These are the principles—deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute—which the Realized One makes known after realizing them with his own insight.
“The Divine Net” (Brahmajālasutta)
Dīgha Nikāya 1
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I grew up in Perth, Western Australia. It’s a city that is often described as “nice”, a somewhat backhanded compliment. The weather is bright and sunny, it’s safe and prosperous, life is good. But it’s not a place where anything particularly happens. Certainly not anything meaningful or interesting to anyone outside of Perth.
As a musician, I would sing songs about New York, about Paris, about Memphis or Singapore or even Darlinghurst. I didn’t know those places, but I knew that they were meaningful places, places deserving of a song. My own life, by contrast, seemed entirely on the surface. The bright sun and clear skies of Perth had no poetry, it banished all the shadows, everything was just so bland. There was nothing to sing about.
You’re sensing a plot twist coming up, and you’re right. In those days—the early 80s—the Perth indie music scene produced its finest band, the Triffids. The singer Dave McComb wrote about things that had happened to me: “he swam out to the edge of the reef, there were cuts along his skin.” I knew what that was like, not because someone had told me, but because I’d done it myself. Suddenly I was living in a world of meaning. I realized that my place, and therefore my life, was just as real and just as meaningful as anything else. The bleaching light of Perth was its meaning, the lack of shadows was its shadow.
When I came to Buddhism, it all seemed so exotic, so distant. I was made to chant in this strange language “Pali”, which I’d never even heard of. It took me a while to even realize that Pali was an actual language, not just a mystical invocation. The monks I met were strange and incomprehensible: who would choose such a life? It had a depth that made my own paltry life pale in comparison.
As I began to study Buddhism in depth, grappling with deep matters, I discovered a range of other scholars and practitioners to learn from. There were the meditation masters of the Thai forest tradition in which I had ordained—Ajahn Chah, Ajahn Mun, Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Lee Dhammadharo. I grew to find sustenance also in the great scholar-monks of the modern Theravada—Venerables Ñāṇatiloka, Ñāṇapoṇika, Ñāṇamoḷī, Guṇaratana, Bodhi, Narada, Kaṭukurunde Ñāṇananda, Buddhadasa, and many others. I struggled to learn the broader history and nature of the Buddhist schools and traditions from scholars such as I.B. Horner, T.W. Rhys Davids, A.K. Warder and Étienne Lamotte. The knowledge and understanding of all these people seemed so lofty, so confident and capable. I devoured everything I could get my hands on.
It never really occurred to me that I might have something to add. I could hardly even manage to master the basics. The masters of the Buddhist tradition appeared as peerless savants, holders of an ancient and impenetrable wisdom.
If you’re sensing another plot twist, you’re right again. Around 1994 I was still a young resident at Wat Nanachat in north-east Thailand when we received a guest, an elderly English gentleman who introduced himself as Maurice Walshe. Of course, I knew that name very well: he had translated the Dīgha Nikāya. I was so excited to meet one of my heroes. He was a charming and witty man, and it was an honor for me to meet him and spend some time together. I am always grateful to him because he made me realize that the Buddhist tradition was created and formed by ordinary people. He had studied Pali but did not regard himself as an accomplished scholar. He undertook the translation at the behest of Venerable Ānandamaitreya—another figure of legend for me. Maurice was very humble about his abilities and his achievement. And it was no false modesty; while his translation was eminently readable, it was not especially accurate. But he did it. And in doing so, helped the Dhamma take one more step forward.
It was after meeting Rod Bucknell and John Kelly, the co-founders of SuttaCentral, in 2004, that I started making my own contributions to the Dhamma through SuttaCentral. Modest as they were, I realized that my talents and skills could help others, as I had been helped. It took a long while, much learning and many trials, but eventually I dared imagine that maybe I could make my contribution to the corpus of Pali translations. It would surely be imperfect and inadequate, but perhaps I had something to give.
Those of us who have enjoyed the sweet taste of the Dhamma owe a debt of gratitude to all those who have made it possible; to all the teachers, the supporters, the donors, the monks and nuns and layfolk, the scholars, the meditators, the builders and cooks and plumbers and weavers, the artists and storytellers, the repairers of leaky roofs and the kindlers of lamps. There is not a single one who can hold the whole tradition. But I believe that there is not a single one who has nothing to offer.
Allow me to indulge in a further recollection of my days in the indie music scene. One song that has stuck with me is Song of the Siren, written by Tim Buckley, but known from the version by This Mortal Coil. In three short verses it tells the story of the protagonist lost on “shipless oceans”, who was drawn in and given shelter by one they came to love. Just as they thought they were safe, the beloved seemed to turn away, leaving them “broken lovelorn on your rocks”. Despairing and confused, they considered ending it all. Until at last, they realized: now it was their turn. They could not live forever relying on the other to offer shelter and protection. When they were lost, they had been saved, and now they called to the other, “swim to me, let me enfold you”.
As a person of faith, I believe that the Buddha was a perfected human being. The Buddhist tradition, on the other hand, is made up of people who are usually notably imperfect. Sometimes we feel inspiration and uplift, other times disappointment or disillusionment. I reached a point of frustration when I knew that, for all the efforts of many people, we were still not able to make all the Suttas available in translation for free. It seemed wrong, and I didn’t know what to do. It was then that I realized that it was my turn to offer shelter.
The suttas of the Pali Canon (Tipiṭaka), especially the four main nikāyas, are essential reading for anyone who wishes to understand the Buddha and his teaching. They have been preserved and passed down in the Pali language by the Theravāda tradition of Buddhism as the word of the Buddha.
These texts were originally passed down orally, by generations of monks and nuns who memorized them and recited them together. Around 30 BCE they were written down in the Āluvihāra in Sri Lanka, and subsequently were transmitted in manuscripts of palm leaves.
From the 19th century, the manuscripts were edited and published as modern editions in sets of books. In addition, the Pali text was translated into a number of modern languages, including Thai, Burmese, Sinhalese, and English.
The word Tipiṭaka means “Three Baskets”. The Basket of Discourses is traditionally listed as the second of the three. The four nikāyas make up the bulk of the Basket of Discourses. Here is how they are situated within the canon as a whole.
Similar collections are found in ancient Chinese translations, and substantial portions of them are also in Sanskrit and Tibetan. The diverse collections of scriptures arose among the Buddhist communities who spread across greater India in the centuries following the Buddha, especially under the Buddhist emperor, Ashoka. These missions are documented in the ancient chronicles of Sri Lanka as well as the Vinaya commentaries in Pali and Chinese, and have been partially corroborated by modern archaeology.
SuttaCentral hosts almost all of these texts and provides comprehensive parallels showing the relations between them. A comparative understanding based on the full spectrum of these texts is essential for any study of early Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canon, in particular, contains a vast amount of translations of early texts, and in terms of quantity it outweighs the Pali texts by some margin.
For many reasons, though, the Pali texts will always retain a special place for those who wish to understand what the Buddha taught.
Moreover, the Pali texts are the core scriptures of a living tradition, the Theravāda school found in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, India, China, and Vietnam. To this day they are recited, taught, studied, and practiced daily, and are regarded in the traditions as being a reliable witness to the teachings of the Buddha himself.
Among the Pali texts, it is the four nikāyas that command the most attention. It is here that we find extensive and definitive explanations of Buddhist teachings, as well as the living personality of the Buddha and his immediate disciples.
By comparison, the Vinaya Piṭaka details the life of the monastic communities, and in addition it reveals much about the history and social background; but it contains only a few teaching passages. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is made up of systematic treatises that were composed in the centuries following the Buddha’s passing. And the books of the Khuddaka Nikāya are very mixed. There are six fairly short books that are supplements to the main four nikāyas, mostly in verse: the Dhammapada, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Sutta Nipāta, Theragāthā, and Therīgāthā. However, most of the other books in the Khuddaka are later, and represent a phase of Buddhism a few centuries after the Buddha.
I have prepared these guides in order to support a student who wishes to develop a deeper understanding of the nikāyas. They accompany my translations of the four nikāyas as found on SuttaCentral. This general guide is meant to be read first, as it covers a variety of issues that are common to all the nikāyas. The four nikāyas are a highly unified body of texts, sharing most of the significant doctrinal passages. The general information presented here is fleshed out in individual essays on each of the four nikāyas, which highlight the shifts in emphasis and orientation from one collection to the next. These may be read in any order. While the guides for the specific nikāyas naturally focus on the texts in that nikāya, this is not adhered to rigidly, and they may refer also to passages found elsewhere.
Summaries of major doctrinal themes may be found mostly in the nikāya guides, especially that for the Saṁyutta Nikāya, rather than here. However, I would urge a degree of caution when it comes to summaries, including my own. The true joy of the suttas is in the undigested teachings, in that raw moment when the Buddha encounters a person in suffering and helps them, not by giving them a digested abstract, but by reaching out to them as people. Summaries and surveys are best treated as starting points for discovery, rather than as definitive treatises.
I almost completely avoid sideways glances at the various Chinese and other parallels. Understanding these relations is critical, and the entire basis of SuttaCentral is founded on this fact. But the number of texts is very large, and the complexity of the subject is daunting. I fear that if I were to deal with parallels in any kind of depth, these essays would never be completed; and if they were, they would have become unreadably complex. Hence I have set myself a more manageable scope, sticking to the Pali texts, on the understanding that most things probably apply to the parallels as well. The reader can easily check the parallels on SuttaCentral if they wish.
Among students of the suttas, the names of these collections are often abbreviated to “Dīgha”, “Majjhima”, and so on, just as the word “Sutta” is often omitted from sutta titles. Strictly speaking, it’d be best to use the Pali title when referring to the original text, and the translated title when referring to the translation; but this distinction is often overlooked.
In 2015 I determined to create freely available translations of the main Pali discourses, so that all of these teachings might be made freely available in a clear, consistent, and accurate rendition. My aim was to translate the four main nikāyas as well as the 6 early books of the Khuddaka Nikāya: Theragāthā, Therīgāthā, Udāna, Itivuttaka, Dhammapada, and Suttanipāta. I did this so that these astonishing works of ancient spiritual insight might enjoy the wider audience they so richly deserve.
In considering my translation style, I reflected on the standard trope that introduces the prose suttas: a person “approaches” the Buddha to ask a question or hear a teaching. It’s one of those passages that became so standard that we usually just pass it by. But it is no small thing to “approach” a spiritual teacher. It takes time, effort, curiosity, and courage; many of those people would have been more than a little nervous.
How, then, would the Buddha respond when approached? Would he have been archaic and obscure? Would he use words in odd, alienating ways? Would you need to have another monk by your side, whispering notes into your ear every second sentence—“He said this; but what he really meant was…”?
I think not. I think that the Buddha would have spoken clearly, kindly, and with no more complication than was necessary. I think that he would have respected the effort that people made to “approach” his teachings, and he would have tried the best he could, given the limitations of language and comprehension, to explain the Dhamma so that people could understand it.
An approachable translation expresses the meaning of the text in a manner that is simple, friendly, and idiomatic. It should not just be technically correct, it should sound like something someone might actually say.
Which means that it should strive to dispense entirely with the formalisms, technicalities, and Indic idioms that has dominated Buddhist translations, into which English has been coerced by translators who were writing for Indologists, linguists, and Buddhist philosophers. Such translations are a death by a thousand papercuts; with each obscurity the reader is distanced, taken out of the text, pushed into a mode of acting on the text, rather than being drawn into it.
That is not how those who listened to the Buddha would have experienced it. They were not being annoyed by the grit of dubious diction, nor were they being constantly nagged to check the footnotes. They were drawn inwards and upwards, fully experiencing the transformative power of the Dhamma as it came to life in the words of the Awakened One. We cannot hope to recapture this experience fully; but at least we can try to not make things worse than they need to be.
At each step of the way I asked myself, “Would an ordinary person, with little or no understanding of Buddhism, be able to read this and understand what it is actually saying?” To this end, I have favored the simpler word over the more complex; the direct phrasing rather than the oblique; the active voice rather than the passive; the informal rather than the formal; and the explicit rather than the implicit.
Still, it should not be thought that these are loose adaptations or simplifications. There is a place for re-imaginings of ancient texts, and for versions that strip the complexity to focus on the main point. But my work is intended as a full and accurate translation, one that omits nothing of substance. It is just that I try to express this without undue complexity.
I still feel I am a long way from achieving my goal. No-one is more aware than the translator of the compromises and losses along the way. Consistency, clarity, correctness, and beauty all make their competing claims, and only rarely, it seems, can all be met. It is a work in progress, and I will probably be making corrections and adjustments for many years to come.
I have been especially influenced in this approach by my fellow monks, Ajahn Brahm and Ajahn Brahmali. It is from Ajahn Brahm that I have learned the virtue of plain English; of the kindness of speaking such that people actually understand. And with Ajahn Brahmali, who has been working on Vinaya translations at the same time, I have had many illuminating discussions about the meaning of various words and phrases. He said one thing that stuck in my mind: a translation should mean something. Even if you’re not sure what the text means, we can be sure that it had some meaning, so to translate it based purely on lexical correspondences is to not really translate it at all. Say what you think the text means, and if you make a mistake, fix it.
The Buddha’s teaching is a graduated one, leading from simple principles to profound realizations. This pattern is found within almost all of the discourses in one way or another. However it does not apply to the collections of discourses. From collection to collection or discourse to discourse there is no graduation in difficulty, no build up of assumed knowledge in the student.
On the contrary, the Dīgha Nikāya begins with the Brahmajāla Sutta, while the Majjhima Nikāya begins with the Mūlapariyāya Sutta, both of which are among the most profound and difficult discourses in the whole canon. A student who dives in unwarily will suddenly find themselves in very deep waters indeed.
If we wish to build up knowledge step by step, we can’t rely on simply reading the suttas in order. Students often find it helpful to use a structured reading guide such as that offered here. On SuttaCentral, we offer several other approaches.
Having said which, there’s nothing wrong with simply plunging in at random, so long as you don’t expect everything to make sense at first. Take your time and enjoy wandering about. Don’t worry too much about things that seem odd or unexpected. Usually you’ll find that obscure or difficult ideas are explained somewhere else; discovering those unexpected connections is one of the joys of reading the suttas.
In these introductory essays, you will find many references to the suttas. You don’t need to look up each reference to understand the essays. But if you do, you will get a reasonable survey of many important texts, and learn how to find the passage that you need. I suggest reading each essay on its own first, and then a second time, looking up and reading the sutta references as you go.
When you delve into sutta reading, you’ll notice that texts and passages are referenced in sometimes confusing ways. On SuttaCentral we employ a simple and widely adopted form of semantic referencing. By “semantic” references, we mean that the reference numbers are based on meaningful divisions in the texts themselves.
For the four nikāyas, this means:
More granular referencing is provided by section numbers. These follow pre-existing conventions:
Each of these is further subdivided so that each section contains a number of “segments”, a short piece of text usually about a sentence or so long. In my translations, the segments are matched with the underlying Pali text.
In our system, the numbers following a colon represent the section and segment numbers, that is, the subdivisions within a sutta. So, for example:
You may encounter various other referencing systems. In academic works, texts are often referenced by volume and page of the Pali Text Society (PTS) edition of the original Pali. This is a regrettable and clumsy convention, since it binds references to a specific paper edition. I hope it is swiftly abandoned in favor of proper semantic references. However, the PTS volume/page numbers are displayed on SuttaCentral in case you need to look up a legacy reference.
Traditionally, the texts were—and often still are—referenced the long way: by nikāya, then saṁyutta or nipāta and/or paṇṇasaka (as applicable), then vagga and sutta. This system is helpful when using manuscripts, as you can narrow your search step by step through the manuscript to find what you need. On the web, or even in books, however, it is unnecessary. Nevertheless, you can use the traditional navigation structure in our sidebar if you wish.
As students of Buddhist texts we are interested in the content, in learning what the Buddha and his disciples had to say and how they lived. However, due to the manner in which the texts are arranged, we quickly discover that it’s not easy to know how different texts relate to each other. So while it may seem dry, it is worth spending a little time to consider the structure of the texts.
Early Buddhist texts were organized, not for reading, but for oral recitation and memorization. The overriding concern was to divide the texts into chunks that could be memorized and recited together. Since the texts were preserved in memory, they were largely “random access”: a skilled student could instantly recall a passage from anywhere in the texts, without having to flip through the pages or look up an index. In this way, the earliest system of organization is a little similar to how we find information today through a search engine.
It follows from this that we cannot expect early Buddhist texts to be structured sequentially like a modern book. But this does not mean that the collections are random or chaotic. They follow their own logic, which can be discerned if the texts are approached sympathetically.
Here are some of the structural or formal elements you will encounter in the early Buddhist texts.
The suttas frequently employ an ABA pattern. A statement is made; a simile is given; and the statement is repeated.
This formal pattern is highly effective in reinforcing learning. First we get the basic idea. But abstract philosophical or psychological statements are hard to understand and remember without any context, so the Buddha illuminates his teaching with a simile. He ends by driving the message home once again.
The range of similes in the suttas is truly astounding. The Buddha had an uncanny ability to effortlessly summon an apt comparison from anything that he saw around him. The similes also convey a great deal of incidental detail regarding life and culture in the Buddha’s day, and, more importantly, they show how the Dhamma teaching makes sense in its context. Most of the classic Buddhist images that are familiar today trace their roots to similes used by the Buddha in the early texts.
Sometimes the similes are extended to a brief parable or fable. Curiously enough, however, we rarely see the Buddha engage in story-telling of any length.
Where narratives are developed in some detail, they are typically as part of the background story (nidāna) rather than in the Buddha’s teaching as such. It is an elementary principle of historical scholarship that the background story is of a somewhat later date than the main doctrinal material. Such stories vary considerably in the parallels, showing that the traditions treated narrative more flexibly than doctrine.
It won’t take long before you notice that the suttas tend to be repetitious. Very repetitious. This can be a major hurdle for a new reader, so let’s take a little time to consider what is happening.
Like so many patterns found in nature, the repetitions are fractal. That is, they occur at every level: the word, the phrase, the sentence, the paragraph, the passage, the whole text, even the group of texts. This shows that the repetition is not something alien to these texts, not something forced on them by an over-zealous editor, but is intrinsic from the beginning.
But why? The thing to remember is that the texts were formed in an oral tradition. And in an oral tradition, repetition works very differently than it does in writing. When you read a repetition, it can be annoying; it feels like a waste of time, and you want to skip over it. But when reciting, repetition has exactly the opposite effect. It is soothing and relaxing. The parts that are different take more work, you have to exercise your memory; but when the repeated passage comes around—like the chorus of a song—you relax into the flow of the chanting. Repetitions give the reciter space to be at ease and contemplate. Reciting a highly repetitive text becomes a form of meditation, where you reflect the meaning and apply it to your experience as you recite.
But in addition to this spiritual aspect, repetition has a definite practical purpose: preservation. By saying the same thing again and again, identically or with small variations, the reciters were constantly checking their memories, ensuring the accuracy of the texts. And if a text was lost, there is always another similar passage somewhere else. Thus the repetitions ensured the long-term survival of the Dhamma by creating backups of important information in multiple places, retained in the minds of Buddhist practitioners.
Understanding the historical role of repetitions, however, doesn’t help us when we just want to read a sutta. What are we to do? Well, there is no single way to read a sutta. Some people prefer to read them in full, contemplating each repetition. Others read them more briefly, getting to the important point. You’ll figure out a way that suits you. But when you understand the role of repetitions, hopefully you will not find them such an obstruction.
The flipside of repetition is abbreviation. Since the repetitions are so abundant, they are often abbreviated. Such abbreviation is not a modern invention; it is found throughout the manuscripts, and indeed there is no edition that fully spells out all the repetitions. The Pali texts have their own convention for indicating abbreviations, marked with the syllable pe, itself an abbreviation of peyyāla.
Generally speaking, the abbreviations in the Pali editions, and the occasional instructions on how to spell out the full text, are sensible and fairly consistent between editions. Modern translations follow the manuscript tradition, but not slavishly. Sometimes the translation will spell out abbreviated passages, or else abbreviate passages spelled out in the original.
Abbreviations are both “internal” or “external”. By internal abbreviation, I mean that there is enough information in the text itself to fully reconstruct it. Typically only the first and last items in a list are spelled out in full, and for the rest, only the key terms are mentioned. Here is an example from SN 22.137:
Form is impermanent; you should give up desire for it. Feeling … Perception … Choices … Consciousness is impermanent; you should give up desire for it.
In external abbreviations, an abbreviated passage cannot be fully reconstructed from the context, but requires looking up another text to fill in the blanks. This is another example of how the oral tradition differs from written texts. A reciter would obviously know, say, the formula for the four noble truths, so there is no need to write it every time; just enough to jog the memory. But in modern editions, especially on the web, a reader can access a specific text from anywhere, and may never have encountered the abbreviated passage before. For this reason I tried to reduce the number of external abbreviations in my translations.
Buddhist manuscripts rarely have titles at the start like modern texts. Rather, the title is recorded at the end. In modern editions, these titles have been added at the start for clarity.
In many cases, especially in the titles of suttas and vaggas, what we actually have in the manuscript is not really a title as such, but a key word found in the summary verse (uddāna) found at the end of a vagga or other division. These verses were inserted by the redactors of the canon in order to help keep the contents organized, much like a Table of Contents. However, the summary verses do vary to some extent between editions, so the titles of suttas are not always consistent. In addition, some suttas are assigned more than one title in the text itself—for example DN 1 The Prime Net (Brahmajālasutta)—or there are spelling variations. So take care, for it is quite common to find different titles for the same text.
The vagga is the most widespread and distinctive structural unit in early Buddhist texts. It usually consists of ten texts, which may be ten discourses, ten verses, ten rules, and so on. The number ten is adhered to fairly consistently, although on occasion a vagga may contain more or less than ten.
The vagga is often little more than a convenient grouping to help organize the discourses neatly. In such cases, a vagga is usually just named after its first discourse.
However, it is also common to find that a vagga collects discourses with a loose thematic unity. For example, in the Chapter on the Full Spectrum of Ethics (Sīlakkhandhavagga) of the Dīgha Nikāya (thirteen discourses in this case), almost all the texts deal with the “gradual training” of ethics, meditation, and wisdom.
In some cases, a vagga in Pali may parallel a similar vagga in another language. For example, the famous Chapter of the Eights (Aṭṭhakavagga) of the Sutta Nipāta exists in Chinese translation, though the Sutta Nipāta as a whole does not. Similarly, the Sīlakkhandhavagga of the Dīgha Nikāya has parallels in both the Dharmaguptaka (Chinese) and Sarvāstivāda (Sanskrit) texts of the Dīgha.
Occasionally the word vagga is applied to a larger textual unit, one that includes a number of sections, each of which composed of “little” vaggas. Examples of such nested vagga structures include the Saṁyutta Nikāya and the Khandhakas of the Pali Vinaya.
The word paṇṇāsa means “fifty”, and a paṇṇāsaka is a group of approximately fifty suttas, or five vaggas. It is used to organize collections that contain many vaggas. Most of the collections with large numbers of discourses use this structure, for example the “Root Fifty” of the Majjhima Nikāya (Mūlapaṇṇāsa). The paṇṇāsaka is purely for convenience and does not correspond to any meaningful division of the text.
The literal meaning of nipāta is “fallen down”, and it is a generic term for texts that have been placed together. In the Aṅguttara, it is used for each division of texts gathered together by number: the group of discourses consisting of one item, and so on. Elsewhere it is used, for example, in the title of the Sutta Nipāta, the “Group of Discourses”.
Whereas the nipāta is quite generic, the saṁyutta has a more specific meaning: texts collected according to a similar theme or subject matter. The Saṁyutta Nikāya consists of 56 such collections. For example, the fourteenth saṁyutta contains 39 discourses on the topic of the elements.
The largest structural unit, usually known as nikāya in the Pali tradition of the Theravāda, and as āgama in the northern traditions. However, the term āgama, while it has fallen into disuse in modern Theravāda, is found quite commonly in the Pali commentaries.
Collections similar to the four nikāyas as found in the Pali are found in all the other schools. However, while the overall nature of the collections is similar, and they are organized in similar ways, the detailed content varies considerably. It frequently happens that a sutta found in the Majjhima of one school, for example, may be found in the Saṁyutta or Dīgha of another school. In addition, the internal sequence of texts is quite different. Thus it seems that the nikāyas or āgamas functioned more as organizational guidelines than as fixed units.
The fifth Pali nikāya, the Khuddaka Nikāya, is more flexible and varies more between traditions. It seems it originated as a place for collecting verses and minor texts not gathered elsewhere. However the Pali collection became a handy place to include later texts, so it has now become the biggest of all the nikāyas. While there are occasional references to a similar collection in the northern schools, none exist in that form today. Nevertheless, many of the individual texts of the Khuddaka have parallels, especially the Dhammapada, which survives in many different editions.
Each discourse begins with a brief statement saying that at “one time” the Buddha was staying at a particular place. In this way the redactors of the texts were concerned to locate the Buddha and his teachings in a specific historical and cultural context. Modern scholars have been able to reconstruct a fairly reliable picture of the Buddha’s life and times, relying on the early Buddhist texts, as well as what information may be gleaned from Brahmanical and Jaina scriptures.
Archeology is, unfortunately, of limited use, as there are few archeological remnants from the Buddha’s day. In fact, before the time of Ashoka—perhaps 150 years after the Buddha—there are very few remains at all of ancient India, until the time of the Indic Valley civilization, many centuries earlier. For the period we are interested in, what has been found consists of some pottery and similar small implements, as well as a few remnants of fortifications around Kosambī. The paucity of evidence is due to two main reasons. The first is that buildings at the time were mostly of wood or other perishable materials. And the second is that archeological work in India has been very spotty and incomplete.
The Buddha lived in the 5th century BCE in the Ganges plain in northern India. The exact dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but modern scholarly opinion tends to place his birth around 480 BCE and his death 80 years later at around 400 BCE. He was born in Lumbini and grew up in Kapilavatthu, both of which belong to the Sakyan republic, straddling the modern border of India and Nepal. His family name was Gotama; the earliest texts do not mention his personal name, but tradition says it was Siddhattha.
After his Awakening, the Buddha traveled about the Gangetic plain. The area he traversed was part of the cultural/political region known as the “sixteen nations” (janapada). This spanned from modern Delhi to the north-west, the Bangladesh border to the east, the Himalayan foothills to the north, the Deccan to the south, and Ujjain to the south-west. Most of his time was spent around the cities of Sāvatthī in the kingdom of Kosala and Rājagaha in the kingdom of Magadha. Despite the proliferation of local legends in most Buddhist countries, the Buddha never ventured outside this area.
It was not just the Buddha who was restricted to this region. It seems that trade and other close cultural contacts normally took place within this region, too. Occasional references to places further afield—southern India or the Greeks—were vague and often legendary. It was in the century after the Buddha passed away that the kingdoms of northern India were unified and regular international trade routes were opened, first to Europe, and, a couple of centuries later, to south-east Asia and China.
Though cities and urban life feature prominently in the texts, they are still on a small scale. The economy was largely rural, with farming playing a prominent role.
However there are lists of occupations in the Pali canon that show a diverse range of employment—accountants, jewelers, builders, soldiers, doctors, government officials, and many more.
The rise in diversity of employment was linked to the growth of cities, which in turn is associated with the appearance of new technologies. The archeological record, though thin, has furnished us with records of two significant innovations: forges for iron, and a kind of fine pottery known as Northern Black Polished Ware. These new developments attest to a growing mastery in the industrial use of fire, something that the suttas mention in several memorable similes.
Technological innovation drove economic growth. We frequently hear of wealthy individuals, employing large staffs and managing properties or businesses. There was enough economic surplus to support a large class of spiritual seekers. Such ascetics made no material contributions to society; their value lay in spiritual and ethical development.
These technological and economic shifts were mirrored in the political sphere. There were two major forms of governance. Traditional clans such as the Sakyans or the Vajjians followed an ancient restricted form of democracy, where decisions were made in a town council, and the clan elected a leading member as temporary ruler. Other nations, like Kosala and Magadha, had formed a more familiar kind of kingdom, with an absolute hereditary monarch. While the Buddha evidently favored the democratic ideals under which he grew up, and after which he modeled the governance of the Sangha, it was the kingdoms that were growing in economic and military dominance. During the Buddha’s lifetime, there were repeated skirmishes between Kosala and Magadha, vying for dominion over the ancient sacred city of Varanasi.
Of even greater significance, towards the end of his life, Magadha was announcing its intentions to invade the Vajjian republic. History attests to the success of this policy: in the decades following the Buddha’s death, Magadha conquered virtually all of the sixteen nations, establishing an unquestioned supremacy over the region, and establishing pan-Indian trade networks. So powerful was the resulting kingdom that Alexander the Great’s troops rebelled at the mere rumor of Magadhan military might.
The growing complexity of economic and political life required corresponding changes in social roles and responsibilities. Like any society in a time of change, people in the time of the Buddha were trying to balance their traditional values and structures with the new realities. It seems that people were for the most part reasonably well off. Still, poverty and famine, along with injustice, banditry, and economic uncertainty, were present and posed a very real threat. We hear frequent laments about how unpredictable wealth is, whether the older forms of wealth in cattle and land, or the newer forms in money and career.
The Buddha was not a social revolutionary and did not overtly agitate for an overthrow of social systems, even those he recognized as unjust. Typically he would argue for a more just and fair implementation of existing norms. For example, rather than saying all societies should be democratic, he spoke of the moral duty of a king to look after his people.
A man was expected to earn a living so as to maintain and protect his family. He should use his earnings to provide his family with both essentials and luxuries, and to treat workers with kindness and decency, while not neglecting to assign some funds for savings, and some for donations to charity.
A woman’s traditional role was to marry and bear children. Aside from this, her options were limited. We rarely hear of professional women aside from sex workers. In this context, the opportunity to become a nun allowed women to pursue their own spiritual and intellectual development, to act as leaders and teachers, and to be respected and supported in that role.
Many of the more extreme manifestations of sexual discrimination are not found in the early texts. We find no mention of child brides, immolation of widows, or the essential subjugation of women to men.
India had not yet developed a full-fledged caste system. But there was a much simpler fourfold division of society:
Not everyone fit into this neat scheme. We hear reference to outcastes and various tribal peoples. In addition, there were slaves or bonded servants. Finally, the ascetics (samaṇa) such as the Buddha saw themselves as having left behind all such notions of caste.
Change in the Buddha’s day was not limited to the worldly sphere. The religious life of ancient India was equally dynamic. For this reason it would be a mistake to assume that India in the time of the Buddha was primarily a Hindu society. Some of the elements that make up modern Hinduism may be discerned, but Indian religion, like spiritual and religious practice everywhere, has always been in a state of flux and evolution.
In the time of the Buddha, and indeed even to this day, the ancient pre-Buddhist Vedas formed the basis for the spiritual life of the brahmins and those who followed them. Rituals such as the agnihotra, the daily pouring of ghee onto the fire as an offering to the fire-god Agni—originated long before the Aryan people even came to India, and continue to be performed today.
Nevertheless, many of the old gods featured in the Vedas had vanished by the time of the Buddha, and many of the famed deities of later Hinduism had not yet appeared. Those who do appear take on a markedly different aspect; prominent gods such as Vishnu (Pali: Veṇhu) or Shiva (Pali: Siva) appear in minor roles, and a warrior like Sakka (AKA Indra) appears as an apostle of peace. There were no temples, no images, and no cult of devotion (bhakti). There is no mention of a system of avatars, nor of familiar concepts from modern Hindu-inspired spirituality such as śakti, kuṇḍalinī, chakras, or yoga exercises.
Moreover, when we look at the aspects of modern Hinduism that were present at the time, many of them are completely separate from each other. No-one considered, for example, the worship of a local dragon (nāga) to have anything to do with the rites of the brahmins. The outstanding feature of Hinduism—the great synthesis of religious and philosophical ideas and practices, from simple animism to profound non-dualism—had not yet been undertaken. Different strands of religious life were quite distinct and were not considered to be part of the same path.
Thus historians do not refer to the brahmanical religion of the time as Hinduism, but rather as Vedism or Brahmanism. It was nearly a thousand years later that the movement recognizable as modern Hinduism became prominent in India. To be sure, much of Hinduism is drawn from the Vedas, in the same way that much of Catholicism is drawn from the Hebrew scriptures that Christians call the Old Testament. But were you to meet Abraham or Noah and address them as “Catholics”, they would not know what you are talking about. And the Indians of the Buddha’s time would have been equally unfamiliar with the very idea of “Hinduism”.
All this notwithstanding, there is an oft-repeated claim to the effect that the Buddha “was born, lived, and died a Hindu”, attributed to the great pioneer of Indology, Thomas Rhys Davids. While it is true that he did write this, it was in an early work, page 116 of Buddhism: its history and literature, a lecture series published in 1896. But by 1912 his views had changed, for on page 83 of Buddhism: Being a sketch of the life and teachings of Gautama, the Buddha, he said:
Gautama was born, and brought up, and lived, and died a typical Indian. Hinduism had not yet, in his time, arisen.
Rhys Davids emphasizes that the Buddha did not have an antagonistic relation to the Brahmanical religion. His purpose was not religious reform, but freedom from suffering. However, on page 85 of the same work he comments:
In the long run the two systems were quite incompatible. … Gautama’s whole training lay indeed outside of the ritualistic lore of the Brahmanas and the brahmins. The local deities of his clan were not Vedic.
The lesson here is that we must avoid reading modern conditions back into ancient times. The peoples of ancient India had their own rich, complex, and many-faceted spiritual lives. We can only begin to understand them, and to understand how the Buddha related to them, when we set aside our modern preconceptions and preoccupations and listen to what they had to say for themselves.
An outstanding feature of early Buddhist texts is interreligious dialogue. The Buddha did not live in a Buddhist culture. We frequently encounter the Buddha and his disciples discussing various aspects of spiritual philosophy and practice with followers of other spiritual paths, or with people of no particular path. Sometimes they would come to the Buddha seeking to learn or even to attack. And it is not uncommon to find the Buddha and his disciples actively seeking out followers of other spiritual paths simply to engage in conversation. In this, the early texts are quite different from later Buddhist literature, which almost always consists of Buddhists speaking with other Buddhists.
While many of these people ended up declaring themselves followers of the Buddha, this was not the purpose of the dialogue. The Buddha did not debate simply to win an argument, but out of compassion, to help alleviate suffering.
Amid the complex sets of religious practices, we may discern three major domains.
