the cause of death, namely the (perceived) missing, or neglected
component(s). We can read in introductions to new methods that

-
the grammatical approach failed because it missed lively communication;

-
the direct method failed because it neglected the backing of insight;

-
the audio-methods failed because they neglected cognitive learning;

-
the communicative methods are failing because they neglect careful
progression and lower-order automatization.

One
could even define a method as follows: "A language teaching method is an
approach that neglects at least one important component." That deficiency
is its Achilles heel, which will ultimately cause its death because criticism
concentrates on that one neglected aspect.

5.
Conclusions

5.1.
The swing of the pendulum

The
traditional image of the pendulum is appropriate, because major trends do not
shift overnight. A new idea usually starts slowly, not as an extreme, but as a
corrective emphasis. However, some fundamentalists may jump on the key word,
overemphasize its importance, publishers will smell the money and, given the
right circumstances, the movement is launched. Then it takes the pendulum a
few years to undermine existing methods as obsolete and to gain momentum.

After
years of such emphasis there follows the growing disappointment, the
criticism, and slowly the pendulum is set in reverse towards variety and
eclecticism. Traditional components are restored and methods return to revered
values, which, after a number of years, will be sensed as antiquated and the
cycle starts again.

How
long does one swing of the pendulum take? If one looks at the more recent
past, for main trends 20 to 30 years seem an average. Direct methods roughly
from 1880 to 1910, eclectic methods from 1910 to 1940, audio-lingualism from
1940 to 1970, with a short cognitive-code reaction in the decade around 1970,
communicative methods from the early seventies to the mid-nineties,
post-communicative methods since then. Such a period of twenty to thirty years
corresponds logically with the professional lifespan of the advocates. Young
fundamentalists, in their thirties, may tie their careers to a new trend and
keep it alive until their retirement. Meanwhile a new group of young advocates
will try to make their original mark by criticizing their predecessors, while
the overall rhythm is controlled by commercial interests: publishers and
related organizations will only support a new trend if it suits the cash
register. The success of a main trend is thus dependent on the combination of
all the variables I mentioned under part 3
of this presentation.

The
30 year cycle has a witty side to it. If someone accuses you of being 20 years
behind in your methods, just answer: "That's wonderful. It means I'm 10
years ahead of you."

Of
course, this is a very generalizing and somewhat simplistic view of history,
just like any categorization of periods. Although we present history in
periods with a dominant methodology, the reality is that in all ages past, a
vast array of differing methods have existed in the shadow of the main trends.
Many other medium- or mini-trends may live their own shorter or longer life.
For example, in the heydays of the so called grammar-translation method of the
major part of the19th century, there were many practical
communicative textbooks on the market, to help the millions of emigrants, who
went from European countries to America, to learn English. Similarly, during
the second half of the 20th century, when the audio-methods or the
communicative approach were forbidding translation and grammar, a number of
textbooks or individual teachers kept working with those elements.

It
would be wrong to view the swing of the pendulum as a futile exercise.
Basically, it is a dynamic thing, obliging us to question our principles, to
foster research, to adjust where needed, to modernize content, and to
revitalize language learning. In that sense I do not wish this presentation to
leave a negative or cynical impression. We need the swing of the pendulum, for
at every full movement some things will be improved. The negative side is
when, within the swing, some particular method is so gripping that it actually
undermines the progression students could have made.

5.2.
The ignorance about the past

Of
all disciplines, language learning is one that is the most ignorant of its own
past. Theories and techniques are presented as new, while in truth they had
already been invented decades before, had blossomed and then died. Proponents
of new methods are often convinced that theirs is the first sweeping change
and that the past was either a dreary picture of students obliged to cram
wordlists and grammar rules, or drilled with rote memorization.

The
reasons for this ignorance seem twofold:

-
First, a lack of academic courses in the history of methods: very few
universities offer such content to applied linguists or future teachers, while
in nearly all other disciplines a knowledge of the major historical
advancements belongs to the core material. Even worse, if a short historical
overview is given, it is often the limited and false picture of a past of
inefficient grammatical and behaviorist methods, which preceded the present,
much more effective new age.

-
Second, the fact that it is rather easy to become an "instant
expert" in language learning. In other disciplines, ignorance about past
achievements would immediately and painfully show: an astronomer cannot afford
now to announce that he has discovered a new planet called Pluto; or an
engineer that he has invented a better way to fly than the hot-air balloon,
namely an airplane. But in conversations, and even in papers and publications
on language learning, we run into such blatant statements by self-proclaimed
"specialists". This situation is also reinforced by the common view
that teaching a language does not require specialization, that a school can
hire any "native speaker" to do the job, or that a one-day training
makes a T.A. competent to teach a 101 or 102 language course. True, he or she
may perform well within the strict framework that a method provides, but it is
a far cry from knowing about and understanding even a small part of second
language acquisition research. However, such persons sometimes start to make
authoritative statements about the best way to learn a foreign language.