In the villages and towns of ancient India, the most widespread folk religion was a belief in the omnipresent reality of spirits in nature. Such deities might embody aspects of the weather, or live in plants or rivers or caves; they might promote abundance, or take ferocious and threatening forms. They were unreliable, but could be wooed through simple offerings of rice, flowers, or ghee.
Animist beliefs were derived from local legends and rituals, not from religious philosophy. However, the higher religious paths such as Buddhism or Jainism, rather than repressing such beliefs, were happy to assign them a minor role in the scheme of things, so long as they eliminated harmful practices like human or animal sacrifice.
Throughout the Buddhist texts, we hear of yakkhas (spirits), nāgas (dragons), gandhabbas (fairies), garudas (phoenixes), and many more. The Buddhist attitude towards such beings might best be described as “good neighborliness”. Neither they, nor any higher beings, are worshiped or looked to for salvation. Rather, they are treated with respect and dignity, for who knows? If they are real, it would be good to have them on your side.
The caste who called themselves “brahmins” inherited an ancient body of sacred lore known as the Vedas. This consisted of sets of oral scriptures, among which the Ṛg Veda was primary. In the early Buddhist texts there are three Vedas: Ṛg, Sāma, and Yajur; the Atharva is mentioned, but was not yet considered to be a Veda.
The Ṛg Veda grew out of the cultural and religious milieu of the ancient Indo-European peoples. It shares a common heritage with the Avestan texts of Iranian Zoroastrianism, and more distantly, the mythologies of Europe.
It seems that Indo-European peoples moved into India around a millennium before the Buddha, with distinct clans maintaining sets of sacred lore. In the early centuries of the first millennium BCE, in the area known as the Kuru country (modern Delhi), the clans were unified into the classical brahmanical kingdom whose story is echoed in the Mahābharata. The Ṛg Veda was forged from the books of the clans, wrapped in opening and closing chapters emphasizing unity. By the time of the Buddha, the brahmanical culture and language had already become strongly established in the regions further south and east where the Buddha lived.
The brahmins insisted on the holiness of their caste, the efficacy of their rituals, the truth of their scriptures, and the omnipotence of their deity. The Buddha rejected all these claims out of hand.
However, Brahmanical traditions were far from a unified monolith. We see a strong strand of questioning of tradition, of seeking out new ways, of earnest seeking of the truth; and such attitudes are just as strong in the Brahmanical texts as the Buddhist.
Brahmins were typically family men, living a settled life, and expecting a degree of social respect and standing due to their learning and caste. But some brahmins had adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apparently influenced by the samaṇas.
In the generations preceding the Buddha, brahmanical philosophy had reached a peak in the Upaniṣads, with their sophisticated debates and mystic philosophy of the essential unity of self and cosmos. These texts form the immediate dialectical context of the Buddha’s philosophy. Yājñavalkya, a key Upaniṣadic philosopher, lived around Mithilā, in the same region traversed by the Buddha, no more than a century or two before him. Some early Upaniṣads are apparently referred to in DN 13 The Three Knowledges (Tevijjasutta), and the Upaniṣadic doctrine of “self” (ātman) was prominently rejected by the Buddha in his most distinctive teaching: not-self (anattā).
Quite distinct from the brahmins, and often in opposition to them, was a complex set of religious movements known as the samaṇas or “ascetics”. Six prominent ascetic schools were acknowledged in the time of the Buddha. The Buddha counted himself as an ascetic, too, in view of the many similarities between his own movement and theirs.
Like the Buddhist mendicants, the other samaṇas were typically celibate renunciates, living either in solitude or in monastic communities, and relying on alms for food. The most famous movement—and the only one to survive until today—was Jainism, which flourished under their leader Mahāvīra, known as Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta in the Buddhist texts.
The ascetics shared an iconoclastic attitude, and all rejected the brahmanical system in toto. However they varied amongst each other, as shown in their teachings attested at DN 2 The Fruits of the Ascetic Life (Sāmaññaphalasutta) as well as MN 60 and MN 76. Some emphasized austerities and self-mortification, others rationality and debate. Some advocated ardent effort, others a resigned fatalism. Some taught rebirth, while others asserted that this material world was the only reality.
While their doctrines may appear florid and obscure, and their practices sometimes bizarre and pointless, the ascetic movements are a lasting testament to the diversity, vigor, and innovation of religious life in ancient India.
A recurring theme in many of the religious strands of India is a concern for cosmology. A religious philosophy was expected to paint a picture of the world on a large scale and indicate humanity’s role within it. Like all aspects of religious life, such cosmologies were partly shared across traditions and in part were unique to each tradition.
Some traditions asserted a materialist cosmology, rejecting the notion that one would be reborn in any other state, and asserting that only this life was real.
Most cosmologies, however, posited multiple realms of existence. Beings would come and go from these different stations. Some were pleasant and desirable, while others were not. As to why this was so, different reasons were given.
The latter view was held by some ascetic schools, such as Buddhism and Jainism, and some of the more advanced and innovative threads of Brahmanism. These traditions shared a conception of transmigration that in many ways is quite similar. Three common elements can be discerned:
While these aspects of the cosmology were shared, the details differed in both theory and practice.
Jain and Brahmanical theory proposed that transmigration was undergone by a soul or self which could attain freedom. For the Jains, the individual soul (jīva) attains eternal purity and bliss. For the most sophisticated among the brahmins, the individual self (ātman) realizes its true nature as identical with the divinity that is the cosmos itself (Sanskrit: tat tvam asi; Pali: eso hasmasmi; so attā so loko).
The Buddha rejected all such metaphysical notions of self or soul. Instead, he explained transmigration as an ongoing process of changing conditions, formulated as the famous twelve links of dependent origination (paṭicca samuppāda).
In the practical application of their theory, Jains believed that the way to salvation was to firstly avoid harming any sentient beings, even unintentionally, and then to burn off past kamma through painful self-mortification. Such practices are described frequently and in detail, attesting to their prominence in early Indian spiritual life.
The brahmins, as seen in the suttas, did not have such a clear and unambiguous path to a highest goal, and indeed are depicted as arguing among themselves as to the correct path. This reflects the historical situation, where the earlier, simpler, and more worldly goals of Vedic Brahmanism were growing into a more sophisticated Upaniṣadic form.
For the Upaniṣads, the key to salvation was understanding. It is only one who understands the rituals and philosophies correctly (ya evam veda) who will experience their full benefit. In the centuries prior to the Buddha, this path of wisdom had developed into a profound contemplative culture, expressed in the ecstatic and mystical passages of the Upaniṣads.
The Buddha shared the Jain concern for avoiding harm, but rejected the practice of extreme austerities. Rather than bodily torment, he emphasized mental development.
Certain Brahmanical lineages had developed meditation to a high degree, but meditative states were still conceived in metaphysical terms. The Buddha adopted such meditations for their value in purifying the mind, but interpreted them in purely psychological terms, rejecting metaphysics entirely.
One of the benefits of advanced meditation was that a practitioner would develop the ability to perceive many past lives and many realms into which beings may be reborn. In this, we may distinguish between the core doctrinal texts, which typically speak of rebirth in general terms as good or bad destinies, and the narrative portions, which depicted the realms of rebirth in terms familiar from popular Indian cosmology.
The early texts do not attempt to systematize these realms in any great detail. Indeed, the various deities and realms mentioned defy any simple categorization. Later Buddhism developed a theory of various realms, sometimes called the 31 planes of existence, but this does not fully represent the situation as found in the early texts.
Here is a general overview of the most important realms found in the suttas. It is crucial to remember that, in the Buddhist view, all of these, even the most high, are impermanent and do not constitute true freedom. They are not separate metaphysical planes, but mere stations in which consciousness may spend some time during its long journey.
The Buddha taught that doing good and avoiding bad was the path to rebirth in one of the fortunate realms, which include the human realm and all higher realms. However, the course of transmigration is long and unpredictable, so no heaven realm provides a sure refuge.
Far from teaching rebirth as a solace for naive followers unable to face the inevitability of death, rebirth is depicted in traumatic and terrifying terms: the tears that one has shed in the endless course of transmigration are greater than all the waters in all the oceans of the world. Thus the true significance of doing good deeds is not merely to get a better rebirth, but to lay the foundations for higher spiritual development, primarily through meditation.
In the core teaching of the four noble truths, the origin of all suffering is traced to the craving that is connected with rebirth (yāyaṁ taṇhā ponobbhavikā). The practice of the noble eightfold path is the only thing that enables one to let go of that craving and be free of suffering. This is what the Buddha called “extinguishment” or “quenching” (Pali: nibbāna; Sanskrit nirvāṇa).
Theravāda Buddhist texts are written in Pali. This ancient Indic language can be thought of as a simplified cousin of Sanskrit. Here are some well-known words in both languages.
Pali belongs to the Indo-European language family, which was introduced to India perhaps a millennium or so before the Buddha with the Indo-European (or “Āryan”) incursions. It was subsequently enriched by a large number of words adopted from local languages, primarily Dravidian and Munda. Pali or closely related languages were used across the greater Gangetic plain in the cultural and economic region identified by the use of Northern Black Polished Ware.
Despite its great antiquity, Pali is a well studied and clearly defined language. This is because the ancient Indians developed an advanced science of linguistics, which is already mentioned in the earliest Pali texts. Within a few generations of the Buddha, these were synthesized and standardized by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar, the Aṣṭādhyāyī, a comprehensive technical treatise which is perhaps the greatest intellectual achievement in the secular sciences of ancient times. Pāṇini’s methods were later adapted to create Pali grammars, which remain the basis for the study of Pali to this day. The Theravāda tradition has always prided itself on its commitment to precision and care in matters of language and scripture, with the result that the canonical Pali texts are, for the most part, well edited, clear, and consistent.
Pali is a highly inflected language, which means that the forms of words are adapted to indicate such things as gender, number, case, and the like. This makes the study of Pali grammar quite intensive, but it also helps in parsing out the structure of sentences.
The name of the language can be a little confusing. The Theravāda commentaries say they are written in Māgadhī, “the language of Magadha”. For them, pāḷi means “text”, i.e. the canonical scripture as opposed to commentary. In modern times, however, the language of the Theravāda scriptures has come to be called Pali, while the dialect of the Ashokan pillars is called Māgadhī. I follow these modern conventions.
The historical origins of Pali are a matter of ongoing academic research, which I will not go into here. Tradition holds that Pali was spoken by the Buddha, and this is surely true in the sense that what he spoke would have been closer to Pali than any other known language, with the possible exception of Ashokan Māgadhī.
In my view, the least persuasive theory is that the Buddha spoke a single consistent language all the time. This is so implausible as to be virtually impossible; it’s just not how language works. In ancient times language was highly diverse, with different accents and dialects sometimes from one village to the next. The process of language standardization is slow and uncertain, and it is still common to adapt languages per context. In Thailand, for example, it is normal for monks from the north-east to speak to the villagers in their local Isaan language—which itself varies regionally—and to visitors from Bangkok in central Thai. In Malaysia, monks might switch between English, Hokkien, and Mandarin in a single talk. Even those who know only one language use context-switching all the time, adapting vocabulary, accent, and grammar to accommodate speaking with people of different classes, generations, or language communities.
This problem was addressed by the Buddha himself in the Araṇavibhaṅgasutta (MN 139:12.8), and he could not have made his policy more clear.
“How do you not insist on local terminology and not override normal usage? It’s when in different localities the same thing is known as a ‘plate’, a ‘bowl’, a ‘cup’, a ‘dish’, a ‘basin’, a ‘tureen’, or a ‘porringer’. And however it is known in those various localities, you speak accordingly, thinking: ‘It seems that the venerables are referring to this.’”
Unless the Buddha failed to follow his own advice, we can assume that he adopted local dialects in his journeys, just as anyone else would. In his travels from Nepal to the Deccan, from Bengal to Delhi, and in his conversations with folks from all walks of life, from outcastes to brahmins and kings, he would have used language that fitted his context. This is more apparent in literary forms than in linguistic variation. Verse forms in particular are strongly correlated with educated and elite classes: deities, brahmins, and kings.
The language we call Pali has been standardized and streamlined to some degree, while not eliminating all traces of its dialectical origins. I think the specific features of Pali are likely to be influenced by the language of Avanti, the home town of Mahinda son of Ashoka, who first brought the texts to Sri Lanka. This historical problem is really of most interest to linguists, since the differences between these dialects are minor. Understanding of the dialectical situation can help to clear up some tricky problems, but does not affect the vast majority of Pali passages which are perfectly clear.
In modern times the study of Pali remains popular in Theravāda Buddhism, and any serious student will pick up some technical vocabulary. However, as my father used to warn me, “A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.” There are people who learn a few terms and ideas and think this grants them the expertise to discard 2,500 years of sophisticated linguistic learning. Some even start their own schools and teachings based on nothing more than silly linguistic mistakes. I’ve been studying, memorizing, reciting, translating, and teaching Pali for half my life, and I still learn something new most every day. If you want to set out on the journey of exploring Pali, make sure to stash plenty of patience and humility along with the curiosity in your backpack.
Pali is written phonetically, which means that the way it is spelled matches how it sounds. This has been the case since the beginning, as even the first Indic script, Brāhmī, is phonetic. Brāhmī, which is first attested in the Ashokan edicts, became the source of all later Indic scripts, as well as those of south and south-east Asia such as Thai, Sinhala, Lanna, Khmer, and Myanmar. Over time, Pali came to be written in all these scripts.
These phonetic scripts were made possible by the linguistic science of the ancient pandits, which precisely defined the value of each sound. Despite this, the popular pronunciation of Pali varies from place to place. This is because local Buddhist traditions use different transliteration systems influenced by the national languages, and the sound of letters in Pali does not always match the sound of the same letter in the local language. Thus buddha in Pali is pronounced budda in Sinhala, phuttha in Thai, and booda in American English. Nonetheless, scholars of every nation are well aware of the correct pronunciation.
In the nineteenth century, various schemes for representing Pali and Sanskrit in Roman characters were developed. Scholars such as Sir Muthu Coomaraswamy urged the adoption of a standardized Romanization so that international scholars could easily read texts from the different regions. Such a unified standard for transliteration of Sanskrit and Pali was formalized in 1894 in Geneva at the International Congress of Orientalists. This became widely used by international scholars, and with minor emendations was adopted as ISO 15919 in 2001. Due to the strictly mechanical nature of such phonetic representations, SuttaCentral is able to show Pali texts in dozens of scripts, powered by the Aksaramukha conversion utility.
The pronunciation of Pali is quite simple. The ancient grammars clearly define the places and manner of articulation in the mouth. Vowels are pure monophthongs, not dipthongs; that is, the sound remains fixed throughout and does not glide while being articulated. Most vowels in many varieties of English are pronounced with some degree of dipthongalization, so native English speakers should train to remove this by pronouncing each vowel with the mouth held still. With this qualification, here are approximate vowel equivalents in English.
Consonants are all pronounced distinctly and not combined. The twenty-five main consonants follow a systematic pattern: there are five points of articulation in the mouth, and at each point there are five possible letters varied by aspiration and voicing, as well as a liquid consonant. In addition there are a few miscellaneous consonants.
The only ambiguous sign is h. By itself or when following most soft consonants it is equivalent to the English h. Thus haṁ is English “hung”, while amhā would be “umm, hah”. When following a hard consonant or the letter ḷ, h is a sign of aspiration, not a separate letter. It is realized as a puff of air following the letter.
Most unvoiced consonants in English are aspirated, whereas Pali has both aspirated and unaspirated variants. We can emulate this by taking advantage of the fact that in English we drop the aspiration when following s. Thus t is pronounced like t in “still”, while th is like t in “till”. Likewise for p in “spill” versus ph in “pill”, and k in “skill” versus kh in “kill”. C is like ch in “beach”, while ch is like chh in “beachhouse”. Note that Pali does not have the fricative sounds spelled in English with f or ph, as well as th as in “thing” or “there”. Th is an aspirated t, and ph is an aspirated p.
Voiced aspirated consonants (gh, jh, ḍh, dh, bh) are not found in English, but they can be approximated by combining words such as “bigheart” or “madhouse”.
Doubled consonants are always pronounced, such “big gun”, or “sad dad”. Before a double consonant, a long vowel is shortened.
Retroflex consonants are not found in English, but the effect is similar to the American r. Thus Pali pāṭi is similar to the American pronunciation of “party”.
Finally, v is soft like w, r is like r in American English, and s is pure sibilant (sū is “sue” not “zoo”). Ṁ, known as anusvāra, nasalizes the preceding vowel, but in practice it is usually pronounced as the ng in “sing”.
The Pali canonical texts are accompanied by an extensive and detailed set of commentaries (aṭṭhakathā) and subcommentaries (ṭīkā). These texts are, for most people, even more mysterious than the canon itself, so let me say a few words on them.
The main commentaries were compiled by the monk Buddhaghosa at the Mahāvihāra monastery in Anuradhapura, then the capital of Sri Lanka, in the 5th century. Buddhaghosa inherited a series of older commentaries in the old Sinhalese language, now lost. These had been compiled over the centuries in Sri Lanka, mostly between around 200 BCE–200 CE; that is to say, the main content of the commentaries was closed several centuries before Buddhaghosa.
It was all a bit messy, with text in Pali and commentaries in Sinhala, and a variety of different commentarial texts. Buddhaghosa aimed to streamline the situation by combining all the old commentaries into a single system, translated into Pali.
Buddhaghosa’s work remains as an extraordinary accomplishment of traditional scholarship. He had an almost preternatural mastery of his materials, and the clarity and rigor of his writings make light work of what must have been an exceedingly difficult task. It is crucial to remember that he saw his work as that of an editor, compiler, and translator. That is what he claimed to be doing, and from everything we know about his work, he was a scholar of integrity who did exactly what he said. When he felt a need to express his own opinion he said so; but such interventions were rare and hesitant. The commentaries are the record of discussions and explanations of the Pali texts handed down in the Mahāvihāra tradition, not the opinions of Buddhaghosa.
While Buddhaghosa compiled commentaries on the major texts, he left some incomplete. It is not always certain which commentaries were by him; but in any case later scholars completed his work. Subsequently, subcommentaries were written to clarify obscure points in the commentaries.
In modern Theravāda, the commentaries have become a sadly and unnecessarily divisive issue. Some people take the entire tradition uncritically and regard the commentaries as essentially infallible. Others flip to an extreme of suspecting anything in the commentaries, rewriting Theravādin history as a conspiracy of the commentaries. But any serious scholar knows that the commentaries are often helpful, even indispensable, on countless difficult and obscure points. Without them, there is no way we would have been able to create the accurate dictionaries and translations that we have today. Yet they cannot be relied on blindly, for, like any resource, they are fallible, and must be read with a careful and critical eye. On some doctrinal issues, the position of the commentaries had shifted considerably from the stance in the suttas, and not in illuminating ways.
I once read some advice from a Burmese Sayadaw—I am afraid this was many years ago and I have forgotten who it was—on how to use the commentaries. He said—and I paraphrase—something like this. First read the sutta. Try to understand it. Read it and meditate on it again and again. If there’s anything you don’t understand, see if it can be explained elsewhere in the suttas. If, at the end of the day, you still cannot understand it, check the commentary. If it answers the question, good. But if, after equally careful study, the commentary is still unclear, then check the subcommentary.
This has always seemed like sound advice to me, and I have tried to follow it. The purpose of the commentary is to help explain the suttas. Where the suttas are clear—and mostly they are—there is no need to refer to the commentary. The only extra thing I would add is that, in addition to the commentaries and subcommentaries, we now also have Chinese and Sanskrit parallels to help us understand difficult passages.
In these guides, I almost completely leave aside the commentarial explanations. In several places the explanations I have given differ from those in the commentaries. I am aware of this, and have written on most of these things elsewhere, but I do not want to burden the guides by re-litigating every controversy. I don’t contradict the commentaries out of ignorance or stubbornness, but because after many years of study, contemplation, discussion, and practice, I have come to see some things differently.
The significance of the nikāyas was recognized by European scholars early on. I will discuss specifics of the editions and translations in the essays on the individual nikāyas, and here offer some general remarks.
During the 19th century, European scholars became aware of the Pali tradition, seeing in it a reliable source of information for the Buddha, his times and his teachings. An English civil servant in Sri Lanka, Thomas Rhys Davids, learned Pali from the monks, initially to help him better understand Sri Lankan legal practices. Recognizing the significance of these texts, he returned to England and established the Pali Text Society (PTS), largely funded by Asian donors. They obtained palm-leaf manuscripts, on the basis of which the PTS prepared print editions of the main Pali texts.
The PTS editions introduced a number of ideas from European scholarship. Most obviously, they used a set of conventions for presenting Indic scripts with European letters. This system is lossless, so texts may be automatically changed from one script to another. It enables easy comparison between the editions of the Pali canon from different countries, which traditionally had been written in diverse local scripts. They also introduced titles at the start of texts, punctuation and capitalization, page numbers, footnotes, variant readings, and various other modern innovations.
One innovation that was not pursued consistently was the use of chapter and section numbers. These were added to the PTS Pali editions of the Dīgha Nikāya and the Vinaya, and are used in subsequent translations. However most of the PTS editions lack such sections, with the unfortunate consequence that academic referencing of Pali texts is still based on the volume and page of the PTS edition, a system that is neither practical nor precise.
The PTS editions were ground-breaking and have exerted an unparalleled influence on modern Buddhism, both east and west. Asian scholars have been well aware of them, with the consequence that it is probably hard to find any printed edition from the 20th century that is completely free of their influence. Nevertheless, the PTS texts are not particularly reliable. They were put together over a considerable period of time, with scant resources and few workers. The editors used whatever manuscripts they had to hand, and, apart from a general preference for Sri Lankan readings, it is hard to discern a consistent or clear methodology in their choices of readings. The limitations of these editions are well known among experts in the field, and in some cases updated and improved editions have been published.
For my translation of the nikāyas, I preferred to use the Mahāsaṅgīti edition. This is essentially a digital representation of the Burmese textual tradition of the 6th Council, itself based on the 19th century 5th Council text. It is based on the digital edition prepared by the Vipassana Research Institute, with extensive proofreading and corrections by the Dhamma Society of Bangkok. The Mahāsaṅgīti is a consistent and carefully edited digital text, and for that reason was chosen as the root Pali text for SuttaCentral. But it should not be assumed that it is the most authentic. On the contrary, it preserves the Burmese readings, which tend to correct the text in conformity with the Pali grammars. Nevertheless, in almost all such cases there is no difference in the meaning, just minor differences in spelling.
Like most translators, when editions vary I did not adhere to one edition, but simply selected what seems to be the best reading in each case. I referred to the PTS editions fairly often. More rarely, I consulted the romanized Buddha Jayanthi edition found on GRETIL; note, however, that the digital edition is widely regarded as being inferior to the original in Sinhalese script. Occasionally I also consulted the Rama 5 edition in Thai script. I also consulted previous translations, especially those of Bhikkhu Bodhi.
In problematic cases I cross-checked the Pali against the Sanskrit and Chinese parallels; I did not make use of Tibetan sources. However in every case the overriding intention was to accurately represent the Pali text. Only in a very few exceptional cases did I rely on the Sanskrit or Chinese parallels to correct the Pali.
The Dīgha Nikāya is the first of the four main divisions in the Sutta Piṭaka of the Pali Canon (tipiṭaka). It is translated here as Long Discourses. As the title suggests, its discourses are somewhat longer than those of other nikāyas. There are, however, only 34 discourses in the collection, so despite the length of the individual discourses, the collection as a whole is the shortest of the nikāyas.
It is distinguished from the other nikāyas by its more developed and elaborate literary forms. Outgrowing the bare and direct style of most of the early texts, here the extra length offers space for narratives and doctrinal expositions to find a fuller expression. This is an early hint at how the literary form of Buddhist texts was to develop in later years, moving towards expansiveness and abundance.
It is no coincidence that these elaborate texts are often addressed to the brahmins, who were the self-proclaimed spiritual leaders of the time. The brahmins were the custodians of the most sophisticated texts in ancient India up to this time, the Vedic literature. It seems that one aim of the Dīgha was to impress such learned men. These discourses offer a wide range of examples of how the Buddha related to those of other religious paths.
Another overriding theme of the Dīgha is the passing away of the Buddha. The centerpiece of the collection is DN 16, The Great Discourse on the Buddha’s Extinguishment (Mahāparinibbānasutta), a discourse of unrivaled importance. This presents the last journey of the Buddha, wandering in unhurried stages from town to town, each step bringing him closer to his passing. In the very length of the text, recording so many details of the journey, we can sense a longing to draw out those last precious days as far as possible.
The 34 discourses are grouped in three vaggas. The first vagga consists of thirteen discourses, each of which includes a lengthy passage on the spiritual practice of a monastic, known as the Gradual Training (anupubbasikkhā).
In the second vagga we find several discourses of a more biographical nature. DN 14 The Great Discourse on Traces Left Behind (Mahāpadānasutta) tells of past Buddhas, while DN 16 Mahāparinibbānasutta tells of Gotama’s last days. In addition, some other discourses in this section are closely related to the Mahāparinibbānasutta. I will discuss this cycle further below.
The final vagga is more miscellaneous. It includes long poetic sections, doctrinal compilations—some of which are precursors to the Abhidhamma—and narratives that are often humorous and occasionally border on farce.
As usual in the nikāyas, there is no overall sequence of the teaching and many details of organization appear quite arbitrary. Still, we can discern a purpose in the arrangement of a few of the major discourses. These details are unique to the Theravadin tradition, so should be seen as reflecting their concerns, rather than the fundamental principles of the Dīgha.
The first discourse, DN 1 The Prime Net (Brahmajālasutta), sets out a scheme of wrong views, and thus acts as a filter for the Dhamma, screening out possible misinterpretations. It seems that this arrangement was connected with the events of the so-called “Third Council” under King Ashoka, at a time when the Saṅgha was overrun with imposters who were not genuine Buddhists. The second discourse, DN 2 The Fruits of the Ascetic Life (Sāmaññaphalasutta), addresses a fundamental question: why do people follow a life of renunciation? In answering this, it sets forth the Gradual Training, a distinctively Buddhist path to peace.
The middle of the collection is dominated by discourses that deal in one way or another with the cosmic significance of the Buddha (DN 14, DN 16, DN 17, DN 18, DN 19, DN 20, DN 21; to these may be added DN 26, DN 27, DN 30, and DN 32). Where the biographical texts of the Majjhima emphasize the practical and the personal, the specifics of how our Buddha lived, these discourses exist in an arena of mythic grandeur. Time and space are expanded as the poignant and personal details of the Mahāparinibbānasutta are set among a series of mythological texts that show the potency of the Buddha and his teachings in the deep past, in the apocalyptic future, and in the present among the orders of gods.
The central event in all this is the death of the Buddha. Historically this was a traumatic crisis for the Buddhist community, and many feared that the Dhamma would not survive. By lifting attention from the present trauma and pointing to a longer meaning, these suttas show that the Dhamma need not die with the Buddha. The events of the Mahāparinibbānasutta spurred the Saṅgha to hold the First Council, where the discourses were collected and organized to ensure their preservation. And these are, of course, the very scriptures that we are reading. In this way, these narratives tell the story of their own origin.
The Dīgha finishes with mostly doctrinal compilations (DN 28, DN 29, DN 33, DN 34). If the beginning of the Dīgha tells us why the teachings matter and the middle tells us how they came to be, the ending tells us what they are. It is a rather curious thing that in the Dīgha, many of the doctrines that we think of as fundamental to the Buddha’s teachings occur only rarely. These discourses rectify this situation, ensuring that the students of the Dīgha had access to a wide range of teachings. The last two discourses, in particular, are compiled as handy mnemonics for memorizing sets of doctrinal teachings.
The Gradual Training sets out the steps taken by a Buddhist renunciate on their path. It begins with the arising of a Buddha in the world. Hearing the Buddha’s teaching, a person reflects on how best it can be applied to their own life. Realizing that “the household life is cramped and dirty, but the life of one gone forth is wide open”, they give up their worldly possessions and attachments, don the ochre robe of a Buddhist mendicant, and undertake a life of morality, simplicity, and meditation. Proceeding step by step to ever more advanced practices, they eventually enter into deep meditative absorption (jhāna) before realizing the four noble truths and finding true freedom.
The Gradual Training is an expansion of the threefold training (tisso sikkhā): ethics (sīla), meditative immersion (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā). At AN 3.89 the three trainings are defined:
This teaching is distributed widely throughout the early Buddhist texts. In the Dīgha, for example, it’s found in the Mahāparinibbānasutta as a standard teaching repeated by the Buddha at many of the stops on his journey. A series of shorter discourses on this subject may be found in the Samaṇa Vagga of the Aṅguttara (AN 3.81–91).
This brief overview of the path is explained more fully in the Gradual Training, which explains each of the three trainings in considerable detail. This longer exposition appears to have been the original teaching on the overall lifestyle, practices, and aims of the Buddha’s mendicant followers. It seems that the Buddha preferred to encourage his monastics by exhorting them to follow the highest ideals of conduct and meditation. Only reluctantly did he set up the legal system of the Vinaya texts, with its procedures and punishments.
The Gradual Training is found, in somewhat varying forms, in the Majjhima (MN 27, MN 51, MN 38, MN 39, MN 53, MN 107, MN 125), the Aṅguttara (AN 4.198, AN 10.99), and even the Abhidhamma (Vb 12, Pp 2.4:114). Curiously enough, however, it is not found among the collected discourses on the path found in the last book of the Saṁyutta. While virtually all of the practices of the Gradual Training are found in the Saṁyutta, the overall framework is not.
The Dīgha makes up for this lack by placing a vagga of thirteen discourses right at the start featuring the Gradual Training. This is called the Sīlakkhandhavagga, the “Chapter on the Aggregate of Ethics”. Despite the title, however, these texts treat the full training on ethics, meditative immersion, and wisdom.
While the content is similar in each place that the Gradual Training appears, the Dīgha versions feature a pronounced emphasis on beauty and pleasure. The stages of the path are illustrated by similes that are as lovely as they are apt, while each step of the path is said to be accompanied by a deepening sense of pleasure and happiness. The Gradual Training is not a path of suffering, but one of grace and joy and freedom.
Due to the repetition, the texts invariably abbreviate all the expositions except for the first two discourses. It should be remembered, however, that this is merely a consequence of how the Pali tradition arranged these texts. In the Sanskrit and Chinese Dīrghāgamas, the texts in this section are arranged differently, and different suttas are either expanded or abbreviated accordingly.
While the focus is firmly on monastic life, the general principles hold good for everyone, and indeed at MN 53 A Trainee (Sekhasutta), Ānanda teaches essentially the same path to a lay audience. In the Sīlakkhandhavagga, many discourses are addressed to lay people, most of whom are brahmins.
The question of King Ajātasattu in DN 2 provides the key to understanding why this is so. He points out that in worldly life, each profession can be seen to have its own benefit. But what is the benefit of the renunciate life? While other ascetics falter before this question, the Buddha presents the Gradual Training. He shows how the life gone forth is not one of pain and distress, nor one of delayed gratification, but one that shows real benefits in this life. It is about the power and transformative potential of inner development and meditation. In contrast, the household path offers only limited happiness, with much uncertainty and stress, while the paths of other ascetics are unclear, ineffective, or painful, and the brahmins can only offer rituals and prayers of dubious efficacy. Thus the Gradual Training explains why there is a need for the Saṅgha at all.
Just as the Gradual Training is built from the kernel of the threefold training, the code of monastic ethics is built from the core principles of basic precepts. It is divided into three sections. The first section begins with the most fundamental precept for everyone in Buddhism: non-violence, to refrain from killing any creature, however small. It continues with items found in such common teachings as the five precepts and the ten paths of skillful action. But it adds items that especially pertain to monastic life, such as avoiding luxuries and ownership of property. The second section on ethics expands these specifically monastic and renunciate precepts in much greater detail, while the final section deals with right livelihood. A Buddhist monastic, who relies on alms food given in faith, should not make a living by other means, especially through superstitious and magical practices.
The Gradual Training builds on these ethical foundations as the mendicant undertakes a series of practices designed to quell the busyness and activity of the mind. They rein in their senses, avoiding overly stimulating things. They focus on remaining mindful and aware throughout all their activities. They aim at contentment, being satisfied with a few simple possessions.
Only when all these have been developed does the mendicant resort to seclusion for meditation. Going to the forest, they undertake mindfulness meditation and give up the five hindrances that prevent peace of mind. These hindrances are one of the core meditation teachings in the suttas, regarded as the key obstacle to absorption. They are:
Experiencing an ever-deepening peace and bliss, they ultimately enter a series of profoundly still states of meditative immersion known as the four absorptions (jhānas).
The absorptions are the fundamental meditation practice in early Buddhism and are essential to all stages of Awakening. They occur in many contexts, but it is here, in the Gradual Training, that they emerge most naturally from the life and practice undertaken by the mendicants. This context was so central to early Buddhists that when they compiled the early Abhidhamma text, the Vibhaṅga, the chapter on Absorption begins with the Gradual Training. It is true, there are lay followers in the early texts who were said to have practiced absorption. But it is equally true that when the Buddha taught how to attain such profound peace, he emphasized the power of deep renunciation.
It has become common in certain modern forms of Buddhism to assert that absorptions are not an essential part of the path. Others say that, while important, the absorptions are relatively shallow states of concentration that may be easily attained on a short retreat. Suffice to say, neither of these views finds support in the early texts. The absorptions are essential, profound, and difficult to attain. Even with the full strength of renunciation, many mendicants in the Buddha’s day struggled to realize them. Nevertheless, it is a special quality of the Dhamma that each step along the path is accompanied by deepening peace and joy, and letting go gets easier the further one travels. This is what makes the realization of even such profound and subtle states possible.
Emerging from the absorptions, the mendicant harnesses the power of a deeply purified mind to realize a series of special forms of knowledge or insight. These culminate in the realization of the four noble truths:
Suffering is the spur that drives us to undertake spiritual practice. Only when we have some experience of suffering will we look for an escape. And when encountering the Buddha’s teaching, a seeker recognizes that the Dhamma speaks to that which matters in their own life, offering a powerful and pragmatic solution. But wallowing in suffering gets you nowhere. When you understand that this suffering is real, but has causes and conditions that you can do something about, it sparks faith and the resolve to act. The path itself is one of unfolding happiness and receding pain; the truth of the ending of suffering is experienced at every step. This culminates in the experience of profound meditative stillness, called absorption (jhāna) or immersion (samādhi). In such states, having let go of sensual desire, the five external senses cease (vivicc’eva kāmehi) and the mind feels a sense of peace and happiness unlike anything it has known before. Empowered by the clarity and brilliance of absorption, the reality of suffering and its cause becomes apparent. This signifies that one has realized the first stage of awakening, that of the stream-enterer (sotāpanna).
Stream-entry occurs when all the factors of the path—from the arousing of faith to the practice of absorption and deep insight—have been developed to a sufficient degree. At this point one has a profound insight into the nature of reality, letting go of three of the ten fetters that bind a person to rebirth. In the Gradual Training, the understanding of the four noble truths is usually followed by the understanding of the end of the defilements (āsava), which signifies the attainment of full perfection (arahattā). The remaining fetters are given up at this point, which is the final stage of the path: full awakening and freedom.
There are over a thousand discourses recorded in each of the Aṅguttara and the Saṁyutta Nikāyas, but only 34 long texts are recorded in the Dīgha. The relatively short texts of the Aṅguttara and Saṁyutta are reminiscent of the pre-Buddhist Upaniṣads, especially the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and Chandogya. These consist of a series of mostly independent passages, each episode covering no more than a few pages, and assembled into a much larger text. They are recollections of concise and focused teachings at certain times and places by certain people. It would seem, then, from the overwhelming majority of contemporary texts both Buddhist and Brahmanical, that the short discourse or dialogue was the standard format.
How, then, were these long texts constructed? Why? And for whom? Let us approach these questions by briefly considering a few different forms employed in the Dīgha.
Some discourses are long because the subject matter is inherently complex and demands a lengthy explanation. Of course, the Buddha was a master of presenting subjects in both pithy and detailed forms. Nevertheless, there are a few discourses whose subject matter requires extensive treatment.
The most prominent example of this is the Gradual Training. In some cases—for example DN 6 With Mahāli and DN 7 With Jāliya—the discourse consists of little more than this passage, with a simple narrative background and some short extra teachings. So it seems that the presence of the long Gradual Training section was itself enough to qualify a discourse as “long”. Since this passage aims to provide a detailed guide to the whole of the renunciate spiritual life, from hearing the teaching to full awakening, the length is inherent in the subject matter. True, it is taught more briefly elsewhere, but even in those cases it tends to be somewhat long, and there was a tendency to make it more inclusive.
In other cases the Gradual Training is taught in the middle of a discourse that is already quite extensive. Such is the case with DN 1 Brahmajāla, although here, uniquely, it is only the first section on Ethics that is taught. But the bulk of the text sets forth a network of 62 kinds of wrong view. Here, the nature of the subject matter is so extensive and complex that a shorter exposition would not do it justice. Indeed, when this teaching is mentioned in shorter discourses (SN 41.3), it is not summarized, but the reader is referred rather to the full text.
Far more common than inherently lengthy teachings are the compilations. In such cases, a long text provides an occasion or background framework within which a series of short passages are collected. Such passages usually occur in identical or near-identical form in the Aṅguttara or the Saṁyutta, and occasionally the Majjhima. Compiling them here enables the reciters of the Dīgha to learn a wide range of doctrines, and provides an essential backup, preserving the texts in case the shorter discourses are lost.
In a few instances, such short passages are not found elsewhere in the same form. Whether that is because they were unique to the Dīgha, or because the parallel passages have become lost, is hard to say.
How do we end up with parallel passages in so many different places?
the Buddha taught very often and, like all teachers, repeated his message many times. Such repeated teachings would have been collected in various places. This would be the case with important and generic teachings found throughout the Buddhist literature, like the four noble truths or the four absorptions.
In some cases, though, this is unlikely or impossible. For example, we sometimes find the same event on the same occasion—with the same teaching, the same location, and the same people—occurring in more than one text. In such instances, it is clear that there is, in fact, just one passage, and it has been copied into two or more places.
Generally speaking, it is prudent to assume that such passages existed as short discourses before being collected into larger forms. This is because, as noted above, the short discourse is the dominant form, and rests closest to the oral tradition. It is a principle observed everywhere through early Buddhist texts that the redactors preferred to add rather than subtract. Thus texts commonly become longer over time, and rarely shorter.
Examples of compilation are very common, and almost every discourse in the Dīgha does this to some extent. Here are just a few examples.
DN 16 Mahāparinibbānasutta includes a wide range of collected passages. In some cases, events pertinent to the narrative may have occurred there originally and been extracted later, while in other cases the included passages seem strangely extraneous to the context and were no doubt added in at some point.
Venerable Sāriputta is said to be the main author of several such long compilations. He is the teacher in DN 33 Reciting in Concert (Saṅgītisutta) and DN 34 Up to Ten (Dasuttarasutta), which consist almost entirely of short passages collected from elsewhere in the suttas and arranged by number. In DN 28 Inspiring Confidence (Sampasādanīyasutta) he expresses his great faith in the Buddha and cites a long series of passages to display the Buddha’s glory.
A more sophisticated form of compilation is found in DN 22 The Longer Discourse on Mindfulness Meditation (Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta), the most important meditation discourse in 20th century Theravāda. It gives a detailed account of the four kinds of mindfulness meditation. These are taught in brief in many places, but the details are found only here and at the mostly identical MN 10 Mindfulness Meditation (Satipaṭṭhānasutta). Whereas many compilations simply list a series of different teachings, here the text is very systematic, organizing the compiled passages under the four heads. These meditation passages are mostly not found elsewhere in the Dīgha, and were no doubt added to ensure the Dīgha reciters preserved the full range of meditation teachings.
To the already lengthy discourse at MN 10 is added a full exposition on the four noble truths, sourced from MN 141 The Analysis of the Truths (Saccavibhaṅgasutta). In Burmese editions, this extended section later made its way back into the text of MN 10. Since SuttaCentral’s text is a Burmese one, we include this in our Pali, but mark it as an addition.
Unusually for early Buddhist texts, the Dīgha includes several lengthy narratives. Most obviously this includes DN 16 Mahāparinibbānasutta. But it also includes several other narratives.
In common with the discourses of other collections, we often find a simple narrative background that gives context to the teaching. However, in some cases, this is developed in much greater detail as the narratives come to play a more sophisticated literary role than a mere setting.
DN 2 Sāmaññaphala opens with King Ajātasattu of Magadha exclaiming over the beauty of the moonlit night and asking his ministers for advice as to which ascetic teacher he should visit. From the Mahāparinibbānasutta and discourses elsewhere we know that Ajātasattu was a warlike king, so this setting immediately establishes a sense of wonder. The narrative unfolds gracefully, avoiding the excess of ornament so typical of later Indian narratives, and holding the key to its mystery close to its chest. Only at the end of the text do we learn the dreadful secret that plagues the king’s heart. Thus the narrative portions imbue the teachings—on the doctrines of other teachers as contrasted with the Buddha’s Gradual Training—with a tragic pathos.
In addition to backgrounds, we also find narratives that are told as stories in the discourses themselves. These include short parables like the tale of the monk who mistakenly sought among the gods for an answer to his question (DN 11). In DN 23 the monk Kumāra Kassapa debates with the skeptic Pāyāsi, illustrating his arguments with a series of tales alternatively humorous and gruesome. Such parables are found not infrequently elsewhere in the suttas, but in the Dīgha certain stories expand beyond this and approach the stature of myth. This includes some of the texts in the Mahāparinibbānasutta cycle, such as DN 17 Mahāsudassanasutta and DN 14 Mahāpadānasutta.
To forestall a common misunderstanding, in the study of religion, “myth” does not mean “something believed to be true that is actually false”, as it does in popular culture. Rather, a myth is a sacred story. Some sacred stories are true, some are inventions. But this is a matter for historians and is irrelevant to the mythology itself. The purpose of myth is to tell a story that creates meaning for those who participate in it, so they can understand their own lives in the context of the story being expressed.
The Dīgha contains truly mythic texts in DN 26 The Wheel-Turning Monarch (Cakkavattisīhanādasutta) and DN 27 The Origin of the World (Aggaññasutta). These set forth a myth of origins, replacing conventional creation mythology with an evolutionary account of how the world came to be the way it is. In these stories, human choices play a critical role in how the environment evolves, and in how it will all fall apart. The Aggañña depicts anthropogenic climate change quite explicitly, showing how human activity affects the plants, the weather, and the natural ecosystem of which we are a part (see also AN 3.56).
The mythology is essentially cyclic. There is no absolute beginning, just another turning of the wheel. Thus even when the world falls apart and civilization collapses, there will be a new renaissance, far in the future, and ultimately another Buddha will arise. He is named Metteyya (Sanskrit: Maitreya), who in the early texts appears only in DN 26 Cakkavattisīhanāda. He went on to become one of the most important figures in Mahāyāna Buddhism, and many Buddhists even today still await his coming with hope. Yet DN 26 is not taught in order to encourage devotees to dedicate themselves to Metteyya, but to illustrate the impermanence and uncertainty of our lives. The Buddha always taught that we should practice as best we can to understand the Dhamma in this life.
In several instances, episodes mentioned in brief in the Mahāparinibbānasutta have been spun off and expanded to become individual discourses in their own right. Thus the Mahāparinibbānasutta dominates much of the Dīgha, not just through its length and thematic weight, but through its influence and connections with other discourses.
In my view, this cycle of suttas was likely composed by Ānanda and his students, beginning this great literary work with the Mahāparinibbānasutta itself, and gradually branching off into related works. The cycle as a whole shows not only Ānanda’s characteristic personal love and devotion for the Buddha, but also reveals a concern for what is to come, for the fate of the Dhamma in the years after the Buddha’s passing. One distinctive unifying detail of these discourses is that they do not end with the standard phrase saying that the listeners rejoiced in the teachings, but instead finish directly with a teaching or a verse on the subject of impermanence or the long-lasting of the dispensation. Ānanda survived the Buddha for several decades, and his legacy was the establishment of the texts, thus preserving the memory of his beloved Teacher for future generations.
In addition to texts that have a direct literary and narrative connection with the Mahāparinibbānasutta, there is a further series of discourses that share a more indirect or thematic connection.
This does not exhaust the scope of the Mahāparinibbānasutta cycle, for it is not confined to the Dīgha. We have already mentioned that several shorter suttas contain episodes either found in the Mahāparinibbānasutta or related to it. And the story does not end with the Buddha’s death. The Mahāparinibbānasutta tells of the funeral arrangements and events following the Buddha’s passing. In several versions apart from the Pali, this story continues directly into the account of the First Council. This narrative is the 21st chapter of the Vinaya Khandhakas, and indeed the Mahāparinibbānasutta is found in the Vinaya of several schools. It is, in fact, one continuous narrative, and one of the many purposes of the Mahāparinibbānasutta is to authorize the actions of the Saṅgha at the First Council, establishing the fundamental Buddhist scriptures in an organized and definitive manner. The First Council narrative was then extended to the Second Council, which echoes many of the same themes and ideas.
These stories of the end of the Buddha’s life and teaching are also echoed in the first chapter of the Vinaya Khandhakas, which tells the story of the Buddha’s awakening, first teaching, and establishing of his community of followers. These are not just separate episodes in the Buddha’s life. The texts as we have them frequently echo ideas, turns of phrase, events, and people, all of which show that they were edited and composed as a coherent whole. Taken together, they make up a framework of a magnificent mythology: the life and death of the greatest spiritual teacher that the world has ever known.
The Dīgha Nikāya was edited by T.W. Rhys Davids and J.E. Carpenter based on manuscripts in Sinhalese, Burmese, and Thai scripts, and published in three volumes in Latin script by the Pali Text Society from 1890 to 1910.
The first translation followed in 1899–1921 by T.W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davids, and was published under the “Sacred Books of the Buddhists” series under the title Dialogues of the Buddha. This was a milestone in the publication of Buddhist texts, and marked the first occasion a full nikāya was available in English. The translation endeavored to retain something of the literary flavor of the texts and is accompanied by introductory essays and notes that are often useful and sometimes brilliant. But it is far from perfect and contains many errors in both reading and interpretation. Today the insights of Rhys Davids remain valuable especially in the area of history and society.
An updated translation by Maurice Walshe was published by Wisdom Publications in 1987 under the title Thus Have I Heard: The Long Discourses of the Buddha, a title that in later editions was changed to The Long Discourses of the Buddha. The Walshe edition benefited from many decades of study and practice of Dhamma in the west. Avoiding the archaic stylings of the older translations, it remains a clear and approachable translation, with a far more accurate handling of doctrinal terms and passages. But it is far from perfect. It leans heavily on the Rhys Davids translation, and while it corrects many errors, it sometimes repeats errors found in the older translation. Worse, it not infrequently introduces new errors.
In addition, there have been many translations of individual discourses and passages. Of these, the following were especially useful for my work:
I remember with gratitude all those from whom I have learned the Dhamma, especially Ajahn Brahm and Bhikkhu Bodhi, the two monks who more than anyone else showed me the depth, meaning, and practical value of the Suttas.
Special thanks to Dustin and Keiko Cheah and family, who sponsored my stay in Qi Mei while I made this translation.
Thanks also for Blake Walshe, who provided essential software support for my translation work.
Throughout the process of translation, I have frequently sought feedback and suggestions from the SuttaCentral community on our forum, “Discuss and Discover”. I want to thank all those who have made suggestions and contributed to my understanding, as well as to the moderators who have made the forum possible. These translations were significantly improved due to the careful work of my proofreaders: Ayyā Pāsādā, John and Lynn Kelly, and Derek Sola. Special thanks are due to Sabbamittā, a true friend of all, who has tirelessly and precisely checked my work.
Finally my everlasting thanks to all those people, far too many to mention, who have supported SuttaCentral, and those who have supported my life as a monastic. None of this would be possible without you.
So I have heard.1 At one time the Buddha was traveling along the road between Rājagaha and Nāḷandā together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants.2 The wanderer Suppiya was also traveling along the same road, together with his resident pupil, the student Brahmadatta.3 Meanwhile, Suppiya criticized the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha in many ways,4 but his pupil Brahmadatta praised them in many ways.5 And so both tutor and pupil followed behind the Buddha and the Saṅgha of mendicants directly contradicting each other.
Then the Buddha took up residence for the night in the royal rest-house in Ambalaṭṭhikā together with the Saṅgha of mendicants.6 And Suppiya and Brahmadatta did likewise. There too, Suppiya criticized the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha in many ways, but his pupil Brahmadatta praised them in many ways. And so both tutor and pupil kept on directly contradicting each other.
Then several mendicants rose at the crack of dawn and sat together in the pavilion, where the topic of judgmentalism came up:7
“It’s incredible, reverends, it’s amazing how the diverse convictions of sentient beings have been well deciphered by the Blessed One, who knows and sees, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha.8 For this Suppiya criticizes the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha in many ways, while his pupil Brahmadatta praises them in many ways. And so both tutor and pupil followed behind the Buddha and the Saṅgha of mendicants directly contradicting each other.”
When the Buddha found out about this discussion on judgmentalism among the mendicants, he went to the pavilion, where he sat on the seat spread out and addressed the mendicants,9 “Mendicants, what were you sitting talking about just now? What conversation was left unfinished?”10
The mendicants told him what had happened, adding,11 “This was our conversation that was unfinished when the Buddha arrived.”
“Mendicants, if others criticize me, the teaching, or the Saṅgha, don’t make yourselves resentful, bitter, and exasperated.12 You’ll get angry and upset, which would be an obstacle for you alone.13 If others were to criticize me, the teaching, or the Saṅgha, and you got angry and upset, would you be able to understand whether they spoke well or poorly?”14
“No, sir.”
“If others criticize me, the teaching, or the Saṅgha, you should explain that what is untrue is in fact untrue: ‘This is why that’s untrue, this is why that’s false. There’s no such thing in us, it’s not found among us.’
If others praise me, the teaching, or the Saṅgha, don’t make yourselves thrilled, elated, and excited. You’ll get thrilled, elated, and excited, which would be an obstacle for you alone. If others praise me, the teaching, or the Saṅgha, you should acknowledge that what is true is in fact true: ‘This is why that’s true, this is why that’s correct. There is such a thing in us, it is found among us.’
When an ordinary person speaks praise of the Realized One, they speak only of trivial, trifling details of mere ethics.15 And what are the trivial, trifling details of mere ethics that an ordinary person speaks of?16
‘The ascetic Gotama has given up killing living creatures. He has renounced the rod and the sword. He’s scrupulous and kind, living full of sympathy for all living beings.’17 Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.18
‘The ascetic Gotama has given up stealing. He takes only what’s given, and expects only what’s given. He keeps himself clean by not thieving.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘The ascetic Gotama has given up unchastity. He is chaste, set apart, avoiding the vulgar act of sex.’19 Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘The ascetic Gotama has given up lying. He speaks the truth and sticks to the truth. He’s honest and dependable, and doesn’t trick the world with his words.’20 Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘The ascetic Gotama has given up divisive speech. He doesn’t repeat in one place what he heard in another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, he reconciles those who are divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote harmony.’21 Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘The ascetic Gotama has given up harsh speech. He speaks in a way that’s mellow, pleasing to the ear, lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘The ascetic Gotama has given up talking nonsense. His words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. He says things at the right time which are valuable, reasonable, succinct, and beneficial.’22 Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘The ascetic Gotama refrains from injuring plants and seeds.’23
‘He eats in one part of the day, abstaining from eating at night and food at the wrong time.’24
‘He refrains from seeing shows of dancing, singing, and music .’25
‘He refrains from attiring and adorning himself with garlands, fragrance, and makeup.’26
‘He refrains from high and luxurious beds.’27
‘He refrains from receiving gold and currency,28 raw grains,29 raw meat, women and girls, male and female bondservants,30 goats and sheep,31 chickens and pigs, elephants, cows, horses, and mares, and fields and land.’32
‘He refrains from running errands and messages;33 buying and selling;34 falsifying weights, metals, or measures; bribery, fraud, cheating, and duplicity; mutilation, murder, abduction, banditry, plunder, and violence.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
The shorter section on ethics is finished.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in injuring plants and seeds.35 These include plants propagated from roots, stems, cuttings, or joints; and those from regular seeds as the fifth.36 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such injury to plants and seeds.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in storing up goods for their own use.37 This includes such things as food, drink, clothes, vehicles, bedding, fragrance, and things of the flesh. The ascetic Gotama refrains from storing up such goods.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in seeing shows. This includes such things as dancing, singing, music, performances, and storytelling; clapping, gongs, and kettledrums; beauty pageants; pole-acrobatics and bone-washing displays of the corpse-workers; battles of elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, goats, rams, chickens, and quails; staff-fights, boxing, and wrestling; combat, roll calls of the armed forces, battle-formations, and regimental reviews.38 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such shows.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in gambling that causes negligence.39 This includes such things as checkers with eight or ten rows, checkers in the air, hopscotch, spillikins, board-games, tip-cat, drawing straws, dice, leaf-flutes, toy plows, somersaults, pinwheels, toy measures, toy carts, toy bows, guessing words from syllables, guessing another’s thoughts, and imitating musical instruments.40 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such gambling.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still make use of high and luxurious bedding. This includes such things as sofas, couches, woolen covers—shag-piled, colorful, white, embroidered with flowers, quilted, embroidered with animals, double- or single-fringed—and silk covers studded with gems, as well as silken sheets, woven carpets, rugs for elephants, horses, or chariots, antelope hide rugs, and spreads of fine deer hide, with a canopy above and red cushions at both ends. The ascetic Gotama refrains from such bedding.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in attiring and adorning themselves with garlands, fragrance, and makeup. This includes such things as applying beauty products by anointing, massaging, bathing, and rubbing; mirrors, ointments, garlands, fragrances, and makeup; face-powder, foundation, bracelets, headbands, fancy walking-sticks or containers, rapiers, parasols, fancy sandals, turbans, jewelry, chowries, and long-fringed white robes. The ascetic Gotama refrains from such beautification and adornment.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in low talk. This includes such topics as41 talk about kings, bandits, and ministers; talk about armies, threats, and wars; talk about food, drink, clothes, and beds; talk about garlands and fragrances; talk about family, vehicles, villages, towns, cities, and countries; talk about women and heroes; street talk and well talk; talk about the departed; motley talk; tales of land and sea; and talk about being reborn in this or that place.42 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low talk.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in arguments. They say such things as: “You don’t understand this teaching and training. I understand this teaching and training. What, you understand this teaching and training? You’re practicing wrong. I’m practicing right. I stay on topic, you don’t. You said last what you should have said first. You said first what you should have said last. What you’ve thought so much about has been disproved. Your doctrine is refuted. Go on, save your doctrine! You’re trapped; get yourself out of this—if you can!”43 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such argumentative talk.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in running errands and messages. This includes running errands for rulers, ministers, aristocrats, brahmins, householders, or princes who say: “Go here, go there. Take this, bring that from there.”44 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such errands.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in deceit, flattery, hinting, and belittling, and using material things to chase after other material things.45 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such deceit and flattery.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
The middle section on ethics is finished.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood.46 This includes such fields as limb-reading, omenology, divining celestial portents, interpreting dreams, divining bodily marks, divining holes in cloth gnawed by mice, fire offerings, ladle offerings, offerings of husks, rice powder, rice, ghee, or oil; offerings from the mouth, blood sacrifices, palmistry; geomancy for building sites, fields, and cemeteries; exorcisms, earth magic, snake charming, poisons; the lore of the scorpion, the rat, the bird, and the crow; prophesying lifespan, chanting for protection, and divining omens from wild animals.47 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low lore, such wrong livelihood.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes reading the marks of gems, cloth, clubs, swords, spears, arrows, bows, weapons, women, men, boys, girls, male and female bondservants, elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, cows, goats, rams, chickens, quails, monitor lizards, rabbits, tortoises, or deer.48 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low lore, such wrong livelihood.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes making predictions that the king will march forth or march back; or that our king will attack and the enemy king will retreat, or vice versa; or that our king will triumph and the enemy king will be defeated, or vice versa; and so there will be victory for one and defeat for the other. The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low lore, such wrong livelihood.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes making predictions that there will be an eclipse of the moon, or sun, or stars; that the sun, moon, and stars will be in conjunction or in opposition; that there will be a meteor shower, a fiery sky, an earthquake, or thunder in the heavens; that there will be a rising, a setting, a darkening, a brightening of the moon, sun, and stars. And it also includes making predictions about the results of all such phenomena.49 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low lore, such wrong livelihood.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes predicting whether there will be plenty of rain or drought; plenty to eat or famine; an abundant harvest or a bad harvest; security or peril; sickness or health. It also includes such occupations as arithmetic, accounting, calculating, poetry, and cosmology.50 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low lore, such wrong livelihood.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes making arrangements for giving and taking in marriage; for engagement and divorce; and for scattering rice inwards or outwards at the wedding ceremony. It also includes casting spells for good or bad luck, treating impacted fetuses, binding the tongue, or locking the jaws; charms for the hands and ears; questioning a mirror, a girl, or a god as an oracle; worshiping the sun, worshiping the Great One, breathing fire, and invoking Siri, the goddess of luck.51 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low lore, such wrong livelihood.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
‘There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes rites for propitiation, for granting wishes, for ghosts, for the earth, for rain, for property settlement, and for preparing and consecrating house sites, and rites involving rinsing and bathing, and oblations. It also includes administering emetics, purgatives, expectorants, and phlegmagogues; administering ear-oils, eye restoratives, nasal medicine, ointments, and counter-ointments; surgery with needle and scalpel, treating children, prescribing root medicines, and herbal bandages.52 The ascetic Gotama refrains from such low lore, such wrong livelihood.’ Such is an ordinary person’s praise of the Realized One.
These are the trivial, trifling details of mere ethics that an ordinary person speaks of when they speak praise of the Realized One.
The longer section on ethics is finished.
There are other principles—deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute—which the Realized One makes known after realizing them with his own insight. Those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.53 And what are these principles?
There are some ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the past, and assert various hypotheses concerning the past on eighteen grounds. And what are the eighteen grounds on which they rely?
There are some ascetics and brahmins who are eternalists, who assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal on four grounds.54 And what are the four grounds on which they rely?
It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect their many kinds of past lives.55 That is: one, two, three, four, five, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand rebirths. They remember: ‘There, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn somewhere else. There, too, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn here.’ And so they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details.56
They say: ‘The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar.57 They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.58 Why is that? Because by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind I experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that I recollect my many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
Because of this I know:59
“The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.”’ This is the first ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal.
And what is the second ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect their many kinds of past lives. That is: one eon of the cosmos contracting and expanding; two, three, four, five, or ten eons of the cosmos contracting and expanding. They remember: ‘There, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn somewhere else. There, too, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn here.’ And so they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details.60
They say: ‘The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise. Why is that? Because by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind I experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that I recollect my many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
Because of this I know:
“The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.”’ This is the second ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal.
And what is the third ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect their many kinds of past lives. That is: ten eons of the cosmos contracting and expanding; twenty, thirty, or forty eons of the cosmos contracting and expanding. They remember: ‘There, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn somewhere else. There, too, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn here.’ And so they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
They say: ‘The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise. Why is that? Because by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind I experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that I recollect my many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
Because of this I know:
“The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.”’ This is the third ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal.
And what is the fourth ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin relies on logic and inquiry. They speak of what they have worked out by logic, following a line of inquiry, expressing their own perspective:61 ‘The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.’ This is the fourth ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal.
These are the four grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal do so on one or other of these four grounds. Outside of this there is none.62
The Realized One understands this: ‘If you hold on to and attach to these grounds for views it leads to such and such a destiny in the next life.’63 He understands this, and what goes beyond this. And since he does not misapprehend that understanding, he has realized quenching within himself.64 Having truly understood the origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape from feelings, the Realized One is freed through not grasping.65
These are the principles—deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute—which the Realized One makes known after realizing them with his own insight. And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
The first recitation section.66
There are some ascetics and brahmins who are partial eternalists, who assert that the self and the cosmos are partially eternal and partially not eternal on four grounds.67 And what are the four grounds on which they rely?
There comes a time when, after a very long period has passed, this cosmos contracts.68 As the cosmos contracts, sentient beings are mostly headed for the realm of streaming radiance.69 There they are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.70
There comes a time when, after a very long period has passed, this cosmos expands.71 As it expands an empty mansion of divinity appears.72 Then a certain sentient being—due to the running out of their lifespan or merit—passes away from that host of radiant deities and is reborn in that empty mansion of divinity.73 There they are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.
But after staying there all alone for a long time, they become dissatisfied and anxious:74 ‘Oh, if only other beings would come to this place.’ Then other sentient beings—due to the running out of their lifespan or merit—pass away from that host of radiant deities and are reborn in that mansion of divinity in company with that being.75 There they too are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.
Now, the being who was reborn there first thinks: ‘I am the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born.76 These beings were created by me!77 Why is that? Because first I thought:
“Oh, if only other beings would come to this place.” Such was my heart’s wish, and then these creatures came to this place.’78
And the beings who were reborn there later also think: ‘This must be the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. And we were created by him. Why is that? Because we see that he was reborn here first, and we arrived later.’79
And the being who was reborn first is more long-lived, beautiful, and illustrious than those who arrived later.
It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect that past life, but no further.80
They say: ‘He who is the Divinity—the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born—by he we were created. He is permanent, everlasting, eternal, imperishable, remaining the same for all eternity. We who were created by that Divinity are impermanent, not lasting, short-lived, liable to pass away, and have come to this place.’81 This is the first ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are partially eternal.
And what is the second ground on which they rely? There are gods named ‘depraved by play.’ They spend too much time laughing, playing, and making merry. And in doing so, they lose their mindfulness, and they pass away from that host of gods.82
It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect that past life, but no further.
They say: ‘The gods not depraved by play don’t spend too much time laughing, playing, and making merry. So they don’t lose their mindfulness, and don’t pass away from that host of gods. They are permanent, everlasting, eternal, imperishable, remaining the same for all eternity. But we who were depraved by play spent too much time laughing, playing, and making merry. In doing so, we lost our mindfulness, and passed away from that host of gods. We are impermanent, not lasting, short-lived, liable to pass away, and have come to this place.’83 This is the second ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are partially eternal.
And what is the third ground on which they rely? There are gods named ‘malevolent’. They spend too much time gazing at each other, so they grow angry with each other, and their bodies and minds get tired. They pass away from that host of gods.84
It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect that past life, but no further.
They say: ‘The gods who are not malevolent don’t spend too much time gazing at each other, so they don’t grow angry with each other, their bodies and minds don’t get tired, and they don’t pass away from that host of gods. They are permanent, everlasting, eternal, imperishable, remaining the same for all eternity. But we who were malevolent spent too much time gazing at each other, we grew angry with each other, our bodies and minds got tired, and we passed away from that host of gods. We are impermanent, not lasting, short-lived, liable to pass away, and have come to this place.’ This is the third ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are partially eternal.
And what is the fourth ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin relies on logic and inquiry. They speak of what they have worked out by logic, following a line of inquiry, expressing their own perspective: ‘That which is called “the eye”, “the ear”, “the nose”, “the tongue”, and also “the body”: that self is impermanent, not lasting, transient, perishable.85 That which is called “mind” or “sentience” or “consciousness”: that self is permanent, everlasting, eternal, imperishable, remaining the same for all eternity.’86 This is the fourth ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos are partially eternal.
These are the four grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert that the self and the cosmos are partially eternal and partially not eternal. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert that the self and the cosmos are partially eternal and partially not eternal do so on one or other of these four grounds. Outside of this there is none.
The Realized One understands this: ‘If you hold on to and attach to these grounds for views it leads to such and such a destiny in the next life.’ He understands this, and what goes beyond this. And since he does not misapprehend that understanding, he has realized quenching within himself. Having truly understood the origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape from feelings, the Realized One is freed through not grasping.
These are the principles—deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute—which the Realized One makes known after realizing them with his own insight. And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who theorize about size, and assert that the cosmos is finite or infinite on four grounds.87 And what are the four grounds on which they rely?
It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they meditate perceiving the cosmos as finite.88
They say: ‘The cosmos is finite and bounded. Why is that? Because by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind I experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that I meditate perceiving the cosmos as finite.89 Because of this I know:
“The cosmos is finite and bounded.”’ This is the first ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the cosmos is finite or infinite.
And what is the second ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they meditate perceiving the cosmos as infinite.90
They say: ‘The cosmos is infinite and unbounded. The ascetics and brahmins who say that the cosmos is finite are wrong.91 The cosmos is infinite and unbounded. Why is that? Because by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind I experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that I meditate perceiving the cosmos as infinite. Because of this I know:
“The cosmos is infinite and unbounded.”’ This is the second ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the cosmos is finite or infinite.
And what is the third ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they meditate perceiving the cosmos as finite vertically but infinite horizontally.92
They say: ‘The cosmos is both finite and infinite. The ascetics and brahmins who say that the cosmos is finite are wrong, and so are those who say that the cosmos is infinite. The cosmos is both finite and infinite. Why is that? Because by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind I experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that I meditate perceiving the cosmos as finite vertically but infinite horizontally. Because of this I know:
“The cosmos is both finite and infinite.”’ This is the third ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the cosmos is finite or infinite.
And what is the fourth ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin relies on logic and inquiry. They speak of what they have worked out by logic, following a line of inquiry, expressing their own perspective: ‘The cosmos is neither finite nor infinite.93 The ascetics and brahmins who say that the cosmos is finite are wrong, as are those who say that the cosmos is infinite, and also those who say that the cosmos is both finite and infinite. The cosmos is neither finite nor infinite.’ This is the fourth ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the cosmos is finite or infinite.
These are the four grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert that the cosmos is finite or infinite. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert that the cosmos is finite or infinite do so on one or other of these four grounds. Outside of this there is none.
The Realized One understands this: ‘If you hold on to and attach to these grounds for views it leads to such and such a destiny in the next life.’ He understands this, and what goes beyond this. And since he does not misapprehend that understanding, he has realized quenching within himself. Having truly understood the origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape from feelings, the Realized One is freed through not grasping.
These are the principles—deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute—which the Realized One makes known after realizing them with his own insight. And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who are endless flip-floppers. Whenever they’re asked a question, they resort to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops on four grounds.94 And what are the four grounds on which they rely?
It’s when some ascetic or brahmin doesn’t truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful.95 They think: ‘I don’t truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful. If I were to declare that something was skillful or unskillful I might be wrong. That would be stressful for me, and that stress would be an obstacle.’ So from fear and disgust with false speech they avoid stating whether something is skillful or unskillful. Whenever they’re asked a question, they resort to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops:96 ‘I don’t say it’s like this. I don’t say it’s like that. I don’t say it’s otherwise. I don’t say it’s not so. And I don’t deny it’s not so.’97 This is the first ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely when resorting to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops.
And what is the second ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin doesn’t truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful. They think: ‘I don’t truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful. If I were to declare that something was skillful or unskillful I might feel desire or greed or hate or repulsion.98 That would be grasping on my part. That would be stressful for me, and that stress would be an obstacle.’ So from fear and disgust with grasping they avoid stating whether something is skillful or unskillful. Whenever they’re asked a question, they resort to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops: ‘I don’t say it’s like this. I don’t say it’s like that. I don’t say it’s otherwise. I don’t say it’s not so. And I don’t deny it’s not so.’ This is the second ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely when resorting to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops.
And what is the third ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin doesn’t truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful. They think: ‘I don’t truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful. Suppose I were to declare that something was skillful or unskillful. There are clever ascetics and brahmins who are subtle, accomplished in the doctrines of others, hair-splitters. You’d think they live to demolish convictions with their intellect.99 They might pursue, press, and grill me about that. I’d be stumped by such a grilling. That would be stressful for me, and that stress would be an obstacle.’ So from fear and disgust with examination they avoid stating whether something is skillful or unskillful. Whenever they’re asked a question, they resort to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops: ‘I don’t say it’s like this. I don’t say it’s like that. I don’t say it’s otherwise. I don’t say it’s not so. And I don’t deny it’s not so.’ This is the third ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely when resorting to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops.