5.3.
The function of scientific research

What
I just said does not of course apply to the scores of well-qualified
researchers who study language learning. I have already stated that it is most
remarkable that true researchers rarely get involved in developing a method,
probably because they are so conscious of the enormous complexity of the
variables. However, there are noteworthy exceptions -- and their methods are
always characterized by balance and variety.

In
her book Approaches to research in second language learning, Donna
Johnson states: "The importance of research is not so much that it
supplies definitive answers to questions such as 'What is the best way to
learn a language?' or 'What is the most effective method of L2 teaching?"
It does not. Rather, research can help us gain a richer understanding of the
many interrelated factors involved in learning" (1992:5).

Since
the end of the 19th century this research – even if sometimes
repetitive – has provided us with a tremendous amount of fascinating
analyses and explanations, from various interdisciplinary domains. I would be
amiss if I did not stress this positive side of our profession, and thus
counter the negative image that the very topic of this lecture may evoke.
Thousands of studies have improved and are still improving our insights in
aspects such as motivational variables, aptitude valuation, curriculum
construction, development of forms of bilingualism, acquisition orders,
transfer modalities, fossilization, taxonomies of practice forms, efficiency
criteria for media implementation, evaluation procedures, testing validation,
and scores of others. Major books, peer-reviewed journals and edited volumes
provide us with an incredible wealth of research data and refined insights.

Still,
many unresolved questions remain, especially in pioneering domains such as
neurolinguistics and SLA, for example:

-
Insofar as we can identify various kinds of cognitive input, which
input is automated to what kind of proficiency?

-
To what extent is automatization an acceleration process of neural
connections?

-
If UG - Universal Grammar - is still working at a certain age for
automatization of a foreign language, how does it relate to the original
development of the mother tongue?

-
How does the interaction work between automatization and "still
cognitive reflexes" which an L2-learner evidently uses?

But
how do we assess the function of all this research as it relates to methods?
The disappointing aspect is that it is quite easy to launch, as part of a
method, an unproven idea or a biased accentuation which may spread all over
the profession as an easy slogan, while it may take years of experimental
research to disprove it and the results of that research may only reach a
handful of people. For example:

-
A recurring viewpoint is that translation is totally forbidden.
"Students should never translate, or they will never be able to think in
the foreign language". Already in 1910 H. Büttner undercut this myth in
his major work, Die Muttersprache im Neusprachlichen Unterricht. In the
1960s and 1970s several major experimental studies, such as those by Dodson
(1967), Butzkamm (1973), Olsson (1973), Meijer (1974) further demonstrated the
usefulness of translation for certain aspects. Though there remain many
complex questions as to the ideal place of translation in the learning
process, at least we have learned that we should "never say never".

-
Another example of an unproven statement, part of the educational trend
in favor of self-discovery, and that has spread in communicative methods, is:
"Students who, through guessing techniques, infer the meaning of new
words, will remember those words longer". The painstaking, longitudinal
research of Mondria (1996) not only disproved this statement, but also
calculated the time-efficiency gains in the "direct teaching of
meaning".

-
One more example: Some post-communicative methods like to oppose
"lower-order thinking", which they equate to rote memorization, to
"higher-order" skills. The former are to be avoided, the latter are
the core objective. Recent experimental research by Hulstijn and his team at
the Kohnstamm Institute (University of Amsterdam) indicates that higher-order
skills cannot function properly in the foreign language without well developed
levels of lower-order automatization (Hulstijn 1999).

This
rift between unproven statements or biased accentuations on the one hand, and
serious research findings on the other hand, creates in our profession two
realms, one of easy-slogan-users and the other of in-depth researchers. This
rift has plagued us for many decades. As the easy-slogan-users are the most
vocal and the most visible, language learning as a subdiscipline is often
suffering from a lack of esteem from the side of other portions of the
language profession -- linguists and literary analysts. The in-depth research
in the many facets of language learning, confined to its realm of specialized
publications and expert conferences, is hardly known outside those circles.

On
the other hand, we should also concede that methods give practical guidelines
within a total concept, while some research has a tendency to remain at the
level of theoretical models or to focus on refined topics from a limited
disciplinary angle, without bothering about practical solutions. The research
most useful to the profession is of course geared to pedagogical applications.
It is interesting to note that this kind of research is much more developed in
certain countries and for certain languages, for example ESL-research in the
Anglo-Saxon world.