And what is the fourth ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin is dull and stupid.100 Because of that, whenever they’re asked a question, they resort to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops: ‘Suppose you were to ask me whether there is another world. If I believed that to be the case, I would say so.101 But I don’t say it’s like this. I don’t say it’s like that. I don’t say it’s otherwise. I don’t say it’s not so. And I don’t deny it’s not so. Suppose you were to ask me whether there is no other world …102 whether there both is and is not another world …103 whether there neither is nor is not another world …104 whether there are beings who are reborn spontaneously …105 whether there are not beings who are reborn spontaneously …106 whether there both are and are not beings who are reborn spontaneously …107 whether there neither are nor are not beings who are reborn spontaneously …108 whether there is fruit and result of good and bad deeds …109 whether there is no fruit and result of good and bad deeds …110 whether there both is and is not fruit and result of good and bad deeds …111 whether there neither is nor is not fruit and result of good and bad deeds …112 whether a realized one still exists after death …113 whether a realized one no longer exists after death …114 whether a realized one both still exists and no longer exists after death …115 whether a realized one neither exists nor doesn’t exist after death. If I believed that to be the case, I would say so.116 But I don’t say it’s like this. I don’t say it’s like that. I don’t say it’s otherwise. I don’t say it’s not so. And I don’t deny it’s not so.’ This is the fourth ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely when resorting to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops.
These are the four grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins who are flip-floppers resort to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops whenever they’re asked a question. Any ascetics and brahmins who resort to verbal flip-flops and endless flip-flops do so on one or other of these four grounds. Outside of this there is none. The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who theorize about anomalous origination. They assert that the self and the cosmos arose anomalously on two grounds.117 And what are the two grounds on which they rely?
There are gods named ‘non-percipient beings’.118 When perception arises they pass away from that host of gods. It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect the arising of perception, but no further. They say: ‘The self and the cosmos arose anomalously. Why is that? Because formerly I didn’t exist, whereas now, having not existed, I’ve transformed into the state of existing.”119 This is the first ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos arose anomalously.
And what is the second ground on which they rely? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin relies on logic and inquiry. They speak of what they have worked out by logic, following a line of inquiry, expressing their own perspective: ‘The self and the cosmos arose anomalously.’ This is the second ground on which some ascetics and brahmins rely to assert that the self and the cosmos arose anomalously.
These are the two grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins who theorize about anomalous origination assert that the self and the cosmos arose anomalously. Any ascetics and brahmins who theorize about anomalous origination do so on one or other of these two grounds. Outside of this there is none. The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
These are the eighteen grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the past assert various hypotheses concerning the past.120 Any ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the past do so on one or other of these eighteen grounds. Outside of this there is none.
The Realized One understands this: ‘If you hold on to and attach to these grounds for views it leads to such and such a destiny in the next life.’ He understands this, and what goes beyond this. And since he does not misapprehend that understanding, he has realized quenching within himself. Having truly understood the origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape from feelings, the Realized One is freed through not grasping.
These are the principles—deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute—which the Realized One makes known after realizing them with his own insight. And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
The second recitation section.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the future, and assert various hypotheses concerning the future on forty-four grounds.121 And what are the forty-four grounds on which they rely?
There are some ascetics and brahmins who say there is life after death, and assert that the self lives on after death in a percipient form on sixteen grounds. And what are the sixteen grounds on which they rely?
They assert: ‘The self is healthy and percipient after death, and it is formed …122
formless …
both formed and formless …
neither formed nor formless …
finite …
infinite …
both finite and infinite …
neither finite nor infinite …
of unified perception …
of diverse perception …
of limited perception …
of limitless perception …
experiences nothing but happiness …
experiences nothing but suffering …
experiences both happiness and suffering …
experiences neither happiness nor suffering.’
These are the sixteen grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert that the self lives on after death in a percipient form. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert that the self lives on after death in a percipient form do so on one or other of these sixteen grounds. Outside of this there is none. The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who say there is life after death, and assert that the self lives on after death in a non-percipient form on eight grounds. And what are the eight grounds on which they rely?
They assert: ‘The self is healthy and non-percipient after death, and it is formed …123
formless …
both formed and formless …
neither formed nor formless …
finite …
infinite …
both finite and infinite …
neither finite nor infinite.’
These are the eight grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert that the self lives on after death in a non-percipient form. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert that the self lives on after death in a non-percipient form do so on one or other of these eight grounds. Outside of this there is none. The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who say there is life after death, and assert that the self lives on after death in a neither percipient nor non-percipient form on eight grounds.124 And what are the eight grounds on which they rely?
They assert: ‘The self is healthy and neither percipient nor non-percipient after death, and it is formed …
formless …
both formed and formless …
neither formed nor formless …
finite …
infinite …
both finite and infinite …
neither finite nor infinite.’
These are the eight grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert that the self lives on after death in a neither percipient nor non-percipient form. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert that the self lives on after death in a neither percipient nor non-percipient form do so on one or other of these eight grounds. Outside of this there is none. The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who are annihilationists. They assert the annihilation, eradication, and obliteration of an existing being on seven grounds.125 And what are the seven grounds on which they rely?
There are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: ‘This self is formed, made up of the four principal states, and produced by mother and father. Since it’s annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death, that’s how this self becomes rightly annihilated.’126 That is how some assert the annihilation of an existing being.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it.127 But that’s not how this self becomes rightly annihilated. There is another self that is heavenly, formed, sensual, consuming edible food.128 You don’t know or see that. But I know it and see it. Since this self is annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death, that’s how this self becomes rightly annihilated.’129 That is how some assert the annihilation of an existing being.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self becomes rightly annihilated. There is another self that is heavenly, formed, mind-made, whole in its major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty.130 You don’t know or see that. But I know it and see it. Since this self is annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death, that’s how this self becomes rightly annihilated.’ That is how some assert the annihilation of an existing being.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self becomes rightly annihilated. There is another self which has gone totally beyond perceptions of form. With the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that “space is infinite”, it’s reborn in the dimension of infinite space.131 You don’t know or see that. But I know it and see it. Since this self is annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death, that’s how this self becomes rightly annihilated.’132 That is how some assert the annihilation of an existing being.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self becomes rightly annihilated. There is another self which has gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite space. Aware that “consciousness is infinite”, it’s reborn in the dimension of infinite consciousness. You don’t know or see that. But I know it and see it. Since this self is annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death, that’s how this self becomes rightly annihilated.’ That is how some assert the annihilation of an existing being.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self becomes rightly annihilated. There is another self that has gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness. Aware that “there is nothing at all”, it’s been reborn in the dimension of nothingness. You don’t know or see that. But I know it and see it. Since this self is annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death, that’s how this self becomes rightly annihilated.’ That is how some assert the annihilation of an existing being.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self becomes rightly annihilated. There is another self that has gone totally beyond the dimension of nothingness. Aware that “this is peaceful, this is sublime”, it’s been reborn in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.133 You don’t know or see that. But I know it and see it. Since this self is annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death, that’s how this self becomes rightly annihilated.’ That is how some assert the annihilation of an existing being.
These are the seven grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert the annihilation, eradication, and obliteration of an existing being. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert the annihilation, eradication, and obliteration of an existing being do so on one or other of these seven grounds. Outside of this there is none. The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who speak of extinguishment in this life. They assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life on five grounds.134 And what are the five grounds on which they rely?
There are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: ‘When this self amuses itself, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation, that’s how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life.’135 That is how some assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life. Why is that? Because sensual pleasures are impermanent, suffering, and perishable. Their decay and perishing give rise to sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress.136 Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, this self enters and remains in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. That’s how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life.’137 That is how some assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life.138 Why is that? Because the placing of the mind and the keeping it connected there are coarse.139 But when the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, this self enters and remains in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. That’s how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life.’ That is how some assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life. Why is that? Because the rapture and emotional elation there are coarse. But with the fading away of rapture, this self enters and remains in the third absorption, where it meditates with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, “Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss”. That’s how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life.’ That is how some assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life.
But someone else says to them: ‘That self of which you speak does exist, I don’t deny it. But that’s not how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life. Why is that? Because the mental partaking of that as ‘blissful’ is said to be coarse.140 But with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, this self enters and remains in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. That’s how this self attains ultimate extinguishment in this life.’ That is how some assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life.
These are the five grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life. Any ascetics and brahmins who assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life do so on one or other of these five grounds. Outside of this there is none.141 The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
These are the forty-four grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the future assert various hypotheses concerning the future. Any ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the future do so on one or other of these forty-four grounds. Outside of this there is none. The Realized One understands this … And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
These are the sixty-two grounds on which those ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the past and the future assert various hypotheses concerning the past and the future.
Any ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the past or the future do so on one or other of these sixty-two grounds. Outside of this there is none.
The Realized One understands this: ‘If you hold on to and attach to these grounds for views it leads to such and such a destiny in the next life.’142 He understands this, and what goes beyond this. And since he does not misapprehend that understanding, he has realized quenching within himself. Having truly understood the origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape from feelings, the Realized One is freed through not grasping.
These are the principles—deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute—which the Realized One makes known after realizing them with his own insight. And those who genuinely praise the Realized One would rightly speak of these things.
Now, these things are only the feeling of those who do not know or see, the anxiety and evasiveness of those under the sway of craving. Namely, when those ascetics and brahmins assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal on four grounds …143
partially eternal on four grounds …
finite or infinite on four grounds …
or they resort to flip-flops on four grounds …
or they assert that the self and the cosmos arose anomalously on two grounds …
they theorize about the past on these eighteen grounds …
or they assert that the self lives on after death in a percipient form on sixteen grounds …
or that the self lives on after death in a non-percipient form on eight grounds …
or that the self lives on after death in a neither percipient nor non-percipient form on eight grounds …
or they assert the annihilation of an existing being on seven grounds …
or they assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life on five grounds …
they theorize about the future on these forty-four grounds …
When those ascetics and brahmins theorize about the past and the future on these sixty-two grounds, these things are only the feeling of those who do not know or see, the anxiety and evasiveness of those under the sway of craving.
Now, these things are dependent on contact. Namely, when those ascetics and brahmins assert that the self and the cosmos are eternal on four grounds …144
partially eternal on four grounds …
finite or infinite on four grounds …
or they resort to flip-flops on four grounds …
or they assert that the self and the cosmos arose anomalously on two grounds …
they theorize about the past on these eighteen grounds …
or they assert that the self lives on after death in a percipient form on sixteen grounds …
or that the self lives on after death in a non-percipient form on eight grounds …
or that the self lives on after death in a neither percipient nor non-percipient form on eight grounds …
or they assert the annihilation of an existing being on seven grounds …
or they assert ultimate extinguishment for an existing being in this life on five grounds …
they theorize about the future on these forty-four grounds …
When those ascetics and brahmins theorize about the past and the future on these sixty-two grounds, that too is dependent on contact.
Now, when those ascetics and brahmins theorize about the past and the future on these sixty-two grounds, it is not possible that they should experience these things without contact.145
Now, when those ascetics and brahmins theorize about the past and the future on these sixty-two grounds, all of them experience this by repeated contact through the six fields of contact. Their feeling is a requirement for craving. Craving is a requirement for grasping. Grasping is a requirement for continued existence. Continued existence is a requirement for rebirth. Rebirth is a requirement for old age and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress to come to be.146
When a mendicant truly understands the six fields of contact’s origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape, they understand what lies beyond all these things.147
All of these ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the past or the future are trapped in the net of these sixty-two grounds, so that wherever they emerge they are caught and trapped in this very net.148
Suppose a deft fisherman or his apprentice were to cast a fine-meshed net over a small pond. They’d think: ‘Any sizable creatures in this pond will be trapped in the net. Wherever they emerge they are caught and trapped in this very net.’149 In the same way, all of these ascetics and brahmins who theorize about the past or the future are trapped in the net of these sixty-two grounds, so that wherever they emerge they are caught and trapped in this very net.
The Realized One’s body remains, but his conduit to rebirth has been cut off.150 As long as his body remains he will be seen by gods and humans. But when his body breaks up, after life has ended, gods and humans will see him no more.
When the stalk of a bunch of mangoes is cut, all the mangoes attached to the stalk will follow along.151 In the same way, the Realized One’s body remains, but his conduit to rebirth has been cut off. As long as his body remains he will be seen by gods and humans. But when his body breaks up, after life has ended, gods and humans will see him no more.”
When he had spoken, Venerable Ānanda said to the Buddha, “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing! What is the name of this exposition of the teaching?”
“Well then, Ānanda, you may remember this exposition of the teaching as ‘The Net of Meaning’, or else ‘The Net of the Teaching’, or else ‘The Divine Net’, or else ‘The Net of Views’, or else ‘The Supreme Victory in Battle’.”152
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what the Buddha said. And while this discourse was being spoken, the ten-thousandfold galaxy shook.
So I have heard.153 At one time the Buddha was staying near Rājagaha in the Mango Grove of Jīvaka Komārabhacca, together with a large Saṅgha of 1,250 mendicants.154
Now, at that time it was the sabbath—the Komudī full moon on the fifteenth day of the fourth month—and King Ajātasattu of Magadha, son of the princess of Videha, was sitting upstairs in the royal longhouse surrounded by his ministers.155
Then Ajātasattu of Magadha, son of the princess of Videha, expressed this heartfelt sentiment,156 “Oh, sirs, this moonlit night is so very delightful, so beautiful, so glorious, so lovely, so striking.157 Now, what ascetic or brahmin might I pay homage to today, paying homage to whom my mind might find peace?”158
When he had spoken, one of the king’s ministers said to him,159 “Sire, Pūraṇa Kassapa leads an order and a community, and tutors a community. He’s a well-known and famous religious founder, deemed holy by many people. He is of long standing, long gone forth; he is advanced in years and has reached the final stage of life.160 Let Your Majesty pay homage to him. Hopefully in so doing your mind will find peace.” But when he had spoken, the king kept silent.161
Another of the king’s ministers said to him, “Sire, the bamboo-staffed ascetic Gosāla leads an order and a community, and tutors a community. He’s a well-known and famous religious founder, deemed holy by many people. He is of long standing, long gone forth; he is advanced in years and has reached the final stage of life.162 Let Your Majesty pay homage to him. Hopefully in so doing your mind will find peace.” But when he had spoken, the king kept silent.
Another of the king’s ministers said to him, “Sire, Ajita of the hair blanket leads an order and a community, and tutors a community. He’s a well-known and famous religious founder, deemed holy by many people. He is of long standing, long gone forth; he is advanced in years and has reached the final stage of life.163 Let Your Majesty pay homage to him. Hopefully in so doing your mind will find peace.” But when he had spoken, the king kept silent.
Another of the king’s ministers said to him, “Sire, Pakudha Kaccāyana leads an order and a community, and tutors a community. He’s a well-known and famous religious founder, deemed holy by many people. He is of long standing, long gone forth; he is advanced in years and has reached the final stage of life.164 Let Your Majesty pay homage to him. Hopefully in so doing your mind will find peace.” But when he had spoken, the king kept silent.
Another of the king’s ministers said to him, “Sire, Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta leads an order and a community, and tutors a community. He’s a well-known and famous religious founder, deemed holy by many people. He is of long standing, long gone forth; he is advanced in years and has reached the final stage of life.165 Let Your Majesty pay homage to him. Hopefully in so doing your mind will find peace.” But when he had spoken, the king kept silent.
Another of the king’s ministers said to him, “Sire, the Jain ascetic of the Ñātika clan leads an order and a community, and tutors a community. He’s a well-known and famous religious founder, deemed holy by many people. He is of long standing, long gone forth; he is advanced in years and has reached the final stage of life.166 Let Your Majesty pay homage to him. Hopefully in so doing your mind will find peace.” But when he had spoken, the king kept silent.
Now at that time Jīvaka Komārabhacca was sitting silently not far from the king.167 Then the king said to him, “But my dear Jīvaka, why are you silent?”
“Sire, the Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha is staying in my mango grove together with a large Saṅgha of 1,250 mendicants.168 He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’169 Let Your Majesty pay homage to him. Hopefully in so doing your mind will find peace.”
“Well then, my dear Jīvaka, have the elephants readied.”
“Yes, Your Majesty,” replied Jīvaka. He had around five hundred female elephants readied, in addition to the king’s bull elephant for riding. Then he informed the king, “The elephants are ready, sire. Please go at your convenience.”
Then King Ajātasattu had women mounted on each of the five hundred female elephants, while he mounted his bull elephant. With attendants carrying torches, he set out in full royal pomp from Rājagaha to Jīvaka’s mango grove.170
But as he drew near the mango grove, the king became frightened, scared, his hair standing on end. He said to Jīvaka, “My dear Jīvaka, I hope you’re not deceiving me! I hope you’re not betraying me! I hope you’re not turning me over to my enemies! For how on earth can there be no sound of coughing or clearing throats or any noise in such a large Saṅgha of 1,250 mendicants?”171
“Do not fear, great king, do not fear! I am not deceiving you, or betraying you, or turning you over to your enemies. Go forward, great king, go forward! Those are lamps shining in the pavilion.”172
Then King Ajātasattu rode on the elephant as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and approached the pavilion door on foot, where he asked Jīvaka, “But my dear Jīvaka, where is the Buddha?”173
“That is the Buddha, great king, that is the Buddha! He’s sitting against the central column facing east, in front of the Saṅgha of mendicants.”
Then the king went up to the Buddha and stood to one side.174 He looked around the Saṅgha of mendicants, who were so very silent, like a still, clear lake, and expressed this heartfelt sentiment, “May my son, Prince Udāyibhadda, be blessed with such peace as the Saṅgha of mendicants now enjoys!”
“Has your mind gone to one you love, great king?”175
“I love my son, sir, Prince Udāyibhadda. May he be blessed with such peace as the Saṅgha of mendicants now enjoys!”
Then the king bowed to the Buddha, raised his joined palms toward the Saṅgha, and sat down to one side. He said to the Buddha, “Sir, I’d like to ask you about a certain point, if you’d take the time to answer.”
“Ask what you wish, great king.”
“Sir, there are many different professional fields.176 These include elephant riders, cavalry, charioteers, archers, bannermen, adjutants, food servers, warrior-chiefs, princes, chargers, great warriors, heroes, leather-clad soldiers, and sons of bondservants.177 They also include bakers, barbers, bathroom attendants, cooks, garland-makers, dyers, embroiderers, basket-makers, potters, accountants, finger-talliers, or those following any similar professions. All these live off the fruits of their profession which are apparent in this very life.178 With that they make themselves happy and pleased. They make their parents, their children and partners, and their friends and colleagues happy and pleased. And they establish an uplifting religious donation for ascetics and brahmins that’s conducive to heaven, ripens in happiness, and leads to heaven.179 Sir, can you point out a fruit of the ascetic life that’s likewise apparent in this very life?”180
“Great king, do you recall having asked this question of other ascetics and brahmins?”181
“I do, sir.”
“If you wouldn’t mind, great king, tell me how they answered.”182
“It’s no trouble when someone such as the Blessed One is sitting here.”
“Well, speak then, great king.”
“This one time, sir, I approached Pūraṇa Kassapa and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, I sat down to one side, and asked him the same question.183
He said to me: ‘Great king, the one who acts does nothing wrong when they punish, mutilate, torture, aggrieve, oppress, intimidate, or when they encourage others to do the same. They do nothing wrong when they kill, steal, break into houses, plunder wealth, steal from isolated buildings, commit highway robbery, commit adultery, and lie. If you were to reduce all the living creatures of this earth to one heap and mass of flesh with a razor-edged chakram, no evil comes of that, and no outcome of evil.184 If you were to go along the south bank of the Ganges killing, mutilating, and torturing, and encouraging others to do the same, no evil comes of that, and no outcome of evil. If you were to go along the north bank of the Ganges giving and sacrificing and encouraging others to do the same, no merit comes of that, and no outcome of merit. In giving, self-control, restraint, and truthfulness there is no merit or outcome of merit.’
And so, when I asked Pūraṇa Kassapa about the fruits of the ascetic life apparent in the present life, he answered with the doctrine of inaction.185 It was like someone who, when asked about a mango, answered with a breadfruit, or when asked about a breadfruit, answered with a mango.186 I thought: ‘How could one such as I presume to rebuke an ascetic or brahmin living in my realm?’187 So I neither approved nor dismissed that statement of Pūraṇa Kassapa. I was displeased, but did not express my displeasure. Neither accepting what he said nor contradicting it, I got up from my seat and left.188
This one time, sir, I approached the bamboo-staffed ascetic Gosāla and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, I sat down to one side, and asked him the same question.
He said: ‘Great king, there is no cause or reason for the corruption of sentient beings. Sentient beings are corrupted without cause or reason.189 There’s no cause or reason for the purification of sentient beings. Sentient beings are purified without cause or reason. One does not act of one’s own volition, one does not act of another’s volition, one does not act from a person’s volition. There is no power, no energy, no human strength or vigor.190 All sentient beings, all living creatures, all beings, all souls lack control, power, and energy. Molded by destiny, circumstance, and nature, they experience pleasure and pain in the six classes of rebirth.191 There are 1.4 million main wombs, and 6,000, and 600; 500 deeds, and five, and three; deeds and half-deeds; 62 paths of practice, 62 sub-eons, six classes of rebirth, and eight stages in a person’s life; 4,900 Ājīvaka ascetics, 4,900 wanderers, and 4,900 dragon abodes; 2,000 lordships, 3,000 hells, and 36 realms of dusky sky; seven percipient embryos, seven non-percipient embryos, seven knotless embryos, seven gods, seven mental heavens, seven goblins, seven streams, seven castoff incarnations and 700 castoff incarnations, seven downfalls and 700 downfalls, seven dreams and 700 dreams, and 8.4 million great eons—through all of which the foolish and the astute transmigrate before making an end of suffering.192 And here there is no such thing as this: “By this precept or observance or fervent austerity or spiritual life I shall force unripened deeds to bear their fruit, or eliminate old deeds by experiencing their results little by little,” for that cannot be.193 Pleasure and pain are allotted. Transmigration lasts only for a limited period, so there’s no increase or decrease, no getting better or worse. It’s like how, when you toss a ball of string, it rolls away unraveling. In the same way, after transmigrating the foolish and the astute will make an end of suffering.’
And so, when I asked the bamboo-staffed ascetic Gosāla about the fruits of the ascetic life apparent in the present life, he answered with the doctrine of purification through transmigration.194 It was like someone who, when asked about a mango, answered with a breadfruit, or when asked about a breadfruit, answered with a mango. I thought: ‘How could one such as I presume to rebuke an ascetic or brahmin living in my realm?’ So I neither approved nor dismissed that statement of the bamboo-staffed ascetic Gosāla. I was displeased, but did not express my displeasure. Neither accepting what he said nor contradicting it, I got up from my seat and left.
This one time, sir, I approached Ajita of the hair blanket and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, I sat down to one side, and asked him the same question.
He said: ‘Great king, there is no meaning in giving, sacrifice, or offerings. There’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds. There’s no afterlife. There’s no such thing as mother and father, or beings that are reborn spontaneously. And there’s no ascetic or brahmin who is rightly comported and rightly practiced, and who describes the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.195 This person is made up of the four principal states. When they die, the earth in their body merges and coalesces with the substance of earth. The water in their body merges and coalesces with the substance of water. The fire in their body merges and coalesces with the substance of fire. The air in their body merges and coalesces with the substance of air. The faculties are transferred to space.196 Four men with a bier carry away the corpse. Their footprints show the way to the cemetery. The bones become bleached. Offerings dedicated to the gods end in ashes. Giving is a doctrine of morons. When anyone affirms a positive teaching it’s just hollow, false nonsense. Both the foolish and the astute are annihilated and destroyed when their body breaks up, and don’t exist after death.’
And so, when I asked Ajita of the hair blanket about the fruits of the ascetic life apparent in the present life, he answered with the doctrine of annihilationism. It was like someone who, when asked about a mango, answered with a breadfruit, or when asked about a breadfruit, answered with a mango. I thought: ‘How could one such as I presume to rebuke an ascetic or brahmin living in my realm?’ So I neither approved nor dismissed that statement of Ajita of the hair blanket. I was displeased, but did not express my displeasure. Neither accepting what he said nor contradicting it, I got up from my seat and left.
This one time, sir, I approached Pakudha Kaccāyana and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, I sat down to one side, and asked him the same question.
He said: ‘Great king, these seven substances are not made, not derived, not created, without a creator, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar.197 They don’t move or deteriorate or obstruct each other. They’re unable to cause pleasure, pain, or both pleasure and pain to each other. What seven? The substances of earth, water, fire, air; pleasure, pain, and the soul is the seventh.198 These seven substances are not made, not derived, not created, without a creator, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They don’t move or deteriorate or obstruct each other. They’re unable to cause pleasure, pain, or both pleasure and pain to each other. And here there is no-one who kills or who makes others kill; no-one who learns or who educates others; no-one who understands or who helps others understand.199 If you chop off someone’s head with a sharp sword, you don’t take anyone’s life. The sword simply passes through the gap between the seven substances.’
And so, when I asked Pakudha Kaccāyana about the fruits of the ascetic life apparent in the present life, he answered with something else entirely. It was like someone who, when asked about a mango, answered with a breadfruit, or when asked about a breadfruit, answered with a mango. I thought: ‘How could one such as I presume to rebuke an ascetic or brahmin living in my realm?’ So I neither approved nor dismissed that statement of Pakudha Kaccāyana. I was displeased, but did not express my displeasure. Neither accepting what he said nor contradicting it, I got up from my seat and left.
This one time, sir, I approached the Jain Ñātika and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, I sat down to one side, and asked him the same question.
He said: ‘Great king, consider a Jain ascetic who is restrained in the fourfold constraint.200 And how is a Jain ascetic restrained in the fourfold constraint? It’s when a Jain ascetic is restrained in all that is to be restrained, is bridled in all that is to be restrained, has shaken off evil in all that is to be restrained, and is curbed in all that is to be restrained.201 That’s how a Jain ascetic is restrained in the fourfold constraint. When a Jain ascetic is restrained in the fourfold constraint, they’re called a knotless one who is self-realized, self-controlled, and steadfast.’
And so, when I asked the Jain Ñātika about the fruits of the ascetic life apparent in the present life, he answered with the fourfold constraint. It was like someone who, when asked about a mango, answered with a breadfruit, or when asked about a breadfruit, answered with a mango. I thought: ‘How could one such as I presume to rebuke an ascetic or brahmin living in my realm?’ So I neither approved nor dismissed that statement of the Jain Ñātika. I was displeased, but did not express my displeasure. Neither accepting what he said nor contradicting it, I got up from my seat and left.
This one time, sir, I approached Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, I sat down to one side, and asked him the same question.
He said: ‘Suppose you were to ask me whether there is another world. If I believed that to be the case, I would say so. But I don’t say it’s like this. I don’t say it’s like that. I don’t say it’s otherwise. I don’t say it’s not so. And I don’t deny it’s not so.202 Suppose you were to ask me whether there is no other world … whether there both is and is not another world … whether there neither is nor is not another world … whether there are beings who are reborn spontaneously … whether there are no beings who are reborn spontaneously … whether there both are and are not beings who are reborn spontaneously … whether there neither are nor are not beings who are reborn spontaneously … whether there is fruit and result of good and bad deeds … whether there is no fruit and result of good and bad deeds … whether there both is and is not fruit and result of good and bad deeds … whether there neither is nor is not fruit and result of good and bad deeds … whether a realized one still exists after death … whether a realized one no longer exists after death … whether a realized one both still exists and no longer exists after death … whether a realized one neither exists nor doesn’t exist after death. If I believed that to be the case, I would say so. But I don’t say it’s like this. I don’t say it’s like that. I don’t say it’s otherwise. I don’t say it’s not so. And I don’t deny it’s not so.’
And so, when I asked Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta about the fruits of the ascetic life apparent in the present life, he answered with flip-flopping. It was like someone who, when asked about a mango, answered with a breadfruit, or when asked about a breadfruit, answered with a mango. I thought: ‘This is the most foolish and stupid of all these ascetics and brahmins! How on earth can he answer with flip-flopping when asked about the fruits of the ascetic life apparent in the present life?’ I thought: ‘How could one such as I presume to rebuke an ascetic or brahmin living in my realm?’ So I neither approved nor dismissed that statement of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta. I was displeased, but did not express my displeasure. Neither accepting what he said nor contradicting it, I got up from my seat and left.
And so I ask the Buddha: Sir, there are many different professional fields. These include elephant riders, cavalry, charioteers, archers, bannermen, adjutants, food servers, warrior-chiefs, princes, chargers, great warriors, heroes, leather-clad soldiers, and sons of bondservants. They also include bakers, barbers, bathroom attendants, cooks, garland-makers, dyers, embroiderers, basket-makers, potters, accountants, finger-talliers, or those following any similar professions. All these live off the fruits of their profession which are apparent in this very life. With that they make themselves happy and pleased. They make their parents, their children and partners, and their friends and colleagues happy and pleased. And they establish an uplifting religious donation for ascetics and brahmins that’s conducive to heaven, ripens in happiness, and leads to heaven. Sir, can you point out a fruit of the ascetic life that’s likewise apparent in this very life?”
“I can, great king.203 Well then, I’ll ask you about this in return, and you can answer as you like.204 What do you think, great king? Suppose you had a person who was a bondservant, a worker. They get up before you and go to bed after you, and are obliging, behaving nicely and speaking politely, and gazing up at your face.205 They’d think: ‘The outcome and result of good deeds is just so incredible, so amazing!206 For this King Ajātasattu is a human being, and so am I.207 Yet he amuses himself, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation as if he were a god. Whereas I’m his bondservant, his worker. I get up before him and go to bed after him, and am obliging, behaving nicely and speaking politely, and gazing up at his face. I really should do good deeds.208 Why don’t I shave off my hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness?’209
After some time, that is what they do. Having gone forth they’d live restrained in body, speech, and mind, living content with nothing more than food and clothes, delighting in seclusion.210 And suppose your men were to report all this to you. Would you say to them: ‘Bring that person to me! Let them once more be my bondservant, my worker’?”
“No, sir. Rather, I would bow to them, rise in their presence, and offer them a seat. I’d invite them to accept robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicines and supplies for the sick. And I’d organize their lawful guarding and protection.”211
“What do you think, great king? If this is so, is there a fruit of the ascetic life apparent in the present life or not?”212
“Clearly, sir, there is.”213
“This is the first fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in this very life, which I point out to you.”
“But sir, can you point out another fruit of the ascetic life that’s likewise apparent in this very life?”214
“I can, great king. Well then, I’ll ask you about this in return, and you can answer as you like. What do you think, great king? Suppose you had a person who was a farmer, a householder, a hard worker, someone who builds up their capital.215 They’d think: ‘The outcome and result of good deeds is just so incredible, so amazing! For this King Ajātasattu is a human being, and so am I. Yet he amuses himself, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation as if he were a god. Whereas I’m a farmer, a householder, a hard worker, someone who builds up their capital. I really should do good deeds. Why don’t I shave off my hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness?’
After some time they give up a large or small fortune, and a large or small family circle. They’d shave off hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness.216 Having gone forth they’d live restrained in body, speech, and mind, living content with nothing more than food and clothes, delighting in seclusion. And suppose your men were to report all this to you. Would you say to them: ‘Bring that person to me! Let them once more be a farmer, a householder, a hard worker, someone who builds up their capital’?”
“No, sir. Rather, I would bow to them, rise in their presence, and offer them a seat. I’d invite them to accept robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicines and supplies for the sick. And I’d organize their lawful guarding and protection.”
“What do you think, great king? If this is so, is there a fruit of the ascetic life apparent in the present life or not?”
“Clearly, sir, there is.”
“This is the second fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in this very life, which I point out to you.”
“But sir, can you point out a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in this very life which is better and finer than these?”
“I can, great king. Well then, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”217
“Yes, sir,” replied the king.
The Buddha said this:
“Consider when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.218 He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others.219 He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure.220
A householder hears that teaching, or a householder’s child, or someone reborn in a good family.221 They gain faith in the Realized One and reflect: ‘Life at home is cramped and dirty, life gone forth is wide open. It’s not easy for someone living at home to lead the spiritual life utterly full and pure, like a polished shell. Why don’t I shave off my hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness?’
After some time they give up a large or small fortune, and a large or small family circle. They shave off hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness.
Once they’ve gone forth, they live restrained in the monastic code, conducting themselves well and resorting for alms in suitable places. Seeing danger in the slightest fault, they keep the rules they’ve undertaken. They act skillfully by body and speech. They’re purified in livelihood and accomplished in ethical conduct. They guard the sense doors, have mindfulness and situational awareness, and are content.222
And how, great king, is a mendicant accomplished in ethics? It’s when a mendicant gives up killing living creatures, renouncing the rod and the sword. They’re scrupulous and kind, living full of sympathy for all living beings.223 This pertains to their ethics.
They give up stealing. They take only what’s given, and expect only what’s given. They keep themselves clean by not thieving.224 This pertains to their ethics.
They give up unchastity. They are chaste, set apart, avoiding the vulgar act of sex.225 This pertains to their ethics.
They give up lying. They speak the truth and stick to the truth. They’re honest and dependable, and don’t trick the world with their words.226 This pertains to their ethics.
They give up divisive speech. They don’t repeat in one place what they heard in another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, they reconcile those who are divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote harmony. This pertains to their ethics.
They give up harsh speech. They speak in a way that’s mellow, pleasing to the ear, lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people. This pertains to their ethics.
They give up talking nonsense. Their words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. They say things at the right time which are valuable, reasonable, succinct, and beneficial. This pertains to their ethics.
They refrain from injuring plants and seeds. They eat in one part of the day, abstaining from eating at night and food at the wrong time. They refrain from seeing shows of dancing, singing, and music . They refrain from attiring and adorning themselves with garlands, fragrance, and makeup. They refrain from high and luxurious beds.227 They refrain from receiving gold and currency, raw grains, raw meat, women and girls, male and female bondservants, goats and sheep, chickens and pigs, elephants, cows, horses, and mares, and fields and land. They refrain from running errands and messages; buying and selling; falsifying weights, metals, or measures; bribery, fraud, cheating, and duplicity; mutilation, murder, abduction, banditry, plunder, and violence. This pertains to their ethics.
The shorter section on ethics is finished.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in injuring plants and seeds. These include plants propagated from roots, stems, cuttings, or joints; and those from regular seeds as the fifth. They refrain from such injury to plants and seeds. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in storing up goods for their own use. This includes such things as food, drink, clothes, vehicles, bedding, fragrance, and things of the flesh. They refrain from storing up such goods. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in seeing shows. This includes such things as dancing, singing, music, performances, and storytelling; clapping, gongs, and kettledrums; beauty pageants; pole-acrobatics and bone-washing displays of the corpse-workers; battles of elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, goats, rams, chickens, and quails; staff-fights, boxing, and wrestling; combat, roll calls of the armed forces, battle-formations, and regimental reviews. They refrain from such shows. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in gambling that causes negligence. This includes such things as checkers with eight or ten rows, checkers in the air, hopscotch, spillikins, board-games, tip-cat, drawing straws, dice, leaf-flutes, toy plows, somersaults, pinwheels, toy measures, toy carts, toy bows, guessing words from syllables, guessing another’s thoughts, and imitating musical instruments. They refrain from such gambling. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still make use of high and luxurious bedding. This includes such things as sofas, couches, woolen covers—shag-piled, colorful, white, embroidered with flowers, quilted, embroidered with animals, double-or single-fringed—and silk covers studded with gems, as well as silken sheets, woven carpets, rugs for elephants, horses, or chariots, antelope hide rugs, and spreads of fine deer hide, with a canopy above and red cushions at both ends. They refrain from such bedding. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in attiring and adorning themselves with garlands, fragrance, and makeup. This includes such things as applying beauty products by anointing, massaging, bathing, and rubbing; mirrors, ointments, garlands, fragrances, and makeup; face-powder, foundation, bracelets, headbands, fancy walking-sticks or containers, rapiers, parasols, fancy sandals, turbans, jewelry, chowries, and long-fringed white robes. They refrain from such attirement and adornment. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in low talk. This includes such topics as talk about kings, bandits, and ministers; talk about armies, threats, and wars; talk about food, drink, clothes, and beds; talk about garlands and fragrances; talk about family, vehicles, villages, towns, cities, and countries; talk about women and heroes; street talk and well talk; talk about the departed; motley talk; tales of land and sea; and talk about being reborn in this or that place. They refrain from such low talk. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in arguments. They say such things as: ‘You don’t understand this teaching and training. I understand this teaching and training. What, you understand this teaching and training? You’re practicing wrong. I’m practicing right. I stay on topic, you don’t. You said last what you should have said first. You said first what you should have said last. What you’ve thought so much about has been disproved. Your doctrine is refuted. Go on, save your doctrine! You’re trapped; get yourself out of this—if you can!’ They refrain from such argumentative talk. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in running errands and messages. This includes running errands for rulers, ministers, aristocrats, brahmins, householders, or princes who say: ‘Go here, go there. Take this, bring that from there.’ They refrain from such errands. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still engage in deceit, flattery, hinting, and belittling, and using material things to chase after other material things. They refrain from such deceit and flattery. This pertains to their ethics.
The middle section on ethics is finished.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes such fields as limb-reading, omenology, divining celestial portents, interpreting dreams, divining bodily marks, divining holes in cloth gnawed by mice, fire offerings, ladle offerings, offerings of husks, rice powder, rice, ghee, or oil; offerings from the mouth, blood sacrifices, palmistry; geomancy for building sites, fields, and cemeteries; exorcisms, earth magic, snake charming, poisons; the lore of the scorpion, the rat, the bird, and the crow; prophesying lifespan, chanting for protection, and divining omens from wild animals. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes reading the marks of gems, cloth, clubs, swords, spears, arrows, bows, weapons, women, men, boys, girls, male and female bondservants, elephants, horses, buffaloes, bulls, cows, goats, rams, chickens, quails, monitor lizards, rabbits, tortoises, or deer. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes making predictions that the king will march forth or march back; or that our king will attack and the enemy king will retreat, or vice versa; or that our king will triumph and the enemy king will be defeated, or vice versa; and so there will be victory for one and defeat for the other. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes making predictions that there will be an eclipse of the moon, or sun, or stars; that the sun, moon, and stars will be in conjunction or in opposition; that there will be a meteor shower, a fiery sky, an earthquake, or thunder in the heavens; that there will be a rising, a setting, a darkening, a brightening of the moon, sun, and stars. And it also includes making predictions about the results of all such phenomena. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes predicting whether there will be plenty of rain or drought; plenty to eat or famine; an abundant harvest or a bad harvest; security or peril; sickness or health. It also includes such occupations as arithmetic, accounting, calculating, poetry, and cosmology. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes making arrangements for giving and taking in marriage; for engagement and divorce; and for scattering rice inwards or outwards at the wedding ceremony. It also includes casting spells for good or bad luck, treating impacted fetuses, binding the tongue, or locking the jaws; charms for the hands and ears; questioning a mirror, a girl, or a god as an oracle; worshiping the sun, worshiping the Great One, breathing fire, and invoking Siri, the goddess of luck. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes rites for propitiation, for granting wishes, for ghosts, for the earth, for rain, for property settlement, and for preparing and consecrating house sites, and rites involving rinsing and bathing, and oblations. It also includes administering emetics, purgatives, expectorants, and phlegmagogues; administering ear-oils, eye restoratives, nasal medicine, ointments, and counter-ointments; surgery with needle and scalpel, treating children, prescribing root medicines, and herbal bandages. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their ethics.
A mendicant thus accomplished in ethics sees no danger in any quarter in regards to their ethical restraint. It’s like a king who has defeated his enemies. He sees no danger from his foes in any quarter. In the same way, a mendicant thus accomplished in ethics sees no danger in any quarter in regards to their ethical restraint. When they have this entire spectrum of noble ethics, they experience a blameless happiness inside themselves.228 That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics.
The longer section on ethics is finished.
And how does a mendicant guard the sense doors?229 When a mendicant sees a sight with their eyes, they don’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of sight were left unrestrained, bad unskillful qualities of covetousness and displeasure would become overwhelming. For this reason, they practice restraint, protecting the faculty of sight, and achieving its restraint.230 When they hear a sound with their ears … When they smell an odor with their nose … When they taste a flavor with their tongue … When they feel a touch with their body … When they know an idea with their mind, they don’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of mind were left unrestrained, bad unskillful qualities of covetousness and displeasure would become overwhelming. For this reason, they practice restraint, protecting the faculty of mind, and achieving its restraint. When they have this noble sense restraint, they experience an unsullied bliss inside themselves.231 That’s how a mendicant guards the sense doors.
And how does a mendicant have mindfulness and situational awareness?232 It’s when a mendicant acts with situational awareness when going out and coming back; when looking ahead and aside; when bending and extending the limbs; when bearing the outer robe, bowl and robes; when eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting; when urinating and defecating; when walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, waking, speaking, and keeping silent.233 That’s how a mendicant has mindfulness and situational awareness.
And how is a mendicant content? It’s when a mendicant is content with robes to look after the body and almsfood to look after the belly. Wherever they go, they set out taking only these things.234 They’re like a bird: wherever it flies, wings are its only burden. In the same way, a mendicant is content with robes to look after the body and almsfood to look after the belly. Wherever they go, they set out taking only these things. That’s how a mendicant is content.
When they have this entire spectrum of noble ethics, this noble sense restraint, this noble mindfulness and situational awareness, and this noble contentment,235 they frequent a secluded lodging—a wilderness, the root of a tree, a hill, a ravine, a mountain cave, a charnel ground, a forest, the open air, a heap of straw. After the meal, they return from almsround, sit down cross-legged, set their body straight, and establish mindfulness in their presence.236
Giving up covetousness for the world, they meditate with a heart rid of covetousness, cleansing the mind of covetousness.237 Giving up ill will and malevolence, they meditate with a mind rid of ill will, full of sympathy for all living beings, cleansing the mind of ill will.238 Giving up dullness and drowsiness, they meditate with a mind rid of dullness and drowsiness, perceiving light, mindful and aware, cleansing the mind of dullness and drowsiness.239 Giving up restlessness and remorse, they meditate without restlessness, their mind peaceful inside, cleansing the mind of restlessness and remorse.240 Giving up doubt, they meditate having gone beyond doubt, not undecided about skillful qualities, cleansing the mind of doubt.241
Suppose a man who has gotten into debt were to apply himself to work,242 and his efforts proved successful. He would pay off the original loan and have enough left over to support his partner. Thinking about this, he’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose there was a person who was sick, suffering, gravely ill. They’d lose their appetite and get physically weak. But after some time they’d recover from that illness, and regain their appetite and their strength. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose a person was imprisoned in a jail. But after some time they were released from jail, safe and sound, with no loss of wealth. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose a person was a bondservant. They would not be their own master, but indentured to another, unable to go where they wish. But after some time they’d be freed from servitude. They would be their own master, not indentured to another, an emancipated individual able to go where they wish. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose there was a person with wealth and property who was traveling along a desert road, which was perilous, with nothing to eat. But after some time they crossed over the desert safely, arriving within a village, a sanctuary free of peril. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
In the same way, as long as these five hindrances are not given up inside themselves, a mendicant regards them thus as a debt, a disease, a prison, slavery, and a desert crossing.243
But when these five hindrances are given up inside themselves, a mendicant regards this as freedom from debt, good health, release from prison, emancipation, and a place of sanctuary at last.244
Seeing that the hindrances have been given up in them, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, they feel bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed.245
Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, they enter and remain in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected.246 They drench, steep, fill, and spread their body with rapture and bliss born of seclusion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of seclusion.247
It’s like when a deft bathroom attendant or their apprentice pours bath powder into a bronze dish, sprinkling it little by little with water. They knead it until the ball of bath powder is soaked and saturated with moisture, spread through inside and out; yet no moisture oozes out.248 In the same way, a mendicant drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads their body with rapture and bliss born of seclusion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of seclusion. This, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.249
Furthermore, as the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, a mendicant enters and remains in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without applying the mind and keeping it connected.250 They drench, steep, fill, and spread their body with rapture and bliss born of immersion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of immersion.
It’s like a deep lake fed by spring water. There’s no inlet to the east, west, north, or south, and the heavens would not properly bestow showers from time to time.251 But the stream of cool water welling up in the lake drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads throughout the lake. There’s no part of the lake that’s not spread through with cool water.252
In the same way, a mendicant drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads their body with rapture and bliss born of immersion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of immersion. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
Furthermore, with the fading away of rapture, a mendicant enters and remains in the third absorption, where they meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’253 They drench, steep, fill, and spread their body with bliss free of rapture. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with bliss free of rapture.
It’s like a pool with blue water lilies, or pink or white lotuses. Some of them sprout and grow in the water without rising above it, thriving underwater. From the tip to the root they’re drenched, steeped, filled, and soaked with cool water. There’s no part of them that’s not soaked with cool water.254 In the same way, a mendicant drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads their body with bliss free of rapture. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with bliss free of rapture. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
Furthermore, with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, a mendicant enters and remains in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness.255 They sit spreading their body through with pure bright mind. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with pure bright mind.256
It’s like someone sitting wrapped from head to foot with white cloth. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread over with white cloth.257 In the same way, they sit spreading their body through with pure bright mind. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with pure bright mind. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge and vision.258 They understand: ‘This body of mine is formed. It’s made up of the four principal states, produced by mother and father, built up from rice and porridge, liable to impermanence, to wearing away and erosion, to breaking up and destruction.259 And this consciousness of mine is attached to it, tied to it.’260
Suppose there was a beryl gem that was naturally lustrous, eight-faceted, well-worked, transparent, clear, and unclouded, endowed with all good qualities. And it was strung with a thread of blue, yellow, red, white, or golden brown.261 And a person with clear eyes were to take it in their hand and check it: ‘This beryl gem is naturally lustrous, eight-faceted, well-worked, transparent, clear, and unclouded, endowed with all good qualities. And it’s strung with a thread of blue, yellow, red, white, or golden brown.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge and vision.262 This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward the creation of a mind-made body.263 From this body they create another body—formed, mind-made, whole in its major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty.264
Suppose a person was to draw a reed out from its sheath. They’d think: ‘This is the reed, this is the sheath. The reed and the sheath are different things. The reed has been drawn out from the sheath.’ Or suppose a person was to draw a sword out from its scabbard. They’d think: ‘This is the sword, this is the scabbard. The sword and the scabbard are different things. The sword has been drawn out from the scabbard.’ Or suppose a person was to draw a snake out from its slough. They’d think: ‘This is the snake, this is the slough. The snake and the slough are different things. The snake has been drawn out from the slough.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward the creation of a mind-made body. From this body they create another body—formed, mind-made, whole in its major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward psychic power.265 They wield the many kinds of psychic power: multiplying themselves and becoming one again; materializing and dematerializing; going unobstructed through a wall, a rampart, or a mountain as if through space; diving in and out of the earth as if it were water; walking on water as if it were earth; flying cross-legged through the sky like a bird; touching and stroking with the hand the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful; controlling the body as far as the realm of divinity.266
Suppose a deft potter or their apprentice had some well-prepared clay. They could produce any kind of pot that they like.267 Or suppose a deft ivory-carver or their apprentice had some well-prepared ivory. They could produce any kind of ivory item that they like. Or suppose a deft goldsmith or their apprentice had some well-prepared gold. They could produce any kind of gold item that they like.268
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward psychic power. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward clairaudience.269 With clairaudience that is purified and superhuman, they hear both kinds of sounds, human and heavenly, whether near or far.270
Suppose there was a person traveling along the road. They’d hear the sound of drums, clay drums, horns, kettledrums, and tom-toms. They’d think: ‘That’s the sound of drums,’ and ‘that’s the sound of clay drums,’ and ‘that’s the sound of horns, kettledrums, and tom-toms.’271
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward clairaudience. With clairaudience that is purified and superhuman, they hear both kinds of sounds, human and heavenly, whether near or far. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward comprehending the minds of others.272 They understand the minds of other beings and individuals, having comprehended them with their own mind. They understand mind with greed as ‘mind with greed’, and mind without greed as ‘mind without greed’. They understand mind with hate … mind without hate … mind with delusion … mind without delusion … constricted mind … scattered mind … expansive mind … unexpansive mind … mind that is not supreme … mind that is supreme … immersed mind … unimmersed mind … freed mind … They understand unfreed mind as ‘unfreed mind’.
Suppose there was a woman or man who was young, youthful, and fond of adornments, and they check their own reflection in a clean bright mirror or a clear bowl of water. If they had a spot they’d know ‘I have a spot,’ and if they had no spots they’d know ‘I have no spots.’273 In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward comprehending the minds of others. They understand the minds of other beings and individuals, having comprehended them with their own mind. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward recollection of past lives.274 They recollect many kinds of past lives, that is, one, two, three, four, five, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand rebirths; many eons of the world contracting, many eons of the world expanding, many eons of the world contracting and expanding. They remember: ‘There, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn somewhere else. There, too, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn here.’ And so they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details.275
Suppose a person was to leave their home village and go to another village. From that village they’d go to yet another village. And from that village they’d return to their home village. They’d think: ‘I went from my home village to another village. There I stood like this, sat like that, spoke like this, or kept silent like that. From that village I went to yet another village. There too I stood like this, sat like that, spoke like this, or kept silent like that. And from that village I returned to my home village.’276
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward recollection of past lives. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings. With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds: ‘These dear beings did bad things by way of body, speech, and mind. They denounced the noble ones; they had wrong view; and they chose to act out of that wrong view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. These dear beings, however, did good things by way of body, speech, and mind. They never denounced the noble ones; they had right view; and they chose to act out of that right view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.’ And so, with clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds.277
Suppose there was a stilt longhouse at the central square. A person with clear eyes standing there might see humans entering and leaving a house, walking along the streets and paths, and sitting at the central square. They’d think: ‘These are people entering and leaving a house, walking along the streets and paths, and sitting at the central square.’278
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge of the ending of defilements.279 They truly understand: ‘This is suffering’ … ‘This is the origin of suffering’ … ‘This is the cessation of suffering’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering’.280 They truly understand: ‘These are defilements’ … ‘This is the origin of defilements’ … ‘This is the cessation of defilements’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of defilements’.281 Knowing and seeing like this, their mind is freed from the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.282 When they’re freed, they know they’re freed.283 They understand: ‘Rebirth is ended, the spiritual journey has been completed, what had to be done has been done, there is nothing further for this place.’284
Suppose that in a mountain glen there was a lake that was transparent, clear, and unclouded. A person with clear eyes standing on the bank would see the clams and mussels, and pebbles and gravel, and schools of fish swimming about or staying still. They’d think: ‘This lake is transparent, clear, and unclouded. And here are the clams and mussels, and pebbles and gravel, and schools of fish swimming about or staying still.’285
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge of the ending of defilements. This too, great king, is a fruit of the ascetic life that’s apparent in the present life which is better and finer than the former ones. And, great king, there is no other fruit of the ascetic life apparent in the present life which is better and finer than this.”286
When the Buddha had spoken, King Ajātasattu said to him, “Excellent, sir! Excellent!287 As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the Buddha, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha.288 From this day forth, may the Buddha remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.
I have made a mistake, sir. It was foolish, stupid, and unskillful of me to take the life of my father, a just and principled king, for the sake of authority.289 Please, sir, accept my mistake for what it is, so I will restrain myself in future.”290
“Indeed, great king, you made a mistake. It was foolish, stupid, and unskillful of you to take the life of your father, a just and principled king, for the sake of sovereignty.291 But since you have recognized your mistake for what it is, and have dealt with it properly, I accept it. For it is growth in the training of the Noble One to recognize a mistake for what it is, deal with it properly, and commit to restraint in the future.”292
When the Buddha had spoken, King Ajātasattu said to him, “Well, now, sir, I must go. I have many duties, and much to do.”
“Please, great king, go at your convenience.”
Then the king, having approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, got up from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled him, keeping him on his right, before leaving.
Soon after the king had left, the Buddha addressed the mendicants, “The king is broken, mendicants,293 he is ruined. If he had not taken the life of his father, a just and principled king, the stainless, immaculate vision of the Dhamma would have arisen in him in that very seat.”294
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard.295 At one time the Buddha was wandering in the land of the Kosalans together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants when he arrived at a village of the Kosalan brahmins named Icchānaṅgala.296 He stayed in a forest near Icchānaṅgala.
Now at that time the brahmin Pokkharasāti was living in Ukkaṭṭhā. It was a crown property given by King Pasenadi of Kosala, teeming with living creatures, full of hay, wood, water, and grain, a royal park endowed to a brahmin.297 Pokkharasāti heard:
“It seems the ascetic Gotama—a Sakyan, gone forth from a Sakyan family—has arrived at Icchānaṅgala and is staying in a forest nearby. He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others.298 He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. It’s good to see such perfected ones.”299
Now at that time Pokkharasāti had a student named Ambaṭṭha as his resident pupil. He was one who recited and remembered the hymns, and had mastered in the three Vedas, together with their vocabularies and ritual performance, their phonology and word classification, and the testaments as fifth. He knew them word-by-word, and their grammar. He was well versed in cosmology and the marks of a great man. He had been authorized as a master in his own tutor’s scriptural heritage of the three Vedas with the words:300 “What I know, you know.301 And what you know, I know.”
Then Pokkharasāti addressed Ambaṭṭha, “Dear Ambaṭṭha, the ascetic Gotama—a Sakyan, gone forth from a Sakyan family—has arrived at Icchānaṅgala and is staying in a forest nearby. He has this good reputation … It’s good to see such perfected ones. Please, dear Ambaṭṭha, go to the ascetic Gotama and find out whether or not he lives up to his reputation. Through you I shall learn about the worthy Gotama.”302
“But sir, how shall I find out whether or not the ascetic Gotama lives up to his reputation?”
“Dear Ambaṭṭha, the thirty-two marks of a great man have been handed down in our hymns. A great man who possesses these has only two possible destinies, no other.303 If he stays at home he becomes a king, a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king. His dominion extends to all four sides, he achieves stability in the country, and he possesses the seven treasures.304 He has the following seven treasures: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the jewel, the woman, the householder, and the commander as the seventh treasure. He has over a thousand sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies.305 After conquering this land girt by sea, he reigns by principle, without rod or sword. But if he goes forth from the lay life to homelessness, he becomes a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha, who draws back the veil from the world. But, dear Ambaṭṭha, I am the one who gives the hymns,306 and you are the one who receives them.”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied Ambaṭṭha. He got up from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled Pokkharasāti, keeping him to his right. He mounted a chariot drawn by mares and, together with several young students, set out for the forest near Icchānaṅgala.307 He went by carriage as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and entered the monastery on foot.
At that time several mendicants were walking mindfully in the open air.308 Then the student Ambaṭṭha went up to those mendicants and said, “Good fellows, where is the worthy Gotama at present?309 For we have come here to see him.”310
Then those mendicants thought, “This Ambaṭṭha is from a well-known family, and he is the pupil of the well-known brahmin Pokkharasāti. The Buddha won’t mind having a discussion together with such gentlemen.”311
They said to Ambaṭṭha, “Ambaṭṭha, that’s his dwelling, with the door closed. Approach it quietly, without hurrying; go onto the porch, clear your throat, and knock on the door-panel. The Buddha will open the door.”312
So he approached the Buddha’s dwelling, cleared his throat and knocked on the door-panel, and the Buddha opened the door. Ambaṭṭha and the young students entered the dwelling. The young students exchanged greetings with the Buddha, and when the greetings and polite conversation were over, sat down to one side. But while the Buddha was sitting, Ambaṭṭha spoke some polite words or other while walking around or standing.
So the Buddha said to him, “Ambaṭṭha, is this how you hold a discussion with elderly and senior brahmins, the tutors of tutors: walking around or standing while I’m sitting, speaking some polite words or other?”313
“No, worthy Gotama. For it is proper for one brahmin to converse with another while both are walking, standing, sitting, or lying down. But as to these shavelings, fake ascetics, primitives, black spawn from the feet of our kinsman, I converse with them as I do with the worthy Gotama.”314
“But Ambaṭṭha, you must have come here for some purpose. You should focus on that. Though this Ambaṭṭha is unqualified, he thinks he’s qualified. What is that but lack of qualifications?”315
When he said this, Ambaṭṭha became angry and upset with the Buddha because of being described as unqualified. He even attacked and badmouthed the Buddha himself, saying, “The ascetic Gotama will be worsted!” He said to the Buddha, “Worthy Gotama, the Sakyans are rude, harsh, touchy, and argumentative.316 Primitive they are, and primitive they remain! They don’t honor, respect, revere, worship, or venerate brahmins.317 It is neither proper nor appropriate that the Sakyans—primitives that they are—don’t honor, respect, revere, worship, or venerate brahmins.”
And that’s how Ambaṭṭha denigrated the Sakyans with the word “primitives” for the first time.
“But Ambaṭṭha, how have the Sakyans wronged you?”
“This one time, worthy Gotama, I went to Kapilavatthu on some business for my tutor, the brahmin Pokkharasāti. I approached the Sakyans in their town hall. Now at that time several Sakyans and Sakyan princes were sitting on high seats, poking each other with their fingers, giggling and playing together. In fact, they even presumed to giggle at me, and didn’t invite me to a seat. It is neither proper nor appropriate that the Sakyans—primitives that they are—don’t honor, respect, revere, worship, or venerate brahmins.”
And that’s how Ambaṭṭha denigrated the Sakyans with the word “primitives” for the second time.
“Even a little quail, Ambaṭṭha, speaks as she likes in her own nest. Kapilavatthu is the Sakyans’ own place, Ambaṭṭha. It’s not worthy of the Venerable Ambaṭṭha to lose his temper over such a small thing.”318
“Worthy Gotama, there are these four classes: aristocrats, brahmins, peasants, and menials. Three of these classes—aristocrats, peasants, and menials—in fact succeed only when serving the brahmins. It is neither proper nor appropriate that the Sakyans—primitives that they are—don’t honor, respect, revere, worship, or venerate brahmins.”
And that’s how Ambaṭṭha denigrated the Sakyans with the word “primitives” for the third time.
Then it occurred to the Buddha, “This Ambaṭṭha puts the Sakyans down way too much by calling them primitives. Why don’t I ask him about his own clan?”
So the Buddha said to him, “What is your clan, Ambaṭṭha?”319
“I am a Kaṇhāyana, worthy Gotama.”320
“But, recollecting the ancient name and clan of your mother and father, the Sakyans were the children of the masters, while you’re descended from the son of a slavegirl of the Sakyans.321 But the Sakyans regard King Okkāka as their grandfather.322
Once upon a time, King Okkāka, wishing to divert the royal succession to the son of his most beloved queen, banished the elder princes from the realm—Okkāmukha, Karakaṇḍa, Hatthinika, and Sinisūra. They made their home beside a lotus pond on the slopes of the Himalayas, where there was a large grove of sakhua trees.323 For fear of breaking their line of birth, they slept with their own (saka) sisters.324
Then King Okkāka addressed his ministers and councillors, ‘Where, sirs, have the princes settled now?’325
‘Sire, there is a lotus pond on the slopes of the Himalayas, by a large grove of sakhua trees. They’ve settled there. For fear of breaking their line of birth, they are sleeping with their own sisters.’
Then, Ambaṭṭha, King Okkāka expressed this heartfelt sentiment: ‘The princes are indeed Sakyans! The princes are indeed the best Sakyans!’326 From that day on the Sakyans were recognized and he was their founder.
Now, King Okkāka had a slavegirl named Disā.327 She gave birth to a boy named “Black”.328 When he was born, Black Boy said: ‘Wash me, mum, bathe me! Get this filth off of me! I will be useful for you!’329 Whereas these days when people see goblins they recognize them as goblins, in those days they recognized goblins as ‘blackboys’.
They said: ‘He spoke as soon as he was born—a blackboy is born! A goblin is born!’ From that day on the Kaṇhāyanas were proclaimed, and he was their founder. That’s how, recollecting the ancient name and clan of your mother and father, the Sakyans were the children of the masters, while you’re descended from the son of a slavegirl of the Sakyans.”
When he said this, those young students said to him, “Worthy Gotama, please don’t put Ambaṭṭha down too much by calling him the son of a slavegirl.330 He’s well-born, a gentleman, learned, who enunciates well, and is astute. He is capable of debating with the worthy Gotama about this.”
So the Buddha said to them, “Well, young students, if you think that Ambaṭṭha is ill-born, not a gentleman, unlearned, a poor speaker, witless, and not capable of debating with me about this, then leave him aside and you can debate with me. But if you think that he’s well-born, a gentleman, learned, who enunciates well, is astute, and is capable of debating with me about this, then you should stand aside and let him debate with me.”
“He is capable of debating you. We will be silent, and let Ambaṭṭha debate with the worthy Gotama about this.”
So the Buddha said to Ambaṭṭha, “Well, Ambaṭṭha, there’s a legitimate question that comes up. You won’t like it, but you ought to answer anyway. If you fail to answer—by dodging the issue, remaining silent, or leaving—your head will explode into seven pieces right here.331 What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? According to what you have heard from elderly and senior brahmins, the tutors of tutors, what is the origin of the Kaṇhāyanas, and who is their founder?”
When he said this, Ambaṭṭha kept silent.
For a second time, the Buddha put the question, and for a second time Ambaṭṭha kept silent.
So the Buddha said to him, “Answer now, Ambaṭṭha. Now is not the time for silence. If someone fails to answer a legitimate question when asked three times by the Buddha, their head explodes into seven pieces there and then.”
Now at that time the spirit Vajirapāṇī, holding a massive iron spear, burning, blazing, and glowing, stood in the air above Ambaṭṭha, thinking,332 “If this Ambaṭṭha doesn’t answer when asked a third time, I’ll blow his head into seven pieces there and then!” And both the Buddha and Ambaṭṭha could see Vajirapāṇī.
Ambaṭṭha was terrified, shocked, and awestruck. Looking to the Buddha for shelter, protection, and refuge, he sat down close by the Buddha and said, “What did you say? Please repeat the question.”
“What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? According to what you have heard from elderly and senior brahmins, the tutors of tutors, what is the origin of the Kaṇhāyanas, and who is their founder?”
“I have heard, worthy Gotama, that it is just as you say. That’s the origin of the Kaṇhāyanas, and that’s who their founder is.”
When he said this, those young students made an uproar, “It turns out Ambaṭṭha is ill-born, not a gentleman, son of a Sakyan slavegirl, and that the Sakyans are sons of his masters! And it seems that the ascetic Gotama spoke only the truth, though we presumed to rebuke him!”
Then it occurred to the Buddha, “These young students put Ambaṭṭha down too much by calling him the son of a slavegirl. Why don’t I get him out of this?”
So the Buddha said to the young students, “Young students, please don’t put Ambaṭṭha down too much by calling him the son of a slavegirl. That Black Boy was an eminent seer.333 He went to a southern country and memorized the Divine Spell. Then he approached King Okkāka and asked for the hand of his daughter Maddarūpī.334
The king said to him, ‘Who the hell is this son of a slavegirl to ask for the hand of my daughter!’ Angry and upset he fastened a razor-tipped arrow.335 But he wasn’t able to either shoot it or to relax it.
Then the ministers and councillors approached the seer Black Boy and said: ‘Spare the king, sir, spare him!’
‘The king will be safe. But if he shoots the arrow downwards, there will be an earthquake across the entire realm.’336
‘Spare the king, sir, and spare the country!’
‘Both king and country will be safe. But if he shoots the arrow upwards, the heavens will not rain in the entire realm for seven years.’
‘Spare the king, sir, spare the country, and let the heavens rain!’337
‘Both king and country will be safe, and the heavens rain will rain. And if the king shoots the crown prince with an arrow, he will be safe and unruffled.’338
So the ministers said to Okkāka:339 ‘Okkāka must shoot the crown prince with an arrow. He will be safe and unruffled.’
So King Okkāka shot the crown prince with an arrow. And he was safe and unruffled. Then the king was terrified, shocked, and awestruck. Scared by the divine punishment, he gave the hand of his daughter Maddarūpī.340
Young students, please don’t put Ambaṭṭha down too much by calling him the son of a slavegirl. That Black Boy was an eminent seer.”
Then the Buddha addressed Ambaṭṭha, “What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Suppose an aristocrat boy was to sleep with a brahmin girl, and they had a son. Would he receive a seat and water from the brahmins?”
“He would, worthy Gotama.”
“And would the brahmins feed him at an offering of food for ancestors, an offering of a dish of milk-rice, a sacrifice, or a feast for guests?”
“They would.”
“And would the brahmins teach him the hymns or not?”
“They would.”
“And would he be kept from the women or not?”341
“He would not.”
“And would the aristocrats anoint him as king?”
“No, worthy Gotama. Why is that? Because his maternity is unsuitable.”
“What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Suppose a brahmin boy was to sleep with an aristocrat girl, and they had a son. Would he receive a seat and water from the brahmins?”
“He would, worthy Gotama.”
“And would the brahmins feed him at an offering of food for ancestors, an offering of a dish of milk-rice, a sacrifice, or a feast for guests?”
“They would.”
“And would the brahmins teach him the hymns or not?”
“They would.”
“And would he be kept from the women or not?”
“He would not.”
“And would the aristocrats anoint him as king?”
“No, worthy Gotama. Why is that? Because his paternity is unsuitable.”
“And so, Ambaṭṭha, the aristocrats are superior and the brahmins inferior, whether comparing women with women or men with men. What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Suppose the brahmins for some reason were to shave a brahmin’s head, inflict him with a sack of ashes, and banish him from the nation or the city. Would he receive a seat and water from the brahmins?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“And would the brahmins feed him at an offering of food for ancestors, an offering of a dish of milk-rice, a sacrifice, or a feast for guests?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“And would the brahmins teach him the hymns or not?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“And would he be kept from the women or not?”
“He would be.”
“What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Suppose the aristocrats for some reason were to shave an aristocrat’s head, inflict him with a sack of ashes, and banish him from the nation or the city. Would he receive a seat and water from the brahmins?”
“He would, worthy Gotama.”
“And would the brahmins feed him at an offering of food for ancestors, an offering of a dish of milk-rice, a sacrifice, or a feast for guests?”
“They would.”
“And would the brahmins teach him the hymns or not?”
“They would.”
“And would he be kept from the women or not?”
“He would not.”
“At this point, Ambaṭṭha, that aristocrat has reached rock bottom, with head shaven, inflicted with a sack of ashes, and banished from city or nation. Yet still the aristocrats are superior and the brahmins inferior. The divinity Sanaṅkumāra also spoke this verse:342
‘The aristocrat is best among people
who take clan as the standard.
But one accomplished in knowledge and conduct
is first among gods and humans.’
That verse was well sung by the Divinity Sanaṅkumāra, not poorly sung; well spoken, not poorly spoken, beneficial, not harmful, and it was approved by me. For I also say this:
The aristocrat is best among people
who take clan as the standard.
But one accomplished in knowledge and conduct
is first among gods and humans.”
The first recitation section.
“But what, worthy Gotama, is that conduct, and what is that knowledge?”343
“Ambaṭṭha, in the supreme knowledge and conduct there is no discussion of genealogy or clan or pride—344 ‘You deserve me’ or ‘You don’t deserve me.’ Wherever there is giving and taking in marriage there is such discussion. Whoever is shackled to questions of genealogy or clan or pride, or to giving and taking in marriage, is far from the supreme knowledge and conduct. The realization of supreme knowledge and conduct occurs when you’ve given up such things.”345
“But what, worthy Gotama, is that conduct, and what is that knowledge?”
“Ambaṭṭha, it’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed. He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others. He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. A householder hears that teaching, or a householder’s child, or someone reborn in a good family. They gain faith in the Realized One and reflect …346
Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, they enter and remain in the first absorption … This pertains to their conduct.
Furthermore, as the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, a mendicant enters and remains in the second absorption … This pertains to their conduct.
Furthermore, with the fading away of rapture, they enter and remain in the third absorption … This pertains to their conduct.
Furthermore, with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, they enter and remain in the fourth absorption … This pertains to their conduct. This is that conduct.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge and vision. This pertains to their knowledge. … They understand: ‘There is nothing further for this place.’ This pertains to their knowledge. This is that knowledge.
This mendicant is said to be ‘accomplished in knowledge’, and also ‘accomplished in conduct’, and also ‘accomplished in knowledge and conduct’. And, Ambaṭṭha, there is no accomplishment in knowledge and conduct that is better or finer than this.
There are these four causes of quitting this supreme knowledge and conduct.347 What four? Firstly, take some ascetic or brahmin who, not managing to obtain this supreme knowledge and conduct, plunges into a wilderness region carrying their pack with a shoulder-pole, thinking they will get by eating fallen fruit.348 In fact they succeed only in serving someone accomplished in knowledge and conduct.349 This is the first cause of quitting this supreme knowledge and conduct.
Furthermore, take some ascetic or brahmin who, not managing to obtain this supreme knowledge and conduct or to get by eating fallen fruit, plunges into a wilderness region carrying a spade and basket, thinking they will get by eating tubers and fruit.350 In fact they succeed only in serving someone accomplished in knowledge and conduct. This is the second cause of quitting this supreme knowledge and conduct.