5.4.
The great illusion

Behaviorism,
cognitivism, structuralism, audio-lingualism, functionalism, constructivism…
In our overviews, we like to make categorical contrasts as a way to structure
our grip on reality. We stress certain characteristics in order to clearly
differentiate between things. We work with -isms. I do not deny that this is
often helpful and that main trends and even specific methods can be identified
by these -isms.

However,
what strikes one when analyzing textbooks, is, in many cases, their final
close resemblance even if they pretend to come from differing -isms.

When
one looks at a present-day so-called communicative textbook, one basically
finds the same elements as in textbooks of the Renaissance, or any other past
century.

A
present-day method may claim to reject translation, but students will
translate, and the teacher will use translation when helpful and effective.
The method may be against explicit grammar, but somehow it will make sure that
students grasp the rule and train it. It may claim to only use authentic
material, but it will present the simplest authentic material first and
cleverly manipulate texts and situations so as to ensure a needed progression.
It may claim to be against word-lists, but will select within the authentic
material the words to be learned as "active vocabulary" and present
them in… word-lists, with translation. Without publicizing it, a smart
textbook tries to rectify the most obvious glitches of its own methodology, so
teachers and students would not be too frustrated over certain features.

Similarly,
a more traditional method, with a prominent use of grammar and vocabulary,
will tend to also add more authentic input, so as to respond to the pressures
of "real-world experience".

On
the other hand, a fanatical method, with intolerant viewpoints, could severely
hamper a student in his potential to progress. If a student wants to
translate, let him translate; if he hankers after insight, give him grammar.

And
all wise methods must concede that the final key to successful language
learning is tied to two variables that the method does not have in hand: the
motivation of the students and the intensity of their personal work. Motivated
people nowadays learn a foreign language just as successfully as 2000 years
ago. Successful language learning comes only partially from the method; it
depends so much on the student.

5.5.
The next method?

The
following is fiction, to be situated somewhere in coming years. I quote from a
book someone will write some day.

"The
decline of the prevailing methods around 2010 was due to the following:

-
There was too much dependence on personal initiative and learning
attitudes of the individual student, whereby only the very best became
successful. Scores of students were left drowning without buoys.

-
The method totally misjudged the mental expectations of students who
view school-bound learning within a framework of cognitive grip and clear
progression.

-
The method worked with a "real-world approach with authentic
texts" to avoid translation and grammar. However, many of the better
students were actually, after each lesson, spending excessive time and effort
in deciphering these authentic texts through translation in the mother tongue
and figuring out the grammar. The method thus encouraged doing what it
strongly pretended to avoid.

-
On the other hand, by telling students not to worry about detail or
precise comprehension or production, but to be satisfied with approximation,
the method fostered slovenliness among many other students.

-
Though the method had valid final objectives, it wanted to reach those
objectives much too quickly in non-intensive programs. It neglected gradation
and careful content-selection.

The
new approach stresses the following:

-
A deflation of the importance of oral skills: if students are not
needing immediate contact with natives, there is no reason to give absolute
priority to oral skills, which they can hardly practice outside class.
Moreover, a stronger receptive basis at first will facilitate the development
of oral skills at a later stage.

-
Therefore, since reading is the skill they can practice most outside
class, this skill must be stressed, starting from graded texts to ensure
fluency and contentment, to selected books, magazines and the Internet.

-
The writing skill has also gained in importance, because it allows
quick electronic communication with pen palls, chat groups and classes abroad.
Moreover, on the college level, the language curriculum requires many written
tasks at the upper level. Therefore, renewed attention is given to
"disembedded" language skills, i.e. grammatical analysis, especially
in those languages that require strong analytical reflexes to write correctly
because of agreements and various syntactical spellings for the same sound.

-
While for several decades language learning has been viewed as only
functional, its complementary value for intellectual development has been
partly restored: as a core subject on the curriculum, language lends itself
admirably to analysis and insight, to mental training, just like mathematics.
The famous slogan of the new approach is: 'It is an insult to civilization to
despise grammar'."

An
interesting exercise for students would be: jump 30 years further and describe
why this new approach failed around 2040.

A
final thought: the constant change in methods is a fascinating phenomenon. It
reveals how complex language learning really is and how much further research
is needed to better understand the intricate mecanisms and the many variables
that play their role. But above all, the history of language learning methods
teaches us academic humility: to recognize complexity and to avoid extreme and
simplistic standpoints.

6.
References & related readings

(I)
= accessed on the Internet. I do not give the URL because it may no
longer be valid by the time the reader consults it. Sometimes the
reference points to well-known journals that can be consulted online.
In other cases, an Internet search using key words from the
reference's title should lead to the new URL if the material is still
available online. In any case, the citation provides sufficient
information about the original publication.