Furthermore, take some ascetic or brahmin who, not managing to obtain this supreme knowledge and conduct, or to get by eating fallen fruit, or to get by eating tubers and fruit, sets up a fire chamber in the neighborhood of a village or town and dwells there serving the sacred flame. In fact they succeed only in serving someone accomplished in knowledge and conduct. This is the third cause of quitting this supreme knowledge and conduct.
Furthermore, take some ascetic or brahmin who, not managing to obtain this supreme knowledge and conduct, or to get by eating fallen fruit, or to get by eating tubers and fruit, or to serve the sacred flame, sets up a four-doored fire chamber at the crossroads and dwells there, thinking: ‘When an ascetic or brahmin comes from the four quarters, I will honor them as best I can.’ In fact they succeed only in serving someone accomplished in knowledge and conduct. This is the fourth cause of quitting this supreme knowledge and conduct. These are the four causes of quitting this supreme knowledge and conduct.
What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Is this supreme knowledge and conduct seen in your own tradition?”351
“No, worthy Gotama. Who am I and my tradition compared with the supreme knowledge and conduct? We are far from that.”
“What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Since you’re not managing to obtain this supreme knowledge and conduct, have you with your tradition plunged into a wilderness region carrying your pack with a shoulder-pole, thinking you will get by eating fallen fruit?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Have you with your tradition … plunged into a wilderness region carrying a spade and basket, thinking you will get by eating tubers and fruit?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Have you with your tradition … set up a fire chamber in the neighborhood of a village or town and dwelt there serving the sacred flame?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Have you with your tradition … set up a four-doored fire chamber at the crossroads and dwelt there, thinking: ‘When an ascetic or brahmin comes from the four quarters, I will honor them as best I can’?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“So you with your tradition are not only inferior to the supreme knowledge and conduct, you are even inferior to the four causes of quitting the supreme knowledge and conduct. But you have been told this by your tutor, the brahmin Pokkharasāti: ‘Who are these shavelings, fake ascetics, primitives, black spawn from the feet of our kinsman compared with conversation with the brahmins of the three knowledges?” Yet he himself has not even fulfilled one of the quittings! See, Ambaṭṭha, how your tutor Pokkharasāti has wronged you.
Pokkharasāti lives off an endowment provided by King Pasenadi of Kosala. But the king won’t even grant him an audience face to face. When he consults, he does so behind a curtain.352 Why wouldn’t the king grant a face to face audience with someone who’d receive his legitimate presentation of food? See, Ambaṭṭha, how your tutor Pokkharasāti has wronged you.
What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? Suppose King Pasenadi was holding consultations with warrior-chiefs or chieftains while sitting on an elephant’s neck or on horseback, or while standing on the mat in a chariot.353 And suppose he’d get down from that place and stand aside. Then along would come a worker or their bondservant, who’d stand in the same place and continue the consultation: ‘This is what King Pasenadi says, and this too is what the king says.’ Though he spoke the king’s words and gave the king’s advice,354 does that qualify him to be the king or the king’s minister?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“In the same way, Ambaṭṭha, the ancient seers of the brahmins were Aṭṭhaka, Vāmaka, Vāmadeva, Vessāmitta, Yamadaggi, Aṅgīrasa, Bhāradvāja, Vāseṭṭha, Kassapa, and Bhagu. They were the authors and propagators of the hymns. Their hymnal was sung and propagated and compiled in ancient times; and these days, brahmins continue to sing and chant it, chanting what was chanted and teaching what was taught.355 You might imagine that, since you’ve learned their hymns by heart in your own tradition, that makes you a seer or someone on the path to becoming a seer. But that is not possible.
What do you think, Ambaṭṭha? According to what you have heard from elderly and senior brahmins, the tutors of tutors, did those ancient brahmin seers—nicely bathed and anointed, with hair and beard dressed, bedecked with jewels, earrings, and bracelets, dressed in white—amuse themselves, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation, like you do today in your tradition?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Did they eat boiled fine rice, garnished with clean meat, with the dark grains picked out, served with many soups and sauces, like you do today in your tradition?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Did they amuse themselves with girls wearing thongs that show off their curves, like you do today in your tradition?”356
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Did they drive about in chariots drawn by mares with plaited manes, whipping and lashing them onward with long goads, like you do today in your tradition?”357
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Did they get men with long swords to guard them in fortresses with moats dug and barriers in place, like you do today in your tradition?”358
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“So, Ambaṭṭha, in your own tradition you are neither seer nor someone on the path to becoming a seer. Whoever has any doubt or uncertainty about me, let them ask me and I will clear up their doubts with my answer.”359
Then the Buddha came out of his dwelling and proceeded to begin walking mindfully,360 and Ambaṭṭha did likewise. Then while walking beside the Buddha, Ambaṭṭha scrutinized his body for the thirty-two marks of a great man.361 He saw all of them except for two, which he had doubts about: whether the private parts are covered in a foreskin, and the largeness of the tongue.
Then it occurred to the Buddha, “This student Ambaṭṭha sees all the marks except for two, which he has doubts about: whether the private parts are covered in a foreskin, and the largeness of the tongue.” Then the Buddha used his psychic power to will that Ambaṭṭha would see his private parts covered in a foreskin.362 And he stuck out his tongue and stroked back and forth on his ear holes and nostrils, and covered his entire forehead with his tongue.
Then Ambaṭṭha thought, “The ascetic Gotama possesses the thirty-two marks completely, lacking none.”
He said to the Buddha, “Well, now, sir, I must go. I have many duties, and much to do.”
“Please, Ambaṭṭha, go at your convenience.” Then Ambaṭṭha mounted his chariot drawn by mares and left.
Now at that time the brahmin Pokkharasāti had come out from Ukkaṭṭhā together with a large group of brahmins and was sitting in his own park just waiting for Ambaṭṭha. Then Ambaṭṭha entered the park. He went by carriage as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and approached the brahmin Pokkharasāti on foot. He bowed and sat down to one side, and Pokkharasāti said to him:
“I hope, dear Ambaṭṭha, you saw the worthy Gotama?”
“I saw him, sir.”
“Well, does he live up to his reputation or not?”
“He does, sir. The worthy Gotama possesses the thirty-two marks completely, lacking none.”
“And did you have some discussion with him?”
“I did.”
“And what kind of discussion did you have with him?” Then Ambaṭṭha informed Pokkharasāti of all they had discussed.
Then Pokkharasāti said to Ambaṭṭha, “Oh, our bloody fake scholar, our fake learned man, who pretends to be proficient in the three Vedas! A man who behaves like this ought, when their body breaks up, after death, to be reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell.363 It’s only because you repeatedly attacked the worthy Gotama like that that he kept bringing up charges against us!”364 Angry and upset, he kicked Ambaṭṭha over,365 and wanted to go and see the Buddha right away.
Then those brahmins said to Pokkharasāti, “It’s much too late to visit the ascetic Gotama today. You can visit him tomorrow.”366
So Pokkharasāti had delicious fresh and cooked foods prepared in his own home. Then he mounted a carriage and, with attendants carrying torches, set out from Ukkaṭṭhā for the forest near Icchānaṅgala.367 He went by carriage as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and entered the monastery on foot. He went up to the Buddha and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side and said to the Buddha, “Master Gotama, has my resident pupil, the student Ambaṭṭha, come here?”
“Yes he has, brahmin.”
“And did you have some discussion with him?”
“I did.”
“And what kind of discussion did you have with him?”368 Then the Buddha informed Pokkharasāti of all they had discussed.
Then Pokkharasāti said to the Buddha, “Ambaṭṭha is a fool, worthy Gotama. Please forgive him.”369
“May the student Ambaṭṭha be happy, brahmin.”370
Then Pokkharasāti scrutinized the Buddha’s body for the thirty-two marks of a great man. He saw all of them except for two, which he had doubts about: whether the private parts are covered in a foreskin, and the largeness of the tongue.
Then it occurred to the Buddha, “Pokkharasāti sees all the marks except for two, which he has doubts about: whether the private parts are covered in a foreskin, and the largeness of the tongue.” Then the Buddha used his psychic power to will that Pokkharasāti would see his private parts covered in a foreskin. And he stuck out his tongue and stroked back and forth on his ear holes and nostrils, and covered his entire forehead with his tongue.
Pokkharasāti thought, “The ascetic Gotama possesses the thirty-two marks completely, lacking none.”
He said to the Buddha, “Would the worthy Gotama together with the mendicant Saṅgha please accept today’s meal from me?” The Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, Pokkharasāti announced the time to him, “It’s time, worthy Gotama, the meal is ready.” Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went to the home of Pokkharasāti together with the mendicant Saṅgha, where he sat on the seat spread out.371 Then Pokkharasāti served and satisfied the Buddha with his own hands with delicious fresh and cooked foods, while his young students served the Saṅgha. When the Buddha had eaten and washed his hand and bowl, Pokkharasāti took a low seat and sat to one side.
Then the Buddha taught him step by step, with a talk on giving, ethical conduct, and heaven. He explained the drawbacks of sensual pleasures, so sordid and corrupt, and the benefit of renunciation.372 And when the Buddha knew that Pokkharasāti’s mind was ready, pliable, rid of hindrances, elated, and confident he explained the special teaching of the Buddhas: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path.373 Just as a clean cloth rid of stains would properly absorb dye, in that very seat the stainless, immaculate vision of the Dhamma arose in the brahmin Pokkharasāti:374 “Everything that has a beginning has an end.”375
Then Pokkharasāti saw, attained, understood, and fathomed the Dhamma. He went beyond doubt, got rid of indecision, and became self-assured and independent of others regarding the Teacher’s instructions. He said to the Buddha, “Excellent, worthy Gotama! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, just so has the worthy Gotama made the Teaching clear in many ways. Together with my children, wives, retinue, and ministers, I go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the worthy Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.
Just as the worthy Gotama visits other devoted families in Ukkaṭṭhā, may he visit mine.376 The brahmin boys and girls there will bow to you, rise in your presence, give you a seat and water, and gain confidence in their hearts. That will be for their lasting welfare and happiness.”377
“That’s nice of you to say, householder.”378
So I have heard.379 At one time the Buddha was wandering in the land of the Aṅgas together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants when he arrived at Campā,380 where he stayed by the banks of the Gaggarā Lotus Pond.381
Now at that time the brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa was living in Campā. It was a crown property given by King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha, teeming with living creatures, full of hay, wood, water, and grain, a royal park endowed to a brahmin.382
The brahmins and householders of Campā heard:383
“It seems the ascetic Gotama—a Sakyan, gone forth from a Sakyan family—has arrived at Campā and is staying on the banks of the Gaggarā Lotus Pond. He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others. He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. It’s good to see such perfected ones.” Then, exiting Campā, they formed into companies and headed to the Gaggarā Lotus Pond.
Now at that time the brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa had retired to the upper floor of his stilt longhouse for his midday nap. He saw the brahmins and householders heading for the lotus pond, and addressed his butler, “My butler, why are the brahmins and householders headed for the Gaggarā Lotus Pond?”
“The ascetic Gotama has arrived at Campā and is staying on the banks of the Gaggarā Lotus Pond. He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ They’re going to see that worthy Gotama.”
“Well then, go to the brahmins and householders and say to them: ‘Sirs, the brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa asks you to wait, as he will also go to see the ascetic Gotama.’”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the butler, and did as he was asked.
Now at that time around five hundred brahmins from abroad were residing in Campā on some business. They heard that the brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa was going to see the ascetic Gotama. They approached Soṇadaṇḍa and said to him, “Is it really true that you are going to see the ascetic Gotama?”
“Yes, gentlemen, it is true.”
“Please don’t, worthy Soṇadaṇḍa! It’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama.384 For if you do so, your reputation will diminish and his will increase. For this reason it’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama; it’s appropriate that he comes to see you.
You are well born on both your mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation.385 For this reason it’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama; it’s appropriate that he comes to see you.
You’re rich, affluent, and wealthy. …
You recite and remember the hymns, and have mastered the three Vedas, together with their vocabularies and ritual performance, their phonology and word classification, and the testaments as fifth. You know them word-by-word, and their grammar. You are well versed in cosmology and the marks of a great man. …
You are attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. You have divine looks and lustre, remarkable to behold. …386
You are ethical, mature in ethical conduct. …
You’re a good speaker who enunciates well, with a polished, clear, and articulate voice that expresses the meaning. …
You tutor the tutors of many, and teach three hundred young students to recite the hymns. Many students come from various districts and countries for the sake of the hymns, wishing to learn the hymns. …387
You’re old, elderly and senior, advanced in years, and have reached the final stage of life. The ascetic Gotama is young, and has newly gone forth. …
You’re honored, respected, revered, venerated, and esteemed by King Bimbisāra of Magadha …
and the brahmin Pokkharasāti. …
You live in Campā, a crown property given by King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha, teeming with living creatures, full of hay, wood, water, and grain, a royal park endowed to a brahmin. For this reason, too, it’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama; it’s appropriate that he comes to see you.”
When they had spoken, Soṇadaṇḍa said to those brahmins:
“Well then, gentlemen, listen to why it’s appropriate for me to go to see the ascetic Gotama, and it’s not appropriate for him to come to see me. He is well born on both his mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation. For this reason it’s not appropriate for the ascetic Gotama to come to see me; rather, it’s appropriate for me to go to see him.
When he went forth he abandoned a large family circle. …
When he went forth he abandoned abundant gold, both coined and uncoined, stored above and below ground. …
He went forth from the lay life to homelessness while still a youth, young, with pristine black hair, blessed with youth, in the prime of life. …
Though his mother and father wished otherwise, weeping with tearful faces, he shaved off his hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness. …388
He is attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. He has divine looks and lustre, remarkable to behold. …
He is ethical, possessing ethical conduct that is noble and skillful. …
He’s a good speaker who enunciates well, with a polished, clear, and articulate voice that expresses the meaning. …
He’s a tutor of tutors. …
He has ended sensual desire, and is rid of caprice. …
He teaches the efficacy of deeds and action. He doesn’t wish any harm upon the community of brahmins. …389
He went forth from an eminent family of unbroken aristocratic lineage. …
He went forth from a rich, affluent, and wealthy family. …
People come from distant lands and distant countries to question him. …
Many thousands of deities have gone for refuge for life to him. …
He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ …
He has the thirty-two marks of a great man. …
He is welcoming, congenial, polite, smiling, open, the first to speak. …390
He’s honored, respected, revered, venerated, and esteemed by the four assemblies. …391
Many gods and humans are devoted to him. …
While he is residing in a village or town, non-human entities do not harass them. …
He leads an order and a community, and tutors a community, and is said to be the best of the various religious founders. He didn’t come by his fame in the same ways as those other ascetics and brahmins.392 Rather, he came by his fame due to his supreme knowledge and conduct. …
King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha and his wives and children have gone for refuge for life to the ascetic Gotama. …393
King Pasenadi of Kosala and his wives and children have gone for refuge for life to the ascetic Gotama. …394
The brahmin Pokkharasāti and his wives and children have gone for refuge for life to the ascetic Gotama. …395
He’s honored, respected, revered, venerated, and esteemed by King Bimbisāra of Magadha …
King Pasenadi of Kosala …
and the brahmin Pokkharasāti.
The ascetic Gotama has arrived at Campā and is staying at the Gaggarā Lotus Pond. Any ascetic or brahmin who comes to stay in our village district is our guest, and should be honored and respected as such. For this reason, too, it’s not appropriate for the worthy Gotama to come to see me; rather, it’s appropriate for me to go to see him. This is the extent of the worthy Gotama’s praise that I have memorized. But his praises are not confined to this, for the praise of the worthy Gotama is limitless.”
When he had spoken, those brahmins said to him, “According to Soṇadaṇḍa’s praises, if the worthy Gotama were staying within a hundred leagues, it’d be worthwhile for a faithful gentleman to go to see him, even if he had to carry his own provisions in a knapsack.”396
“Well then, gentlemen, let’s all go to see the ascetic Gotama.”
Then Soṇadaṇḍa together with a large group of brahmins went to see the Buddha.
But as he reached the far side of the forest, this thought came to mind, “Suppose I was to ask the ascetic Gotama a question. He might say to me: ‘Brahmin, you shouldn’t ask your question like that. This is how you should ask it.’ And the assembly might disparage me for that: ‘Soṇadaṇḍa is foolish and incompetent. He’s not able to ask the ascetic Gotama a rational question.’397 And when you’re disparaged by the assembly, your reputation diminishes. When your reputation diminishes, your wealth also diminishes. But my wealth relies on my reputation.
Or if the ascetic Gotama asks me a question, I might not satisfy him with my answer. He might say to me: ‘Brahmin, you shouldn’t answer the question like that. This is how you should answer it.’ And the assembly might disparage me for that: ‘Soṇadaṇḍa is foolish and incompetent. He’s not able to satisfy the ascetic Gotama’s mind with his answer.’ And when you’re disparaged by the assembly, your reputation diminishes. When your reputation diminishes, your wealth also diminishes. But my wealth relies on my reputation.
On the other hand, if I were to turn back after having come so far without having seen the ascetic Gotama, the assembly might disparage me for that: ‘Soṇadaṇḍa is foolish and incompetent. He’s stuck-up and scared. He doesn’t dare to go and see the ascetic Gotama. For how on earth can he turn back after having come so far without having seen the ascetic Gotama!’ And when you’re disparaged by the assembly, your reputation diminishes. When your reputation diminishes, your wealth also diminishes. But my wealth relies on my reputation.”
Then Soṇadaṇḍa went up to the Buddha, and exchanged greetings with him.398 When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side. Before sitting down to one side, some of the brahmins and householders of Campā bowed, some exchanged greetings and polite conversation, some held up their joined palms toward the Buddha, some announced their name and clan, while some kept silent.399
But while sitting there, Soṇadaṇḍa continued to be plagued by many second thoughts. He thought, “If only the ascetic Gotama would ask me about my own tutor’s scriptural heritage of the three Vedas! Then I could definitely satisfy his mind with my answer.”
Then the Buddha, knowing Soṇadaṇḍa’s train of thought, thought, “This brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa is troubled by his own thoughts. Why don’t I ask him about his own tutor’s scriptural heritage of the three Vedas?”400
So he said to Soṇadaṇḍa, “Brahmin, how many factors must a brahmin possess for the brahmins to describe him as a brahmin; and so that when he says ‘I am a brahmin’ he speaks rightly, without falling into falsehood?”
Then Soṇadaṇḍa thought, “The ascetic Gotama has asked me about exactly what I wanted, what I wished for, what I desired, what I yearned for; that is, my own scriptural heritage. I can definitely satisfy his mind with my answer.”
Then Soṇadaṇḍa straightened his back, looked around the assembly, and said to the Buddha, “Worthy Gotama, a brahmin must possess five factors for the brahmins to describe him as a brahmin; and so that when he says ‘I am a brahmin’ he speaks rightly, without falling into falsehood. What five? It’s when a brahmin is well born on both his mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation. He recites and remembers the hymns, and has mastered the three Vedas, together with their vocabularies and ritual performance, their phonology and word classification, and the testaments as fifth. He knows them word-by-word, and their grammar. He is well versed in cosmology and the marks of a great man. He is attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. He has divine looks and lustre, remarkable to behold. He is ethical, mature in ethical conduct. He’s astute and clever, being the first or second to hold the sacrificial ladle.401 These are the five factors which a brahmin must possess for the brahmins to describe him as a brahmin; and so that when he says ‘I am a brahmin’ he speaks rightly, without falling into falsehood.”
“But brahmin, is it possible to set aside one of these five factors and still rightly describe someone as a brahmin?”402
“It is possible, worthy Gotama. We could leave appearance out of the five factors. For what does appearance matter? A brahmin must possess the remaining four factors for the brahmins to rightly describe him as a brahmin.”
“But brahmin, is it possible to set aside one of these four factors and still rightly describe someone as a brahmin?”
“It is possible, worthy Gotama. We could leave the hymns out of the four factors. For what do the hymns matter? A brahmin must possess the remaining three factors for the brahmins to rightly describe him as a brahmin.”
“But brahmin, is it possible to set aside one of these three factors and still rightly describe someone as a brahmin?”
“It is possible, worthy Gotama. We could leave birth out of the three factors. For what does birth matter? It’s when a brahmin is ethical, mature in ethical conduct; and he’s astute and clever, being the first or second to hold the sacrificial ladle. A brahmin must possess these two factors for the brahmins to rightly describe him as a brahmin.”
When he had spoken, those brahmins said to him, “Please don’t say that, worthy Soṇadaṇḍa, please don’t say that! You’re just condemning appearance, the hymns, and birth! You’re totally going over to the ascetic Gotama’s doctrine!”
So the Buddha said to them, “Well, brahmins, if you think that Soṇadaṇḍa is unlearned, a poor speaker, witless, and not capable of debating with me about this, then leave him aside and you can debate with me. But if you think that he’s learned, a good speaker who enunciates well, astute, and capable of debating with me about this, then you should stand aside and let him debate with me.”
When he said this, Soṇadaṇḍa said to the Buddha, “Let it be, worthy Gotama, be silent. I myself will respond to them in a legitimate manner.” Then he said to those brahmins, “Don’t say this, good fellows, don’t say this: ‘You’re just condemning appearance, the hymns, and birth! You’re totally going over to the ascetic Gotama’s doctrine!’ I’m not condemning appearance, hymns, or birth.”
Now at that time Soṇadaṇḍa’s nephew, the young student Aṅgaka was sitting in that assembly. Then Soṇadaṇḍa said to those brahmins, “Gentlemen, do you see my nephew, the young student Aṅgaka?”
“Yes, sir.”
“Aṅgaka is attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. He has divine looks and lustre, remarkable to behold. There’s no-one in this assembly so good-looking, apart from the ascetic Gotama. Aṅgaka recites and remembers the hymns, and has mastered the three Vedas, together with their vocabularies and ritual performance, their phonology and word classification, and the testaments as fifth. He knows them word-by-word, and their grammar. He is well versed in cosmology and the marks of a great man. And I am the one who teaches him the hymns. Aṅgaka is well born on both his mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation. And I know his mother and father. But if Aṅgaka were to kill living creatures, steal, commit adultery, lie, and drink liquor, then what’s the use of his appearance, his hymns, or his birth? It’s when a brahmin is ethical, mature in ethical conduct; and he’s astute and clever, being the first or second to hold the sacrificial ladle. A brahmin must possess these two factors for the brahmins to rightly describe him as a brahmin.”
“But brahmin, is it possible to set aside one of these two factors and still rightly describe someone as a brahmin?”
“No, worthy Gotama. For wisdom is cleansed by ethics, and ethics are cleansed by wisdom. Ethics and wisdom always go together. An ethical person is wise, and a wise person ethical. And ethics and wisdom are said to be the best things in the world. It’s just like when you clean one hand with the other, or clean one foot with the other. In the same way, wisdom is cleansed by ethics, and ethics are cleansed by wisdom. Ethics and wisdom always go together. An ethical person is wise, and a wise person ethical. And ethics and wisdom are said to be the best things in the world.”
“That’s so true, brahmin, that’s so true! For wisdom is cleansed by ethics, and ethics are cleansed by wisdom.403 Ethics and wisdom always go together. An ethical person is wise, and a wise person ethical. And ethics and wisdom are said to be the best things in the world. It’s just like when you clean one hand with the other, or clean one foot with the other. In the same way, wisdom is cleansed by ethics, and ethics are cleansed by wisdom. Ethics and wisdom always go together. An ethical person is wise, and a wise person ethical. And ethics and wisdom are said to be the best things in the world.
But what, brahmin, is that ethical conduct?404 And what is that wisdom?”
“That’s all I know about this matter, worthy Gotama. May the worthy Gotama himself please clarify the meaning of this.”
“Well then, brahmin, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, worthy sir,” Soṇadaṇḍa replied. The Buddha said this:
“It’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. This, brahmin, is that ethical conduct. … They enter and remain in the first absorption …405 second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption … They project and extend the mind toward knowledge and vision … This pertains to their wisdom. … They understand: ‘… there is nothing further for this place.’ This pertains to their wisdom. This, brahmin, is that wisdom.”
When he had spoken, Soṇadaṇḍa said to the Buddha, “Excellent, worthy Gotama! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, worthy Gotama has made the Teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the worthy Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life. Would you and the mendicant Saṅgha please accept a meal from me tomorrow?” The Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, Soṇadaṇḍa got up from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on his right, before leaving. And when the night had passed Soṇadaṇḍa had delicious fresh and cooked foods prepared in his own home. Then he had the Buddha informed of the time, saying, “It’s time, worthy Gotama, the meal is ready.” Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went to the home of Soṇadaṇḍa together with the mendicant Saṅgha, where he sat on the seat spread out. Then Soṇadaṇḍa served and satisfied the mendicant Saṅgha headed by the Buddha with his own hands with delicious fresh and cooked foods.
When the Buddha had eaten and washed his hand and bowl, Soṇadaṇḍa took a low seat and sat to one side. Seated to one side he said to the Buddha: “Worthy Gotama, if, when I have gone to an assembly, I rise from my seat and bow to the Buddha, that assembly might disparage me for that. And when you’re disparaged by the assembly, your reputation diminishes. When your reputation diminishes, your wealth also diminishes. But my wealth relies on my reputation. If, when I have gone to an assembly, I raise my joined palms, please take it that I have risen from my seat. And if I undo my turban, please take it that I have bowed. And the worthy Gotama, if, when I am in a carriage, I get down from my carriage and bow to the Buddha, that assembly might disparage me for that. If, when I am in a carriage, I hold up my goad, please take it that I have got down from my carriage. And if I lower my parasol, please take it that I have bowed.”406
Then the Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired the brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa with a Dhamma talk, after which he got up from his seat and left.
So I have heard.407 At one time the Buddha was wandering in the land of the Magadhans together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants when he arrived at a village of the Magadhan brahmins named Khāṇumata.408 There he stayed nearby at Ambalaṭṭhikā.409
Now at that time the brahmin Kūṭadanta was living in Khāṇumata. It was a crown property given by King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha, teeming with living creatures, full of hay, wood, water, and grain, a royal park endowed to a brahmin.410 Now at that time Kūṭadanta had prepared a great sacrifice. Bulls, bullocks, heifers, goats and rams—seven hundred of each—had been led to the post for the sacrifice.411
The brahmins and householders of Khāṇumata heard:
“It seems the ascetic Gotama—a Sakyan, gone forth from a Sakyan family—has arrived at Khāṇumata and is staying at Ambalaṭṭhikā. He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others. He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. It’s good to see such perfected ones.”
Then, exiting Khāṇumata, they formed into companies and headed to Ambalaṭṭhikā.
Now at that time the brahmin Kūṭadanta had retired to the upper floor of his stilt longhouse for his midday nap. He saw the brahmins and householders heading for Ambalaṭṭhikā, and addressed his butler, “My butler, why are the brahmins and householders headed for Ambalaṭṭhikā?”
“The ascetic Gotama has arrived at Khāṇumata and is staying at Ambalaṭṭhikā. He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ They’re going to see that worthy Gotama.”
Then Kūṭadanta thought, “I’ve heard that the ascetic Gotama knows how to accomplish the sacrifice with three modes and sixteen accessories.412 I don’t know about that, but I wish to perform a great sacrifice. Why don’t I ask him how to accomplish the sacrifice with three modes and sixteen accessories?”413
Then Kūṭadanta addressed his butler, “Well then, go to the brahmins and householders and say to them: ‘Sirs, the brahmin Kūṭadanta asks you to wait, as he will also go to see the ascetic Gotama.’”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the butler, and did as he was asked.
Now at that time several hundred brahmins were residing in Khāṇumata thinking to participate in Kūṭadanta’s sacrifice. They heard that Kūṭadanta was going to see the ascetic Gotama. They approached Kūṭadanta and said to him:
“Is it really true that you are going to see the ascetic Gotama?”
“Yes, gentlemen, it is true.”
“Please don’t! It’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama. For if you do so, your reputation will diminish and his will increase. For this reason it’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama; it’s appropriate that he comes to see you.
You are well born on both your mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation. For this reason it’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama; it’s appropriate that he comes to see you.
You’re rich, affluent, and wealthy, with lots of property and assets, and lots of money and grain …
You recite and remember the hymns, and have mastered the three Vedas, together with their vocabularies and ritual performance, their phonology and word classification, and the testaments as fifth. You know them word-by-word, and their grammar. You are well versed in cosmology and the marks of a great man. …
You are attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. You have divine looks and lustre, remarkable to behold. …
You are ethical, mature in ethical conduct. …
You’re a good speaker who enunciates well, with a polished, clear, and articulate voice that expresses the meaning. …
You teach the tutors of many, and teach three hundred young students to recite the hymns. Many students come from various districts and countries for the sake of the hymns, wishing to learn the hymns. …
You’re old, elderly and senior, advanced in years, and have reached the final stage of life. The ascetic Gotama is young, and has newly gone forth. …
You’re honored, respected, revered, venerated, and esteemed by King Bimbisāra of Magadha …
and the brahmin Pokkharasāti. …
You live in Khāṇumata, a crown property given by King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha, teeming with living creatures, full of hay, wood, water, and grain, a royal park endowed to a brahmin. For this reason it’s not appropriate for you to go to see the ascetic Gotama; it’s appropriate that he comes to see you.”
When they had spoken, Kūṭadanta said to those brahmins:
“Well then, gentlemen, listen to why it’s appropriate for me to go to see the ascetic Gotama, and it’s not appropriate for him to come to see me. He is well born on both his mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation. For this reason it’s not appropriate for the ascetic Gotama to come to see me; rather, it’s appropriate for me to go to see him.
When he went forth he abandoned a large family circle. …
When he went forth he abandoned abundant gold, both coined and uncoined, stored above and below ground. …
He went forth from the lay life to homelessness while still a youth, young, with pristine black hair, blessed with youth, in the prime of life. …
Though his mother and father wished otherwise, weeping with tearful faces, he shaved off his hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness. …
He is attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. He has divine looks and lustre, remarkable to behold. …
He is ethical, possessing ethical conduct that is noble and skillful. …
He’s a good speaker who enunciates well, with a polished, clear, and articulate voice that expresses the meaning. …
He’s a tutor of tutors. …
He has ended sensual desire, and is rid of caprice. …
He teaches the efficacy of deeds and action. He doesn’t wish any harm upon the community of brahmins. …
He went forth from an eminent family of unbroken aristocratic lineage. …
He went forth from a rich, affluent, and wealthy family. …
People come from distant lands and distant countries to question him. …
Many thousands of deities have gone for refuge for life to him. …
He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ …
He has the thirty-two marks of a great man. …
He is welcoming, congenial, polite, smiling, open, the first to speak. …
He’s honored, respected, revered, venerated, and esteemed by the four assemblies. …
Many gods and humans are devoted to him. …
While he is residing in a village or town, non-human entities do not harass them. …
He leads an order and a community, and tutors a community, and is said to be the best of the various religious founders. He didn’t come by his fame in the same ways as those other ascetics and brahmins. Rather, he came by his fame due to his supreme knowledge and conduct. …
King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha and his wives and children have gone for refuge for life to the ascetic Gotama. …
King Pasenadi of Kosala and his wives and children have gone for refuge for life to the ascetic Gotama. …
The brahmin Pokkharasāti and his wives and children have gone for refuge for life to the ascetic Gotama. …
He’s honored, respected, revered, venerated, and esteemed by King Bimbisāra of Magadha …
King Pasenadi of Kosala …
and the brahmin Pokkharasāti.
The ascetic Gotama has arrived at Khāṇumata and is staying at Ambalaṭṭhikā. Any ascetic or brahmin who comes to stay in our village district is our guest, and should be honored and respected as such. For this reason, too, it’s not appropriate for the worthy Gotama to come to see me, rather, it’s appropriate for me to go to see him. This is the extent of the worthy Gotama’s praise that I have memorized. But his praises are not confined to this, for the praise of the worthy Gotama is limitless.”
When he had spoken, those brahmins said to him, “According to Kūṭadanta’s praises, if the worthy Gotama were staying within a hundred leagues, it’d be worthwhile for a faithful gentleman to go to see him, even if he had to carry his own provisions in a knapsack.”
“Well then, gentlemen, let’s all go to see the ascetic Gotama.”
Then Kūṭadanta together with a large group of brahmins went to see the Buddha and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side. Before sitting down to one side, some of the brahmins and householders of Khāṇumata bowed, some exchanged greetings and polite conversation, some held up their joined palms toward the Buddha, some announced their name and clan, while some kept silent.
Kūṭadanta said to the Buddha, “Worthy Gotama, I’ve heard that you know how to accomplish the sacrifice with three modes and sixteen accessories. I don’t know about that, but I wish to perform a great sacrifice. Please teach me how to accomplish the sacrifice with three modes and sixteen accessories.”
“Well then, brahmin, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”414
“Yes, worthy sir,” Kūṭadanta replied. The Buddha said this: “Once upon a time, brahmin, there was a king named Mahāvijita. He was rich, affluent, and wealthy, with lots of gold and silver, lots of property and assets, lots of money and grain, and a full treasury and storehouses.415 Then as King Mahāvijita was in private retreat this thought came to his mind:416 ‘I have achieved human wealth, and reign after conquering this vast territory. Why don’t I hold a large sacrifice? That will be for my lasting welfare and happiness.’417
Then he summoned the brahmin high priest and said to him:418 ‘Just now, brahmin, as I was in private retreat this thought came to mind, “I have achieved human wealth, and reign after conquering this vast territory. Why don’t I perform a great sacrifice? That will be for my lasting welfare and happiness.” Brahmin, I wish to perform a great sacrifice. Please instruct me. It will be for my lasting welfare and happiness.’
When he had spoken, the brahmin high priest said to him: ‘Sir, the king’s realm is harried and oppressed. Raiding of villages, towns, and cities has been seen, and infesting of highways.419 But if the king were to extract more taxes while his realm is thus harried and oppressed, he would not be doing his duty.420
Now the king might think, “I’ll eradicate this plague of savages by execution or imprisonment or confiscation or condemnation or banishment!” But that’s not the right way to eradicate this plague of savages.421 Those who remain after the killing will return to harass the king’s realm.422
Rather, here is a plan, relying on which the plague of savages will be properly uprooted.423 So let the king provide seed and fodder for those in the realm who work in growing crops and raising cattle.424 Let the king provide funding for those who work in trade. Let the king guarantee food and wages for those in government service. Then the people, occupied with their own work, will not harass the realm.425 The king’s revenues will be great.426 When the country is secured as a sanctuary, free of being harried and oppressed, the happy people, with joy in their hearts, dancing with children at their breast, will dwell as if their houses were wide open.’427
The king agreed with the high priest’s advice and followed his recommendation.428
Then the king summoned the brahmin high priest and said to him: ‘I have eradicated the plague of savages. And relying on your plan my revenue is now great. Since the country is secured as a sanctuary, free of being harried and oppressed, the happy people, with joy in their hearts, dancing with children at their breast, dwell as if their houses were wide open. Brahmin, I wish to perform a great sacrifice. Please instruct me. It will be for my lasting welfare and happiness.’