Angolillio,
P.F. 1947. Armed Forces' foreign language teaching: Critical evaluation and
implications. New York: Vanni.

Baines,
Lawrence. 1997. Future schlock: Using fabricated data and politically correct
platitudes in the name of education reform. Phi Delta Kappan: The
Professional Journal for Education 78, no. 7 (March). (I)

Barker,
James L. 1925. Effective French for Beginners. New York: Scribner.

Blair,
Robert. 1982. Innovative approaches to language teaching. Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House Publ.

Breymann
& Steinmüller. 1895-1909. Die neusprachlichen Reformliteratur von
1876-1909: Eine bibliographish-kritische Übersicht, 4 vols., Leipzig.

Butzkamm,
W. 1973. Das Prinzip der
Einsprachigkeit: Aufriss eines fremdsprachendidaktischen Problems.
Dortmund.

Coste,
Daniel. 1979. "Analyse de discours et pragmatique de la parole dans
quelques usages d'une didactique des langues", cit. in P. Riley, Topics
in communicative methodology, Mélanges pédagogiques CRAPEL, 1982,
93-109.

Coste,
Daniel. 1980. "Communicatif, fonctionnel, notionnel et quelques
autres", Le français dans le monde, n° 153, 25-34.

Decoo,
Wilfried. 2002. Crisis on campus: Confronting academic misconduct. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: MIT Press.

Dodson,
C. 1967. Language teaching and the
bilingual method. London: Pitman.

Gattegno,
Caleb. 1972. Teaching foreign languages in school: The Silent Way. New
York: Educational Solutions.

Gattegno,
Caleb. 1976. The common sense of teaching foreign languages. New York:
Educational Solutions.

Hulstijn,
Jan. 1999. Vaardigheid zonder kennis: De rol van grammaticakennis en
automatisering in de verwerving van een vreemde taal. Amsterdam:
Vossiuspers AUP.

Johnson,
Donna M. 1992. Approaches to research in second language learning. New
York: Longman.

Kaplan,
Robert B. 2000. "Foreword". In Jian Kelly Hall and William G.
Eggington, The sociopolitics of English language teaching. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.

Kelly,
Louis G. 1969. 25 Centuries of language teaching. Rowley,
Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers.

Krashen,
Stephen. 1985. Inquiries and Insights: Second Language Teaching, Immersion,
and Bilingual Education. Hayward, CA: Almany Press.

Macht,
Konrad. 1986, 1987, 1990. Methodengeschichte des Englischunterrichts.
Vol. 1-3. Augsburg: Universität Augsburg.

Macht,
Konrad. 1994. "Practical skills or mental training? The historical
dilemma of foreign language methodology in nineteenth and twentieth century
Germany." Paradigm, No. 14 (September). (I)

Marcel,
Claude. 1867. L'étude des langues ramenée à ses véritables principes,
ou l'Art de penser dans une langue étrangère. Paris: C. Borrani.

Meijer,
T.T. 1974. De globaal-bilinguale en de
visualiserende procedure voor de betekenisoverdracht.Amsterdam.

Mondria,
J.A. 1996. Vocabulaireverwerving in het vreemde-talenonderwijs: De effecten
van context en raden op de retentie, Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit
Groningen.

Monroe,
R.E. 1931. "Radio instruction in languages". Modern Language
Journal, XVI, 212-217.

Moulton,
William G. 1961. "Linguistics and language teaching in the United States
1940-1960." in Mohrmann, Sommerfelt, and Whatmough, Trends in European
and American linguistics 1930-1960. Antwerp: Spectrum.

Mueller,
T. 1970. "Could the new key be a wrong key?", French
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Olsson,
S. 1973. A learning experiment in
English with monolingual and bilingual word-lists, GUME-project.
Gothenburg.

Passy,
Paul. 1899. De la méthode directe dans l'enseignement des langues
vivantes. Cambridge.

Puren,
Christian. 1988. Histoire des méthodologies de l'enseignement des langues.
Paris: Clé International.

Roberts,
J.T. 1999. Two French language teaching reformers reassessed: Claude Marcel
and François Gouin. Lewinston: Edwin Mellen Press.

Schweitzer,
C. & E. Simmonot. 1903. Méthodologie des langues vivantes. Paris.

Smith,
Philip. 1970. A comparison of the
cognitive and audiolingual approaches to foreign language instruction. The
Pennsylvania foreign language project. Philadelphia: CCD.

Stevick,
Earl W. 1980. Teaching languages: A way and ways. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House
Publishers.

Strevens,
Peter. 1977. New orientations in the teaching of English. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

Titone,
Renzo. 1968. Teaching foreign languages: An historical sketch. Washington,
D.C.: Georgetown University Press.