‘In that case, let the king announce this throughout the realm to the aristocrat vassals of both town and country; the ministers and councillors of both town and country; the well-to-do brahmins of both town and country; and the well-off householders of both town and country.429 “I wish to perform a great sacrifice. Please grant your approval, good fellows; it will be for my lasting welfare and happiness.”
The king agreed with the high priest’s advice and followed his recommendation. And all of the people who were thus informed responded by saying: ‘May the king perform a sacrifice! It is time for a sacrifice, great king.’ And so these four consenting factions became accessories to the sacrifice.430
King Mahāvijita possessed eight factors.431
He was well born on both his mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation.
He was attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. He had divine looks and lustre, remarkable to behold.
He was rich, affluent, and wealthy, with lots of gold and silver, lots of property and assets, lots of money and grain, and a full treasury and storehouses.
He was powerful, having an army of four divisions that was obedient and carried out instructions. He’d probably prevail over his enemies just with his reputation.432
He was faithful, generous, a donor, his door always open. He was a well-spring of support, making merit with ascetics and brahmins, for paupers, vagrants, supplicants, and beggars.
He was very learned in diverse fields of learning. He understood the meaning of diverse statements, saying:433 ‘This is what that statement means; that is what this statement means.’
He was astute, competent, and intelligent, able to think issues through as they bear upon the past, future, and present.434
These are the eight factors that King Mahāvijita possessed. And so these eight factors also became accessories to the sacrifice.
And the brahmin high priest had four factors.435
He was well born on both his mother’s and father’s side, of pure descent, with irrefutable and impeccable genealogy back to the seventh paternal generation.
He recited and remembered the hymns, and had mastered the three Vedas, together with their vocabularies and ritual performance, their phonology and word classification, and the testaments as fifth. He knew them word-by-word, and their grammar. He was well versed in cosmology and the marks of a great man.
He was ethical, mature in ethical conduct.
He was astute and clever, being the first or second to hold the sacrificial ladle.
These are the four factors that the brahmin high priest possessed. And so these four factors also became accessories to the sacrifice.
Next, before the sacrifice, the brahmin high priest taught the three modes to the king. ‘Now, though the king wants to perform a great sacrifice, he might have certain regrets, thinking: “I shall lose a great fortune,” or436 “I am losing a great fortune,” or “I have lost a great fortune.” But the king should not harbor such regrets.’
These are the three modes that the brahmin high priest taught to the king before the sacrifice.
Next, before the sacrifice, the brahmin high priest dispelled the king’s regret regarding the recipients in ten respects:437
‘There will come to the sacrifice those who kill living creatures and those who refrain from killing living creatures. As to those who kill living creatures, the outcome of that is theirs alone. But as to those who refrain from killing living creatures, it is for their sakes that the king should sacrifice, relinquish, rejoice, and gain confidence in his heart.438
There will come to the sacrifice those who steal … commit sexual misconduct … lie … use divisive speech … use harsh speech … talk nonsense … are covetous … have ill will … have wrong view and those who have right view. As to those who have wrong view, the outcome of that is theirs alone. But as to those who have right view, it is for their sakes that the king should sacrifice, relinquish, rejoice, and gain confidence in his heart.’
These are the ten respects in which the high priest dispelled the king’s regret regarding the recipients before the sacrifice.
Next, while the king was performing the great sacrifice, the brahmin high priest educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired the king’s mind in sixteen respects:
‘Now, while the king is performing the great sacrifice, someone might say, “King Mahāvijita performs a great sacrifice, but he did not announce it to the aristocrat vassals of town and country.439 That’s the kind of great sacrifice that this king performs.” Those who speak against the king in this way have no legitimacy. For the king did indeed announce it to the aristocrat vassals of town and country. Let the king know this as a reason to sacrifice, relinquish, rejoice, and gain confidence in his heart.
While the king is performing the great sacrifice, someone might say, “King Mahāvijita performs a great sacrifice, but he did not announce it to the aristocrat vassals; the ministers and councillors; the well-to-do brahmins; and the well-off householders. That’s the kind of great sacrifice that this king performs.” Those who speak against the king in this way have no legitimacy. For the king did indeed announce it to all these people.440 Let the king know this too as a reason to sacrifice, relinquish, rejoice, and gain confidence in his heart.
While the king is performing the great sacrifice, someone might say that he does not possess the eight factors. Those who speak against the king in this way have no legitimacy. For the king does indeed possess the eight factors. Let the king know this too as a reason to sacrifice, relinquish, rejoice, and gain confidence in his heart.
While the king is performing the great sacrifice, someone might say that the high priest does not possess the four factors. Those who speak against the king in this way have no legitimacy. For the high priest does indeed possess the four factors. Let the king know this too as a reason to sacrifice, relinquish, rejoice, and gain confidence in his heart.’
These are the sixteen respects in which the high priest educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired the king’s mind while he was performing the sacrifice.
And brahmin, in that sacrifice no cattle were killed, no goats or sheep were killed, and no chickens or pigs were killed. There was no slaughter of various kinds of creatures. No trees were felled for the sacrificial post. No grass was reaped to strew over the place of sacrifice. No bondservants, servants, or workers did their jobs under threat of punishment and danger, weeping with tearful faces. Those who wished to work did so, while those who did not wish to did not.441 They did the work they wanted to, and did not do what they didn’t want to. The sacrifice was completed with just ghee, oil, butter, curds, honey, and molasses.442
Then the aristocrat vassals, ministers and councillors, well-to-do brahmins, and well-off householders came to the king bringing abundant wealth and said, ‘Sire, this abundant wealth is specially for you alone; may Your Highness accept it!’443
‘There’s enough raised for me through regular taxes. Let this be for you; and here, take even more!’
When the king turned them down, they withdrew to one side to think up a plan, ‘It wouldn’t be proper for us to take this abundant wealth back to our own homes. King Mahāvijita is performing a great sacrifice. Let us make an offering as an auxiliary sacrifice.’
Then the aristocrat vassals of town and country set up gifts to the east of the sacrificial enclosure. The ministers and councillors of town and country set up gifts to the south of the sacrificial enclosure. The well-to-do brahmins of town and country set up gifts to the west of the sacrificial enclosure. The well-off householders of town and country set up gifts to the north of the sacrificial enclosure.
And brahmin, in that sacrifice too no cattle were killed, no goats were killed, and no chickens or pigs were killed. There was no slaughter of various kinds of creatures. No trees were felled for the sacrificial post. No grass was reaped to strew over the place of sacrifice. No bondservants, servants, or workers did their jobs under threat of punishment and danger, weeping with tearful faces. Those who wished to work did so, while those who did not wish to did not. They did the work they wanted to, and did not do what they didn’t want to. The sacrifice was completed with just ghee, oil, butter, curds, honey, and molasses.
And so there were four consenting factions, eight factors possessed by King Mahāvijita, four factors possessed by the high priest, and three modes. Brahmin, this is called the sacrifice accomplished with three modes and sixteen accessories.”
When he said this, those brahmins made an uproar,444 “Hooray for such sacrifice! Hooray for the accomplishment of such sacrifice!”
But the brahmin Kūṭadanta sat in silence.445 So those brahmins said to him, “How can you not applaud the ascetic Gotama’s fine words?”
“It’s not that I don’t applaud what he said. If anyone didn’t applaud such fine words, their head would explode!
But, gentlemen, it occurs to me that the ascetic Gotama does not say: ‘So I have heard’ or ‘It ought to be like this.’446 Rather, he just says: ‘So it was then, this is how it was then.’
It occurs to me that the ascetic Gotama at that time must have been King Mahāvijita, the owner of the sacrifice, or else the brahmin high priest who facilitated the sacrifice for him.
Does the worthy Gotama recall having performed such a sacrifice, or having facilitated it, and then, when his body broke up, after death, being reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm?”
“I do recall that, brahmin. For I myself was the brahmin high priest at that time who facilitated the sacrifice.”447
“But Mister Gotama, apart from that sacrifice accomplished with three modes and sixteen accessories, is there any other sacrifice that has fewer obligations and undertakings, yet is more fruitful and beneficial?”448
“There is, brahmin.”
“But what is it?”
“The regular gifts as propitious sacrifice given specially to ethical renunciates;449 this sacrifice, brahmin, has fewer obligations and undertakings, yet is more fruitful and beneficial.”
“What is the cause, Mister Gotama, what is the reason why those regular gifts as propitious sacrifice have fewer obligations and undertakings, yet are more fruitful and beneficial, compared with the sacrifice accomplished with three modes and sixteen accessories?”
“Because neither perfected ones nor those who are on the path to perfection will attend such a sacrifice. Why is that? Because beatings and throttlings are seen there.450
But the regular gifts as propitious sacrifice given specially to ethical renunciates; perfected ones and those who are on the path to perfection will attend such a sacrifice. Why is that? Because no beatings and throttlings are seen there.
This is the cause, brahmin, this is the reason why those regular gifts as propitious sacrifice have fewer obligations and undertakings, yet are more fruitful and beneficial, compared with the sacrifice accomplished with three modes and sixteen accessories.”
“But Mister Gotama, apart from that sacrifice accomplished with three modes and sixteen accessories and those regular gifts as propitious sacrifice, is there any other sacrifice that has fewer obligations and undertakings, yet is more fruitful and beneficial?”
“There is, brahmin.”
“But what is it?”
“When someone gives a dwelling specially for the Saṅgha of the four quarters.”451
“But is there any other sacrifice that has fewer obligations and undertakings, yet is more fruitful and beneficial?”
“When someone with confident heart goes for refuge to the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha.”
“But is there any other sacrifice that has fewer obligations and undertakings, yet is more fruitful and beneficial?”
“When someone with a confident heart undertakes the training rules to refrain from killing living creatures, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and beer, wine, and liquor intoxicants.”452
“But is there any other sacrifice that has fewer obligations and undertakings, yet is more fruitful and beneficial?”
“There is, brahmin.
It’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. … They enter and remain in the first absorption … This sacrifice has fewer obligations and undertakings than the former, yet is more fruitful and beneficial. …
They enter and remain in the second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. This sacrifice has fewer obligations and undertakings than the former, yet is more fruitful and beneficial. …
They project and extend the mind toward knowledge and vision … This sacrifice has fewer obligations and undertakings than the former, yet is more fruitful and beneficial.
They understand: ‘… there is nothing further for this place.’ This sacrifice has fewer obligations and undertakings than the former, yet is more fruitful and beneficial. And, brahmin, there is no other accomplishment of sacrifice which is better and finer than this.”453
When he had spoken, Kūṭadanta said to the Buddha, “Excellent, worthy Gotama! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, worthy Gotama has made the Teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the worthy Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.
And these bulls, bullocks, heifers, goats, and rams—seven hundred of each—I release them, I grant them life! Let them eat green grass and drink cool water, and may a cool breeze blow upon them!”454
Then the Buddha taught Kūṭadanta step by step, with a talk on giving, ethical conduct, and heaven. He explained the drawbacks of sensual pleasures, so sordid and corrupt, and the benefit of renunciation. And when he knew that Kūṭadanta’s mind was ready, pliable, rid of hindrances, elated, and confident he explained the special teaching of the Buddhas: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path. Just as a clean cloth rid of stains would properly absorb dye, in that very seat the stainless, immaculate vision of the Dhamma arose in the brahmin Kūṭadanta: “Everything that has a beginning has an end.”
Then Kūṭadanta saw, attained, understood, and fathomed the Dhamma. He went beyond doubt, got rid of indecision, and became self-assured and independent of others regarding the Teacher’s instructions. He said to the Buddha, “Would the worthy Gotama together with the mendicant Saṅgha please accept tomorrow’s meal from me?” The Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, Kūṭadanta got up from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on his right, before leaving. And when the night had passed Kūṭadanta had delicious fresh and cooked foods prepared in his own sacrificial enclosure. Then he had the Buddha informed of the time, saying, “It’s time, worthy Gotama, the meal is ready.”
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went to the sacrificial enclosure of Kūṭadanta together with the mendicant Saṅgha, where he sat on the seat spread out.
Then Kūṭadanta served and satisfied the mendicant Saṅgha headed by the Buddha with his own hands with delicious fresh and cooked foods. When the Buddha had eaten and washed his hand and bowl, Kūṭadanta took a low seat and sat to one side. Then the Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired him with a Dhamma talk, after which he got up from his seat and left.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Vesālī, at the Great Wood, in the hall with the peaked roof.455 Now at that time several brahmin emissaries from Kosala and Magadha were residing in Vesālī on some business.456 They heard:
“It seems the ascetic Gotama—a Sakyan, gone forth from a Sakyan family—is staying near Vesālī, at the Great Wood, in the hall with the peaked roof.457 He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others. He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. It’s good to see such perfected ones.”
Then they went to the hall with the peaked roof in the Great Wood to see the Buddha.
Now, at that time Venerable Nāgita was the Buddha’s attendant. The brahmin emissaries went up to him and said, “Worthy Nāgita, where is the worthy Gotama at present? For we want to see him.”
“It’s the wrong time to see the Buddha; he is on retreat.”458
So right there the brahmin emissaries sat down to one side, thinking, “We’ll go only after we’ve seen the worthy Gotama.”
Oṭṭhaddha the Licchavi together with a large assembly of Licchavis also approached Nāgita at the hall with the peaked roof. He bowed, stood to one side, and said to Nāgita,459 “Worthy Nāgita, where is the Blessed One at present, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha? For we want to see him.”
“It’s the wrong time to see the Buddha; he is on retreat.”
So right there Oṭṭhaddha also sat down to one side, thinking, “I’ll go only after I’ve seen the Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha.”
Then the novice Sīha approached Nāgita. He bowed, stood to one side, and said to Nāgita,460 “Honorable Kassapa, these several brahmin emissaries from Kosala and Magadha, and also Oṭṭhaddha the Licchavi together with a large assembly of Licchavis, have come here to see the Buddha. It’d be good if these people got to see the Buddha.”461
“Well then, Sīha, tell the Buddha yourself.”462
“Yes, sir,” replied Sīha. He went to the Buddha, bowed, stood to one side, and told him of the people waiting to see him, adding: “Sir, it’d be good if these people got to see the Buddha.”
“Well then, Sīha, spread out a seat in the shade of the dwelling.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Sīha, and he did so.
Then the Buddha came out of his dwelling and sat in the shade of the dwelling on the seat spread out.463 Then the brahmin emissaries went up to the Buddha, and exchanged greetings with him.464 When the greetings and polite conversation were over, they sat down to one side.
Oṭṭhaddha the Licchavi together with a large assembly of Licchavis also went up to the Buddha, bowed, and sat down to one side. Oṭṭhaddha said to the Buddha, “Sir, a few days ago Sunakkhatta the Licchavi came to me and said:465 ‘Mahāli, soon I will have been living in dependence on the Buddha for three years. I see heavenly sights that are pleasant, sensual, and arousing, but I don’t hear heavenly sounds that are pleasant, sensual, and arousing.’466 The heavenly sounds that Sunakkhatta cannot hear: do such sounds really exist or not?”
“Such sounds really do exist, but Sunakkhatta cannot hear them.”467
“What is the cause, sir, what is the reason why Sunakkhatta cannot hear them, even though they really do exist?”
“Mahāli, take a mendicant who has developed immersion to the eastern quarter in one aspect: so as to see heavenly sights but not to hear heavenly sounds.468 When they have developed immersion for that purpose, they see heavenly sights but don’t hear heavenly sounds. Why is that? Because that is how it is for a mendicant who develops immersion in that way.
Furthermore, take a mendicant who has developed immersion to the southern quarter in one aspect … western quarter … northern quarter … above, below, across … That is how it is for a mendicant who develops immersion in that way.
Take a mendicant who has developed immersion to the eastern quarter in one aspect: so as to hear heavenly sounds but not to see heavenly sights. When they have developed immersion for that purpose, they hear heavenly sounds but don’t see heavenly sights. Why is that? Because that is how it is for a mendicant who develops immersion in that way.
Furthermore, take a mendicant who has developed immersion to the southern quarter in one aspect … western quarter … northern quarter … above, below, across … That is how it is for a mendicant who develops immersion in that way.
Take a mendicant who has developed immersion to the eastern quarter in both aspects: so as to hear heavenly sounds and see heavenly sights. When they have developed immersion for that purpose, they see heavenly sights and hear heavenly sounds. Why is that? Because that is how it is for a mendicant who develops immersion in that way.
Furthermore, take a mendicant who has developed immersion to the southern quarter in both aspects … western quarter … northern quarter … above, below, across … That is how it is for a mendicant who develops immersion in that way. This is the cause, Mahāli, this is the reason why Sunakkhatta cannot hear heavenly sounds that are pleasant, sensual, and arousing, even though they really do exist.”
“Surely the mendicants must lead the spiritual life under the Buddha for the sake of realizing such a development of immersion?”
“No, Mahāli, the mendicants don’t lead the spiritual life under me for the sake of realizing such a development of immersion.469 There are other things that are finer, for the sake of which the mendicants lead the spiritual life under me.”
“But sir, what are those finer things?”
“Firstly, Mahāli, with the ending of three fetters a mendicant is a stream-enterer, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.470 This is one of the finer things for the sake of which the mendicants lead the spiritual life under me.
Furthermore, a mendicant—with the ending of three fetters, and the weakening of greed, hate, and delusion—is a once-returner. They come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering. This too is one of the finer things.
Furthermore, with the ending of the five lower fetters, a mendicant is reborn spontaneously and will become extinguished there, not liable to return from that world.471 This too is one of the finer things.
Furthermore, a mendicant has realized the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and lives having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements.472 This too is one of the finer things.
These are the finer things, for the sake of which the mendicants lead the spiritual life under me.”
“But, sir, is there a path and a practice for realizing these things?”
“There is, Mahāli.”
“Well, what is it?”
“It is simply this noble eightfold path, that is:473 right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion.474 This is the path and the practice for realizing these things.
This one time, Mahāli, I was staying near Kosambī, in Ghosita’s Monastery.475 Then two renunciates—the wanderer Muṇḍiya and Jāliya, the pupil of the wood-bowl ascetic—came and exchanged greetings with me.476 When the greetings and polite conversation were over, they stood to one side and said to me: ‘Reverend Gotama, are the soul and the body one and the same, or is the soul one thing, the body another?’477
‘Well then, reverends, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.’
‘Yes, reverend,’ they replied.
I said this: ‘Take the case when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. …
They enter and remain in the first absorption. When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul is one thing, the body another”?’
‘It would, reverend.’478
‘But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul and the body are different things”. …
They enter and remain in the second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul is one thing, the body another”?’
‘It would, reverend.’
‘But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul is one thing, the body another”. …
They project and extend the mind toward knowledge and vision … When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul is one thing, the body another”?’
‘It would, reverend.’
‘But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul is one thing, the body another”. …
They understand: “… there is nothing further for this place.” When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul is one thing, the body another”?’
‘It would not, reverend.’479
‘But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: “The soul and the body are one and the same” or “The soul is one thing, the body another”.’”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, Oṭṭhaddha the Licchavi approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Kosambī, in Ghosita’s Monastery.480
Now at that time two renunciates—the wanderer Muṇḍiya and Jāliya, the pupil of the wood-bowl ascetic—came to the Buddha and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, they stood to one side and said to the Buddha, “Reverend Gotama, are the soul and the body one and the same, or is the soul one thing, the body another?”
“Well then, reverends, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, reverend,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“Take the case when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. …
They enter and remain in the first absorption … When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’?”
“It would, reverend.”
“But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’. …
They enter and remain in the second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’?”
“It would, reverend.”
“But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’. …
They project and extend the mind toward knowledge and vision … When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’?”
“It would, reverend.”
“But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’. …
They understand: ‘… there is nothing further for this place.’ When a mendicant knows and sees like this, would it be appropriate to say of them: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’?”
“It would not, reverend.”
“But reverends, I know and see like this. Nevertheless, I do not say: ‘The soul and the body are one and the same’ or ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the two renunciates approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Ujuññā, in the deer park at Kaṇṇakatthala.481
Then the naked ascetic Kassapa went up to the Buddha and exchanged greetings with him.482 When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he stood to one side and said to the Buddha:
“Worthy Gotama, I have heard the following: ‘The ascetic Gotama criticizes all fervent mortification. He categorically condemns and denounces all fervent mortifiers who live rough.’483 Do those who say this repeat what the Buddha has said, and not misrepresent him with an untruth? Is their explanation in line with the teaching? Are there any legitimate grounds for rebuttal and criticism? For we don’t want to misrepresent the worthy Gotama.”
“Kassapa, those who say this do not repeat what I have said. They misrepresent me with what is false, baseless, and untrue. With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, I see some fervent mortifier who lives rough reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. But I see another fervent mortifier who lives rough reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.484
I see some fervent mortifier who takes it easy reborn in a place of loss. But I see another fervent mortifier who takes it easy reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. Since I truly understand the coming and going, passing away and rebirth of these fervent mortifiers in this way, how could I criticize all forms of mortification, or categorically condemn and denounce those fervent mortifiers who live rough?
There are some clever ascetics and brahmins who are subtle, accomplished in the doctrines of others, hair-splitters. You’d think they live to demolish convictions with their intellect. They agree with me in some matters and disagree in others. Some of the things that they applaud, I also applaud. Some of the things that they don’t applaud, I also don’t applaud. But some of the things that they applaud, I don’t applaud. And some of the things that they don’t applaud, I do applaud.
Some of the things that I applaud, others also applaud. Some of the things that I don’t applaud, they also don’t applaud. But some of the things that I don’t applaud, others do applaud. And some of the things that I do applaud, others don’t applaud.
I go up to them and say: ‘Let us leave aside those matters on which we disagree.485 But there are some matters on which we agree. Regarding these, sensible people, pursuing, pressing, and grilling, would compare teacher with teacher or community with community:
“There are things that are unskillful, blameworthy, not to be cultivated, unworthy of the noble ones, and dark—and are reckoned as such. Who proceeds having totally given these things up: the ascetic Gotama, or the tutors of other communities?”’486
It’s possible that they might say: ‘The ascetic Gotama proceeds having totally given those unskillful things up, compared with the tutors of other communities.’ And that’s how, when sensible people pursue the matter, they will mostly praise us.
In addition, sensible people, pursuing, pressing, and grilling, would compare teacher with teacher or community with community: ‘There are things that are skillful, blameless, worth cultivating, worthy of the noble ones, and bright—and are reckoned as such. Who proceeds having totally undertaken these things: the ascetic Gotama, or the tutors of other communities?’
It’s possible that they might say: ‘The ascetic Gotama proceeds having totally undertaken these things, compared with the tutors of other communities.’ And that’s how, when sensible people pursue the matter, they will mostly praise us.
In addition, sensible people, pursuing, pressing, and grilling, would compare teacher with teacher or community with community: ‘There are things that are unskillful, blameworthy, not to be cultivated, unworthy of the noble ones, and dark—and are reckoned as such. Who proceeds having totally given these things up: the ascetic Gotama’s disciples, or the disciples of other tutors?’
It’s possible that they might say: ‘The ascetic Gotama’s disciples proceed having totally given those unskillful things up, compared with the disciples of other tutors.’ And that’s how, when sensible people pursue the matter, they will mostly praise us.
In addition, sensible people, pursuing, pressing, and grilling, would compare teacher with teacher or community with community: ‘There are things that are skillful, blameless, worth cultivating, worthy of the noble ones, and bright—and are reckoned as such. Who proceeds having totally undertaken these things: the ascetic Gotama’s disciples, or the disciples of other tutors?’
It’s possible that they might say: ‘The ascetic Gotama’s disciples proceed having totally undertaken those skillful things, compared with the disciples of other tutors.’ And that’s how, when sensible people pursue the matter, they will mostly praise us.
There is, Kassapa, a path, there is a practice, practicing in accordance with which you will know and see for yourself: ‘Only the ascetic Gotama’s words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training.’487 And what is that path? It is simply this noble eightfold path, that is: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion. This is the path, this is the practice, practicing in accordance with which you will know and see for yourself: ‘Only the ascetic Gotama’s words are timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training.’”488
When he had spoken, Kassapa said to the Buddha:
“Reverend Gotama, those ascetics and brahmins consider these courses of fervent mortification to be what makes someone a true ascetic or brahmin.489 They go naked, ignoring conventions. They lick their hands, and don’t come or wait when called. They don’t consent to food brought to them, or food prepared on their behalf, or an invitation for a meal.490 They don’t receive anything from a pot or bowl; or from someone who keeps sheep, or who has a weapon or a shovel in their home; or where a couple is eating; or where there is a woman who is pregnant, breastfeeding, or who lives with a man; or where there’s a dog waiting or flies buzzing. They accept no fish or meat or beer or wine, and drink no fermented gruel.491 They go to just one house for alms, taking just one mouthful, or two houses and two mouthfuls, up to seven houses and seven mouthfuls. They feed on one saucer a day, two saucers a day, up to seven saucers a day. They eat once a day, once every second day, up to once a week, and so on, even up to once a fortnight. They live committed to the practice of eating food at set intervals.
Those ascetics and brahmins also consider these courses of fervent mortification to be what makes someone a true ascetic or brahmin. They eat herbs, millet, wild rice, poor rice, water lettuce, rice bran, scum from boiling rice, sesame flour, grass, or cow dung. They survive on forest roots and fruits, or eating fallen fruit.492
Those ascetics and brahmins also consider these courses of fervent mortification to be what makes someone a true ascetic or brahmin. They wear robes of sunn hemp, mixed hemp, corpse-wrapping cloth, rags, lodh tree bark, antelope hide (whole or in strips), kusa grass, bark, wood-chips, human hair, horse-tail hair, or owls’ wings.493 They tear out hair and beard, committed to this practice.494 They constantly stand, refusing seats.495 They squat, committed to the endeavor of squatting. They lie on a mat of thorns, making a mat of thorns their bed. They make their bed on a plank, or the bare ground. They lie only on one side. They wear dust and dirt.496 They stay in the open air. They sleep wherever they lay their mat. They eat unnatural things, committed to the practice of eating unnatural foods.497 They don’t drink, committed to the practice of not drinking liquids. They’re devoted to ritual bathing three times a day, including the evening.”498
“Kassapa, someone may practice all those forms of mortification, but if they haven’t developed and realized any accomplishment in ethics, mind, and wisdom, they are far from being a true ascetic or brahmin.499 But take a mendicant who develops a heart of love, free of enmity and ill will. And they realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements.500 When they achieve this, they’re a mendicant who is called a ‘true ascetic’ and also ‘a true brahmin’. …”
When he had spoken, Kassapa said to the Buddha, “It’s hard, worthy Gotama, to be a true ascetic or a true brahmin.”
“It’s typical, Kassapa, in this world to think that it’s hard to be a true ascetic or brahmin. But someone might practice all those forms of mortification. And if it was only because of just that much, only because of that course of fervent mortification that it was so very hard to be a true ascetic or brahmin, it wouldn’t be appropriate to say that it’s hard to be a true ascetic or brahmin.
For it would be quite possible for a householder or a householder’s child—or even the bonded maid who carries the water-jar—to practice all those forms of mortification.
It’s because there’s something other than just that much, something other than that course of fervent mortification that it’s so very hard to be a true ascetic or brahmin. And that’s why it is appropriate to say that it’s hard to be a true ascetic or brahmin. Take a mendicant who develops a heart of love, free of enmity and ill will. And they realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements.501 When they achieve this, they’re a mendicant who is called a ‘true ascetic’ and also ‘a true brahmin’. …”
When he had spoken, Kassapa said to the Buddha, “It’s hard, worthy Gotama, to know a true ascetic or a true brahmin.”
“It’s typical in this world to think that it’s hard to know a true ascetic or brahmin. But someone might practice all those forms of mortification. And if it was only by just that much, only by that course of fervent mortification that it was so very hard to know a true ascetic or brahmin, it wouldn’t be appropriate to say that it’s hard to know a true ascetic or brahmin.
For it would be quite possible for a householder or a householder’s child—or even the bonded maid who carries the water-jar—to know that someone is practicing all those forms of mortification.
It’s because there’s something other than just that much, something other than that course of fervent mortification that it’s so very hard to know a true ascetic or brahmin. And that’s why it is appropriate to say that it’s hard to know a true ascetic or brahmin. Take a mendicant who develops a heart of love, free of enmity and ill will. And they realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements. When they achieve this, they’re a mendicant who is called a ‘true ascetic’ and also ‘a true brahmin’.”
When he had spoken, Kassapa said to the Buddha, “But worthy Gotama, what is that accomplishment in ethics, in mind, and in wisdom?”502
“It’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … Seeing danger in the slightest fault, a mendicant keeps the rules they’ve undertaken. They act skillfully by body and speech. They’re purified in livelihood and accomplished in ethical conduct. They guard the sense doors, have mindfulness and situational awareness, and are content.
And how is a mendicant accomplished in ethics? It’s when a mendicant gives up killing living creatures. They renounce the rod and the sword. They’re scrupulous and kind, living full of sympathy for all living beings. This pertains to their accomplishment in ethics. …
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. … They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. This pertains to their accomplishment in ethics.
A mendicant thus accomplished in ethics sees no danger in any quarter in regards to their ethical restraint. It’s like a king who has defeated his enemies. He sees no danger from his foes in any quarter. In the same way, a mendicant thus accomplished in ethics sees no danger in any quarter in regards to their ethical restraint. When they have this entire spectrum of noble ethics, they experience a blameless happiness inside themselves. That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. This, Kassapa, is that accomplishment in ethics. … They enter and remain in the first absorption … This pertains to their accomplishment in mind. … They enter and remain in the second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. This pertains to their accomplishment in mind. This, Kassapa, is that accomplishment in mind.
When their mind is immersed like this, they project it and extend it toward knowledge and vision … This pertains to their accomplishment in wisdom. … They understand: ‘… there is nothing further for this place.’ This pertains to their accomplishment in wisdom. This, Kassapa, is that accomplishment in wisdom.
And, Kassapa, there is no accomplishment in ethics, mind, and wisdom that is better or finer than this.
There are, Kassapa, some ascetics and brahmins who teach ethics. They praise ethical conduct in many ways. But as far as the highest noble ethics goes, I don’t see anyone who’s my equal, still less my superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher ethics.503
There are, Kassapa, some ascetics and brahmins who teach mortification in disgust of sin.504 They praise fervent mortification in disgust of sin in many ways. But as far as the highest noble fervent mortification in disgust of sin goes, I don’t see anyone who’s my equal, still less my superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher disgust of sin.505
There are, Kassapa, some ascetics and brahmins who teach wisdom. They praise wisdom in many ways. But as far as the highest noble wisdom goes, I don’t see anyone who’s my equal, still less my superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher wisdom.
There are, Kassapa, some ascetics and brahmins who teach freedom. They praise freedom in many ways. But as far as the highest noble freedom goes, I don’t see anyone who’s my equal, still less my superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher freedom.
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say: ‘The ascetic Gotama only roars his lion’s roar in an empty hut, not in an assembly.’506 They should be told, ‘Not so!’ What should be said is this: ‘The ascetic Gotama roars his lion’s roar, and he roars it in the assemblies.’
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say: ‘The ascetic Gotama roars his lion’s roar, and he roars it in the assemblies. But he doesn’t roar it boldly.’ They should be told, ‘Not so!’ What should be said is this: ‘The ascetic Gotama roars his lion’s roar, he roars it in the assemblies, and he roars it boldly.’
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say: ‘The ascetic Gotama roars his lion’s roar, he roars it in the assemblies, and he roars it boldly. But they don’t question him. … Or he doesn’t answer their questions. … Or his answers are not satisfactory. … Or they don’t think him worth listening to. … Or they’re not confident after listening. … Or they don’t show their confidence. … Or they don’t practice accordingly. … Or they don’t succeed in their practice.’ They should be told, ‘Not so!’ What should be said is this: ‘The ascetic Gotama roars his lion’s roar; he roars it in the assemblies; he roars it boldly; they question him; he answers their questions; his answers are satisfactory; they think him worth listening to; they’re confident after listening; they show their confidence; they practice accordingly; and they succeed in their practice.’
Kassapa, this one time I was staying near Rājagaha, on the Vulture’s Peak Mountain. There a certain fervent celibate named Nigrodha asked me about the higher disgust of sin.507 I answered his question. He was extremely happy with my answer.”
“Sir, who wouldn’t be extremely happy after hearing the Buddha’s teaching? For I too am extremely happy after hearing the Buddha’s teaching! Excellent, sir! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, so too the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the Buddha, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. Sir, may I receive the going forth, the ordination in the Buddha’s presence?”508
“Kassapa, if someone formerly ordained in another sect wishes to take the going forth, the ordination in this teaching and training, they must spend four months on probation. When four months have passed, if the mendicants are satisfied, they’ll give the going forth, the ordination into monkhood.509 However, I have recognized individual differences in this matter.”510
“Sir, if four months probation are required in such a case, I’ll spend four years on probation. When four years have passed, if the mendicants are satisfied, let them give me the going forth, the ordination into monkhood.”
And the naked ascetic Kassapa received the going forth, the ordination in the Buddha’s presence. Not long after his ordination, Venerable Kassapa, living alone, withdrawn, diligent, keen, and resolute, soon realized the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life. He lived having achieved with his own insight the goal for which gentlemen rightly go forth from the lay life to homelessness.
He understood: “Rebirth is ended; the spiritual journey has been completed; what had to be done has been done; there is nothing further for this place.” And Venerable Kassapa became one of the perfected.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery.
Now at that time the wanderer Poṭṭhapāda was residing together with three hundred wanderers in Mallikā’s single-halled monastery for philosophical debates, hedged by pale-moon ebony trees.511 Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Sāvatthī for alms.
Then it occurred to him, “It’s too early to wander for alms in Sāvatthī.512 Why don’t I go to Mallikā’s monastery to visit the wanderer Poṭṭhapāda?”513 So that’s what he did.
Now at that time, Poṭṭhapāda was sitting together with a large assembly of wanderers making an uproar, a dreadful racket. They engaged in all kinds of low talk, such as514 talk about kings, bandits, and ministers; talk about armies, threats, and wars; talk about food, drink, clothes, and beds; talk about garlands and fragrances; talk about family, vehicles, villages, towns, cities, and countries; talk about women and heroes; street talk and well talk; talk about the departed; motley talk; tales of land and sea; and talk about being reborn in this or that place.
Poṭṭhapāda saw the Buddha coming off in the distance, and hushed his own assembly, “Be quiet, good fellows, don’t make a sound. Here comes the ascetic Gotama. The venerable likes quiet and praises quiet. Hopefully if he sees that our assembly is quiet he’ll see fit to approach.”515 Then those wanderers fell silent.
Then the Buddha approached Poṭṭhapāda, who said to him, “Let the Blessed One come, sir!516 Welcome to the Blessed One, sir! It’s been a long time since you took the opportunity to come here. Please, sir, sit down, this seat is ready.”
The Buddha sat on the seat spread out, while Poṭṭhapāda took a low seat and sat to one side. The Buddha said to him, “Poṭṭhapāda, what were you sitting talking about just now? What conversation was left unfinished?”517
When he said this, the wanderer Poṭṭhapāda said to the Buddha, “Sir, leave aside what we were sitting talking about just now. It won’t be hard for you to hear about that later.
Sir, a few days ago several ascetics and brahmins who follow various other religions were sitting together at the debating hall, and a discussion about the cessation of perception came up among them:518 ‘How does the cessation of perception happen?’519
Some of them said: ‘A person’s perceptions arise and cease without cause or reason.520 When they arise, you become percipient. When they cease, you become non-percipient.’ That’s how some describe the cessation of perception.
But someone else says: ‘That’s not how it is, good fellows!521 Perception is a person’s self,522 which enters and departs. When it enters, you become percipient. When it departs, you become non-percipient.’523 That’s how some describe the cessation of perception.
But someone else says: ‘That’s not how it is, good fellows! There are ascetics and brahmins of great power and might.524 They insert and extract a person’s perception.525 When they insert it, you become percipient. When they extract it, you become non-percipient.’ That’s how some describe the cessation of perception.
But someone else says: ‘That’s not how it is, good fellows! There are deities of great power and might. They insert and extract a person’s perception. When they insert it, you become percipient. When they extract it, you become non-percipient.’ That’s how some describe the cessation of perception.
That reminded me of the Buddha: ‘Surely it must be the Blessed One, the Holy One who is so very skilled in such matters.’ The Buddha is skilled and well-versed concerning the cessation of perception.526 How does the cessation of perception happen?”
“Regarding this, Poṭṭhapāda, those ascetics and brahmins who say that a person’s perceptions arise and cease without cause or reason are wrong from the start. Why is that? Because a person’s perceptions arise and cease with cause and reason. With training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease.527
And what is that training?” said the Buddha.528
“It’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. …529
Seeing that the hindrances have been given up in them, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, they feel bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed.
Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, they enter and remain in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. The sensual perception that they had previously ceases.530 At that time they have a subtle and true perception of the rapture and bliss born of seclusion.531 That’s how, with training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease. And this is that training,” said the Buddha.
“Furthermore, as the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, a mendicant enters and remains in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. The subtle and true perception of the rapture and bliss born of seclusion that they had previously ceases. At that time they have a subtle and true perception of the rapture and bliss born of immersion. That’s how, with training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease. And this is that training,” said the Buddha.
“Furthermore, with the fading away of rapture, a mendicant enters and remains in the third absorption, where they meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ The subtle and true perception of the rapture and bliss born of immersion that they had previously ceases. At that time they have a subtle and true perception of bliss with equanimity. That’s how, with training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease. And this is that training,” said the Buddha.
“Furthermore, with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, a mendicant enters and remains in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. The subtle and true perception of bliss with equanimity that they had previously ceases. At that time they have a subtle and true perception of neutral feeling. That’s how, with training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease. And this is that training,” said the Buddha.
“Furthermore, a mendicant, going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, enters and remains in the dimension of infinite space.532 The perception of luminous form that they had previously ceases.533 At that time they have a subtle and true perception of the dimension of infinite space.534 That’s how, with training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease. And this is that training,” said the Buddha.
“Furthermore, a mendicant, going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, enters and remains in the dimension of infinite consciousness.535 The subtle and true perception of the dimension of infinite space that they had previously ceases. At that time they have a subtle and true perception of the dimension of infinite consciousness. That’s how, with training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease. And this is that training,” said the Buddha.
“Furthermore, a mendicant, going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, enters and remains in the dimension of nothingness.536 The subtle and true perception of the dimension of infinite consciousness that they had previously ceases. At that time they have a subtle and true perception of the dimension of nothingness. That’s how, with training, certain perceptions arise and certain perceptions cease.537 And this is that training,” said the Buddha.
“Poṭṭhapāda, from the time a mendicant here takes charge of their own perception, they proceed from one stage to the next, progressively reaching the peak of perception.538 Standing on the peak of perception they think, ‘Intentionality is bad for me, it’s better to be free of it. For if I were to intend and choose, these perceptions would cease in me, and other coarser perceptions would arise.539 Why don’t I neither make a choice nor form an intention?’ They neither make a choice nor form an intention. Those perceptions cease in them, and other coarser perceptions don’t arise. They touch cessation. And that, Poṭṭhapāda, is how the progressive cessation of perception is attained with awareness.540
What do you think, Poṭṭhapāda? Have you ever heard of this before?”
“No, sir.541 This is how I understand what the Buddha said:542 ‘From the time a mendicant here takes charge of their own perception, they proceed from one stage to the next, progressively reaching the peak of perception. Standing on the peak of perception they think, “Intentionality is bad for me, it’s better to be free of it. For if I were to intend and choose, these perceptions would cease in me, and other coarser perceptions would arise. Why don’t I neither make a choice nor form an intention?” Those perceptions cease in them, and other coarser perceptions don’t arise. They touch cessation. And that is how the progressive cessation of perception is attained with awareness.’”
“That’s right, Poṭṭhapāda.”
“Does the Buddha describe just one peak of perception, or many?”
“I describe the peak of perception as both one and many.”
“But sir, how do you describe it as one peak and as many?”
“I describe the peak of perception according to the specific manner in which one touches cessation.543 That’s how I describe the peak of perception as both one and many.”
“But sir, does perception arise first and knowledge afterwards? Or does knowledge arise first and perception afterwards? Or do they both arise at the same time?”544
“Perception arises first and knowledge afterwards. The arising of perception leads to the arising of knowledge.545 They understand, ‘My knowledge arose from a specific condition.’546 That is a way to understand how perception arises first and knowledge afterwards; that the arising of perception leads to the arising of knowledge.”
“Sir, is perception a person’s self, or are perception and self different things?”547
“But Poṭṭhapāda, do you believe in a self?”548
“I believe in a solid self, sir, which is formed, made up of the four principal states, and consumes edible food.”549
“Suppose there were such a solid self, Poṭṭhapāda. In that case, perception would be one thing, the self another.550 Here is another way to understand how perception and self are different things. So long as that solid self remains, still some perceptions arise in a person and others cease.551 That is a way to understand how perception and self are different things.”
“Sir, I believe in a mind-made self which is whole in its major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty.”552
“Suppose there were such a mind-made self, Poṭṭhapāda. In that case, perception would be one thing, the self another. Here is another way to understand how perception and self are different things. So long as that mind-made self remains, still some perceptions arise in a person and others cease. That too is a way to understand how perception and self are different things.”
“Sir, I believe in a formless self which is made of perception.”553
“Suppose there were such a formless self, Poṭṭhapāda. In that case, perception would be one thing, the self another. Here is another way to understand how perception and self are different things. So long as that formless self remains, still some perceptions arise in a person and others cease. That too is a way to understand how perception and self are different things.”
“But, sir, am I able to know whether554 perception is a person’s self, or whether perception and self are different things?”
“It’s hard for you to understand this, since you have a different view, creed, and belief, unless you dedicate yourself to practice with the guidance of tradition.”555
“Well, if that’s the case, sir, then what do you make of this: ‘The cosmos is eternal. This is the only truth, anything else is futile’?”556
“This has not been declared by me, Poṭṭhapāda.”
“Then what do you make of this: ‘The cosmos is not eternal. This is the only truth, anything else is futile’?”
“This too has not been declared by me.”
“Then what do you make of this: ‘The cosmos is finite …’ … ‘The cosmos is infinite …’ … ‘The soul and the body are one and the same …’ … ‘The soul is one thing, the body another …’ … ‘A realized one still exists after death …’ … ‘A realized one no longer exists after death …’ … ‘A realized one both still exists and no longer exists after death …’ … ‘A Realized One neither still exists nor no longer exists after death. This is the only truth, anything else is futile’?”
“This too has not been declared by me.”
“Why haven’t these things been declared by the Buddha?”
“Because they’re not beneficial or relevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life. They don’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. That’s why I haven’t declared them.”
“Then what has been declared by the Buddha?”
“I have declared this: ‘This is suffering’ … ‘This is the origin of suffering’ … ‘This is the cessation of suffering’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering’.”
“Why have these things been declared by the Buddha?”
“Because they are beneficial and relevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life. They lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. That’s why I have declared them.”
“That’s so true, Blessed One! That’s so true, Holy One! Please, sir, go at your convenience.” Then the Buddha got up from his seat and left.
Soon after the Buddha left, those wanderers beset Poṭṭhapāda on all sides with sneering and jeering.557 “No matter what the ascetic Gotama says, Poṭṭhapāda agrees with him: ‘That’s so true, Blessed One! That’s so true, Holy One!’ We understand that the ascetic Gotama didn’t give any categorical teaching at all regarding whether the cosmos is eternal and so on.”
When they said this, Poṭṭhapāda said to them, “I too understand that the ascetic Gotama didn’t give any categorical teaching at all regarding whether the cosmos is eternal and so on. Nevertheless, the practice that he describes is true, real, and accurate. It is the regularity of natural principles, the invariance of natural principles. So how could a sensible person such as I not agree that what was well spoken by the ascetic Gotama was in fact well spoken?”
Then after two or three days had passed, Citta Hatthisāriputta and Poṭṭhapāda went to see the Buddha. Citta Hatthisāriputta bowed and sat down to one side.558 But the wanderer Poṭṭhapāda exchanged greetings with the Buddha, and when the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side. Poṭṭhapāda told the Buddha what had happened after he left. The Buddha said:
“All those wanderers, Poṭṭhapāda, are blind and sightless. You are the only one whose eyes are clear. For I have taught and pointed out teachings that are categorical559 and also teachings that are not categorical.
And what teachings have I taught and pointed out as not categorical? ‘The cosmos is eternal’ … ‘The cosmos is not eternal’ … ‘The cosmos is finite’ … ‘The cosmos is infinite’ … ‘The soul is the same thing as the body’ … ‘The soul is one thing, the body another’ … ‘A realized one still exists after death’ … ‘A realized one no longer exists after death’ … ‘A realized one both still exists and no longer exists after death’ … ‘A realized one neither still exists nor no longer exists after death.’
And why have I taught and pointed out such teachings as not categorical? Because those things aren’t beneficial or relevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life. They don’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. That’s why I have taught and pointed out such teachings as not categorical.
And what teachings have I taught and pointed out as categorical? ‘This is suffering’ … ‘This is the origin of suffering’ … ‘This is the cessation of suffering’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering’.
And why have I taught and pointed out such teachings as categorical? Because they are beneficial and relevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life. They lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. That’s why I have taught and pointed out such teachings as categorical.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: ‘The self is perfectly happy and free of disease after death.’560 I go up to them and say, ‘Is it really true that this is the venerables’ view?’561 And they answer, ‘Yes’. I say to them, ‘But do you meditate knowing and seeing a perfectly happy world?’562 Asked this, they say, ‘No.’
I say to them, ‘But have you perceived a perfectly happy self for a single day or night, or even half a day or night?’563 Asked this, they say, ‘No.’
I say to them, ‘But do you know a path and a practice to realize a perfectly happy world?’564 Asked this, they say, ‘No.’
I say to them, ‘But have you ever heard the voice of the deities reborn in a perfectly happy world saying, “Practice well, good fellows, practice directly so as to realize a perfectly happy world.565 For this is how we practiced, and we were reborn in a perfectly happy world”?’ Asked this, they say, ‘No.’
What do you think, Poṭṭhapāda? This being so, doesn’t what they say turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”566
“Clearly that’s the case, sir.”
“Suppose, Poṭṭhapāda, a man were to say: ‘Whoever the finest lady in the land is, it is her that I want, her that I desire!’567 They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, that finest lady in the land who you desire—do you know whether she’s an aristocrat, a brahmin, a peasant, or a menial?’ Asked this, he’d say, ‘No.’ They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, that finest lady in the land who you desire—do you know her name or clan? Whether she’s tall or short or medium? Whether her skin is black, brown, or tawny? What village, town, or city she comes from?’ Asked this, he’d say, ‘No.’ They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, do you desire someone who you’ve never even known or seen?’ Asked this, he’d say, ‘Yes.’
What do you think, Poṭṭhapāda? This being so, doesn’t that man’s statement turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, sir.”
“In the same way, the ascetics and brahmins who have that doctrine and view …
Doesn’t what they say turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, sir.”
“Suppose a man was to build a ladder at the crossroads for climbing up to a stilt longhouse.568 They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, that stilt longhouse that you’re building a ladder for—do you know whether it’s to the north, south, east, or west? Or whether it’s tall or short or medium?’ Asked this, he’d say, ‘No.’ They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, are you building a ladder for a longhouse that you’ve never even known or seen?’ Asked this, he’d say, ‘Yes.’
What do you think, Poṭṭhapāda? This being so, doesn’t that man’s statement turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, sir.”
“In the same way, the ascetics and brahmins who have those various doctrines and views …
Doesn’t what they say turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, sir.”
“Poṭṭhapāda, there are these three kinds of reincarnation in a life-form:569 a solid life-form, a mind-made life-form, and a formless life-form.570 And what is reincarnation in a solid life-form? It is formed, made up of the four principal states, and consumes edible food. What is reincarnation in a mind-made life-form? It is formed, mind-made, whole in its major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty. What is reincarnation in a formless life-form? It is formless, made of perception.
I teach the Dhamma for the giving up of reincarnation in these three kinds of life-form. ‘When you practice accordingly, corrupting qualities will be given up in you and cleansing qualities will grow. You’ll enter and remain in the fullness and abundance of wisdom, having realized it with your own insight in this very life.’ Poṭṭhapāda, you might think: ‘Corrupting qualities will be given up and cleansing qualities will grow. One will enter and remain in the fullness and abundance of wisdom, having realized it with one’s own insight in this very life. But such a life is suffering.’571 But you should not see it like this. Corrupting qualities will be given up and cleansing qualities will grow. One will enter and remain in the fullness and abundance of wisdom, having realized it with one’s own insight in this very life. And there will be only joy and happiness, tranquility, mindfulness and awareness. Such a life is blissful.
Poṭṭhapāda, if others should ask us, ‘But reverends, what is that reincarnation in a solid life-form for the giving up of which you teach?’ We’d answer like this, ‘This is that reincarnation in a solid life-form.’
If others should ask us, ‘But reverends, what is that reincarnation in a mind-made life-form?’ We’d answer like this, ‘This is that reincarnation in a mind-made life-form.’572
If others should ask us, ‘But reverends, what is that reincarnation in a formless life-form?’ We’d answer like this, ‘This is that reincarnation in a formless life-form.’
What do you think, Poṭṭhapāda? This being so, doesn’t that statement turn out to have a demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, sir.”
“Suppose a man were to build a ladder for climbing up to a stilt longhouse right underneath that longhouse. They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, that stilt longhouse that you’re building a ladder for—do you know whether it’s to the north, south, east, or west? Or whether it’s tall or short or medium?’ He’d say, ‘This is that stilt longhouse for which I’m building a ladder, right underneath it.’
What do you think, Poṭṭhapāda? This being so, doesn’t that man’s statement turn out to have a demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, sir.”
When the Buddha had spoken, Citta Hatthisāriputta said, “Sir, when reincarnated in a solid life-form, are the mind-made and formless life-forms fictitious,573 and only the solid life-form real? When reincarnated in a mind-made life-form, are the solid and formless life-forms fictitious, and only the mind-made life-form real? When reincarnated in a formless life-form, are the solid and mind-made life-forms fictitious, and only the formless life-form real?”
“When reincarnated in a solid life-form, it’s not referred to as a mind-made or formless life-form,574 only as a solid life-form. When reincarnated in a mind-made life-form, it’s not referred to as a solid or formless life-form, only as a mind-made life-form. When reincarnated in a formless life-form, it’s not referred to as a solid or mind-made life-form, only as a formless life-form.
Citta, suppose they were to ask you, ‘Did you exist in the past?575 Will you exist in the future? Do you exist now?’ How would you answer?”
“Sir, if they were to ask me this, I’d answer like this, ‘I did exist in the past. I will exist in the future. I do exist now.’ That’s how I’d answer.”
“But Citta, suppose they were to ask you, ‘Is the reincarnation you had in the past your only real one, and those of the future and present fictitious? Is the reincarnation you will have in the future your only real one, and those of the past and present fictitious? Is the reincarnation you have now your only real one, and those of the past and future fictitious?’ How would you answer?”
“Sir, if they were to ask me this, I’d answer like this, ‘The reincarnation I had in the past was real at that time, and those of the future and present fictitious. The reincarnation I will have in the future will be real at the time, and those of the past and present fictitious. The reincarnation I have now is real at this time, and those of the past and future fictitious.’ That’s how I’d answer.”
“In the same way, while in any one of the three reincarnations, it’s not referred to as the other two, only under its own name.
From a cow comes milk, from milk comes curds, from curds come butter, from butter comes ghee, and from ghee comes cream of ghee. And the cream of ghee is said to be the best of these.576 While it’s milk, it’s not referred to as curds, butter, ghee, or cream of ghee. It’s only referred to as milk. While it’s curd or butter or ghee or cream of ghee, it’s not referred to as anything else, only under its own name. In the same way, while in any one of the three reincarnations, it’s not referred to as the other two, only under its own name. These are the world’s common usages, terms, expressions, and descriptions, which the Realized One uses to communicate without getting stuck on them.”577
When he had spoken, the wanderer Poṭṭhapāda said to the Buddha, “Excellent, sir! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, so too the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the Buddha, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the Buddha remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.”
But Citta Hatthisāriputta said to the Buddha, “Excellent, sir! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, so too the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the Buddha, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. Sir, may I receive the going forth, the ordination in the Buddha’s presence?”
And Citta Hatthisāriputta received the going forth, the ordination in the Buddha’s presence. Not long after his ordination, Venerable Citta Hatthisāriputta, living alone, withdrawn, diligent, keen, and resolute, soon realized the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life. He lived having achieved with his own insight the goal for which gentlemen rightly go forth from the lay life to homelessness.578 He understood: “Rebirth is ended; the spiritual journey has been completed; what had to be done has been done; there is nothing further for this place.” And Venerable Citta Hatthisāriputta became one of the perfected.
So I have heard. At one time Venerable Ānanda was staying near Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery. It was not long after the Buddha had become fully quenched.579
Now at that time the student Subha, Todeyya’s son, was residing in Sāvatthī on some business.580 Then he addressed a certain young student, “Here, young student, go to the ascetic Ānanda and in my name bow with your head to his feet. Ask him if he is healthy and well, nimble, strong, and living comfortably. And then say: ‘Sir, please visit the student Subha, Todeyya’s son, at his home out of sympathy.’”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the young student, and did as he was asked.
When he had spoken, Venerable Ānanda said to him, “It’s not the right time, young student. I have drunk a dose of medicine today.581 But hopefully tomorrow I’ll get a chance to visit him.”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the young student. He went back to Subha, and told him what had happened, adding, “This much, sir, I managed to do. At least the worthy Ānanda will take the opportunity to visit tomorrow.”
Then when the night had passed, Ānanda robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went with Venerable Cetaka as his second monk to Subha’s home, where he sat on the seat spread out. Then Subha went up to Ānanda, and exchanged greetings with him.582 When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side and said to Ānanda:
“Worthy Ānanda, you were the worthy Gotama’s attendant. You were close to him, living in his presence. You ought to know what things the worthy Gotama praised, and in which he encouraged, settled, and grounded all these people. What were those things?”
“Student, the Buddha praised three spectrums of practice, and that’s what he encouraged, settled, and grounded all these people in. What three? The entire spectrum of noble ethics, immersion, and wisdom.583 These are the three spectrums of practice that the Buddha praised.”
“But what was that entire spectrum of noble ethics that the Buddha praised?”
“Student, it’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed. He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others. He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. A householder hears that teaching, or a householder’s child, or someone reborn in a good family. They gain faith in the Realized One and reflect: ‘Life at home is cramped and dirty, life gone forth is wide open. It’s not easy for someone living at home to lead the spiritual life utterly full and pure, like a polished shell. Why don’t I shave off my hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness?’ After some time they give up a large or small fortune, and a large or small family circle. They shave off hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness. Once they’ve gone forth, they live restrained in the monastic code, conducting themselves well and resorting for alms in suitable places. Seeing danger in the slightest fault, they keep the rules they’ve undertaken. They act skillfully by body and speech. They’re purified in livelihood and accomplished in ethical conduct. They guard the sense doors, have mindfulness and situational awareness, and are content.
And how is a mendicant accomplished in ethics? It’s when a mendicant gives up killing living creatures. They renounce the rod and the sword. They’re scrupulous and kind, living full of sympathy for all living beings. …
This pertains to their ethics.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who, while enjoying food given in faith, still earn a living by low lore, by wrong livelihood. This includes rites for propitiation, for granting wishes, for ghosts, for the earth, for rain, for property settlement, and for preparing and consecrating house sites, and rites involving rinsing and bathing, and oblations. It also includes administering emetics, purgatives, expectorants, and phlegmagogues; administering ear-oils, eye restoratives, nasal medicine, ointments, and counter-ointments; surgery with needle and scalpel, treating children, prescribing root medicines, and herbal bandages. They refrain from such low lore, such wrong livelihood. … This pertains to their ethics.
A mendicant thus accomplished in ethics sees no danger in any quarter in regards to their ethical restraint. It’s like a king who has defeated his enemies. He sees no danger from his foes in any quarter. A mendicant thus accomplished in ethics sees no danger in any quarter in regards to their ethical restraint. When they have this entire spectrum of noble ethics, they experience a blameless happiness inside themselves. That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics.
This is that entire spectrum of noble ethics that the Buddha praised. But there is still more to be done.”
“It’s incredible, worthy Ānanda, it’s amazing, This entire spectrum of noble ethics is complete, not lacking anything! Such a complete spectrum of ethics cannot be seen among the other ascetics and brahmins. Were other ascetics and brahmins to see such an entire spectrum of noble ethics in themselves, they’d be delighted with just that much: ‘This is sufficient; enough has been done. We’ve reached the goal of our ascetic life. There is nothing more to be done.’ And yet you say: ‘But there is still more to be done.’
But what, worthy Ānanda, was that noble spectrum of immersion that the Buddha praised?”584
“And how, student, does a mendicant guard the sense doors? When a mendicant sees a sight with their eyes, they don’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of sight were left unrestrained, bad unskillful qualities of covetousness and displeasure would become overwhelming. For this reason, they practice restraint, protecting the faculty of sight, and achieving its restraint. When they hear a sound with their ears … When they smell an odor with their nose … When they taste a flavor with their tongue … When they feel a touch with their body … When they know an idea with their mind, they don’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of mind were left unrestrained, bad unskillful qualities of covetousness and displeasure would become overwhelming. For this reason, they practice restraint, protecting the faculty of mind, and achieving its restraint. When they have this noble sense restraint, they experience an unsullied bliss inside themselves. That’s how a mendicant guards the sense doors.
And how does a mendicant have mindfulness and situational awareness? It’s when a mendicant acts with situational awareness when going out and coming back; when looking ahead and aside; when bending and extending the limbs; when bearing the outer robe, bowl and robes; when eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting; when urinating and defecating; when walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, waking, speaking, and keeping silent. That’s how a mendicant has mindfulness and situational awareness.
And how is a mendicant content? It’s when a mendicant is content with robes to look after the body and almsfood to look after the belly. Wherever they go, they set out taking only these things. They’re like a bird: wherever it flies, wings are its only burden. In the same way, a mendicant is content with robes to look after the body and almsfood to look after the belly. Wherever they go, they set out taking only these things. That’s how a mendicant is content.
When they have this entire spectrum of noble ethics, this noble sense restraint, this noble mindfulness and situational awareness, and this noble contentment, they frequent a secluded lodging—a wilderness, the root of a tree, a hill, a ravine, a mountain cave, a charnel ground, a forest, the open air, a heap of straw. After the meal, they return from almsround, sit down cross-legged, set their body straight, and establish mindfulness in their presence.
Giving up covetousness for the world, they meditate with a heart rid of covetousness, cleansing the mind of covetousness. Giving up ill will and malevolence, they meditate with a mind rid of ill will, full of sympathy for all living beings, cleansing the mind of ill will. Giving up dullness and drowsiness, they meditate with a mind rid of dullness and drowsiness, perceiving light, mindful and aware, cleansing the mind of dullness and drowsiness. Giving up restlessness and remorse, they meditate without restlessness, their mind peaceful inside, cleansing the mind of restlessness and remorse. Giving up doubt, they meditate having gone beyond doubt, not undecided about skillful qualities, cleansing the mind of doubt.
Suppose a man who has gotten into debt were to apply himself to work, and his efforts proved successful. He would pay off the original loan and have enough left over to support his partner. Thinking about this, he’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose there was a person who was sick, suffering, gravely ill. They’d lose their appetite and get physically weak. But after some time they’d recover from that illness, and regain their appetite and their strength. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose a person was imprisoned in a jail. But after some time they were released from jail, safe and sound, with no loss of wealth. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose a person was a bondservant. They would not be their own master, but indentured to another, unable to go where they wish. But after some time they’d be freed from servitude. They would be their own master, not indentured to another, an emancipated individual able to go where they wish. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
Suppose there was a person with wealth and property who was traveling along a desert road, which was perilous, with nothing to eat. But after some time they crossed over the desert safely, arriving within a village, a sanctuary free of peril. Thinking about this, they’d be filled with joy and happiness.
In the same way, as long as these five hindrances are not given up inside themselves, a mendicant regards them as a debt, a disease, a prison, slavery, and a desert crossing.
But when these five hindrances are given up inside themselves, a mendicant regards this as freedom from debt, good health, release from prison, emancipation, and a place of sanctuary at last.
Seeing that the hindrances have been given up in them, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, they feel bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed.
Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, they enter and remain in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. They drench, steep, fill, and spread their body with rapture and bliss born of seclusion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of seclusion.
It’s like when a deft bathroom attendant or their apprentice pours bath powder into a bronze dish, sprinkling it little by little with water. They knead it until the ball of bath powder is soaked and saturated with moisture, spread through inside and out; yet no moisture oozes out.
In the same way, a mendicant drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads their body with rapture and bliss born of seclusion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of seclusion. This pertains to their immersion.
Furthermore, as the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, a mendicant enters and remains in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. They drench, steep, fill, and spread their body with rapture and bliss born of immersion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of immersion.
It’s like a deep lake fed by spring water. There’s no inlet to the east, west, north, or south, and the heavens would not properly bestow showers from time to time. But the stream of cool water welling up in the lake drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads throughout the lake. There’s no part of the lake that’s not spread through with cool water.
In the same way, a mendicant drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads their body with rapture and bliss born of immersion. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with rapture and bliss born of immersion. This pertains to their immersion.
Furthermore, with the fading away of rapture, a mendicant enters and remains in the third absorption, where they meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ They drench, steep, fill, and spread their body with bliss free of rapture. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with bliss free of rapture.
It’s like a pool with blue water lilies, or pink or white lotuses. Some of them sprout and grow in the water without rising above it, thriving underwater. From the tip to the root they’re drenched, steeped, filled, and soaked with cool water. There’s no part of them that’s not soaked with cool water.
In the same way, a mendicant drenches, steeps, fills, and spreads their body with bliss free of rapture. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with bliss free of rapture. This pertains to their immersion.
Furthermore, with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, a mendicant enters and remains in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. They sit spreading their body through with pure bright mind. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread with pure bright mind.
It’s like someone sitting wrapped from head to foot with white cloth. There’s no part of the body that’s not spread over with white cloth.
In the same way, a mendicant sits spreading their body through with pure bright mind. There’s no part of their body that’s not spread with pure bright mind. This pertains to their immersion.
This is that noble spectrum of immersion that the Buddha praised. But there is still more to be done.”
“It’s incredible, worthy Ānanda, it’s amazing! This noble spectrum of immersion is complete, not lacking anything! Such a complete spectrum of immersion cannot be seen among the other ascetics and brahmins. Were other ascetics and brahmins to see such a complete spectrum of noble immersion in themselves, they’d be delighted with just that much: ‘This is sufficient; enough has been done. We’ve reached the goal of our ascetic life. There is nothing more to be done.’ And yet you say: ‘But there is still more to be done.’
But what, worthy Ānanda, was that spectrum of noble wisdom that the Buddha praised?”
“When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge and vision. They understand: ‘This body of mine is formed. It’s made up of the four principal states, produced by mother and father, built up from rice and porridge, liable to impermanence, to wearing away and erosion, to breaking up and destruction. And this consciousness of mine is attached to it, tied to it.’
Suppose there was a beryl gem that was naturally lustrous, eight-faceted, well-worked, transparent, clear, and unclouded, endowed with all good qualities. And it was strung with a thread of blue, yellow, red, white, or golden brown. And a person with clear eyes were to take it in their hand and examine it: ‘This beryl gem is naturally lustrous, eight-faceted, well-worked, transparent, clear, and unclouded, endowed with all good qualities. And it’s strung with a thread of blue, yellow, red, white, or golden brown.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge and vision. This pertains to their wisdom.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward the creation of a mind-made body. From this body they create another body—formed, mind-made, whole in its major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty.
Suppose a person was to draw a reed out from its sheath. They’d think: ‘This is the reed, this is the sheath. The reed and the sheath are different things. The reed has been drawn out from the sheath.’ Or suppose a person was to draw a sword out from its scabbard. They’d think: ‘This is the sword, this is the scabbard. The sword and the scabbard are different things. The sword has been drawn out from the scabbard.’ Or suppose a person was to draw a snake out from its slough. They’d think: ‘This is the snake, this is the slough. The snake and the slough are different things. The snake has been drawn out from the slough.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward the creation of a mind-made body. This pertains to their wisdom.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward psychic power. They wield the many kinds of psychic power: multiplying themselves and becoming one again; materializing and dematerializing; going unobstructed through a wall, a rampart, or a mountain as if through space; diving in and out of the earth as if it were water; walking on water as if it were earth; flying cross-legged through the sky like a bird; touching and stroking with the hand the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful; controlling the body as far as the realm of divinity.
Suppose a deft potter or their apprentice had some well-prepared clay. They could produce any kind of pot that they like. Or suppose a deft ivory-carver or their apprentice had some well-prepared ivory. They could produce any kind of ivory item that they like. Or suppose a deft goldsmith or their apprentice had some well-prepared gold. They could produce any kind of gold item that they like.
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward psychic power. This pertains to their wisdom.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward clairaudience. With clairaudience that is purified and superhuman, they hear both kinds of sounds, human and heavenly, whether near or far. Suppose there was a person traveling along the road. They’d hear the sound of drums, clay drums, horns, kettledrums, and tom-toms. They’d think: ‘That’s the sound of drums,’ and ‘that’s the sound of clay drums,’ and ‘that’s the sound of horns, kettledrums, and tom-toms.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward clairaudience. This pertains to their wisdom.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward comprehending the minds of others. They understand mind with greed as ‘mind with greed’, and mind without greed as ‘mind without greed’. They understand mind with hate … mind without hate … mind with delusion … mind without delusion … constricted mind … scattered mind … expansive mind … unexpansive mind … mind that is not supreme … mind that is supreme … immersed mind … unimmersed mind … freed mind … They understand unfreed mind as ‘unfreed mind’.
Suppose there was a woman or man who was young, youthful, and fond of adornments, and they check their own reflection in a clean bright mirror or a clear bowl of water. If they had a spot they’d know ‘I have a spot,’ and if they had no spots they’d know ‘I have no spots.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward comprehending the minds of others. This pertains to their wisdom.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward recollection of past lives. They recollect many kinds of past lives, that is, one, two, three, four, five, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand rebirths; many eons of the world contracting, many eons of the world expanding, many eons of the world contracting and expanding. They remember: ‘There, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn somewhere else. There, too, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn here.’ And so they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
Suppose a person was to leave their home village and go to another village. From that village they’d go to yet another village. And from that village they’d return to their home village. They’d think: ‘I went from my home village to another village. There I stood like this, sat like that, spoke like this, or kept silent like that. From that village I went to yet another village. There too I stood like this, sat like that, spoke like this, or kept silent like that. And from that village I returned to my home village.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward recollection of past lives. This pertains to their wisdom.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings. With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds. ‘These dear beings did bad things by way of body, speech, and mind. They denounced the noble ones; they had wrong view; and they chose to act out of that wrong view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. These dear beings, however, did good things by way of body, speech, and mind. They never denounced the noble ones; they had right view; and they chose to act out of that right view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.’ And so, with clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds.
Suppose there was a stilt longhouse at the central square. A person with clear eyes standing there might see humans entering and leaving a house, walking along the streets and paths, and sitting at the central square. They’d think: ‘These are people entering and leaving a house, walking along the streets and paths, and sitting at the central square.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project and extend it toward knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings. This pertains to their wisdom.
When their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge of the ending of defilements. They truly understand: ‘This is suffering’ … ‘This is the origin of suffering’ … ‘This is the cessation of suffering’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering’. They truly understand: ‘These are defilements’ … ‘This is the origin of defilements’ … ‘This is the cessation of defilements’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of defilements’. Knowing and seeing like this, their mind is freed from the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance. When they’re freed, they know they’re freed.
They understand: ‘Rebirth is ended, the spiritual journey has been completed, what had to be done has been done, there is nothing further for this place.’
Suppose that in a mountain glen there was a lake that was transparent, clear, and unclouded. A person with clear eyes standing on the bank would see the clams and mussels, and pebbles and gravel, and schools of fish swimming about or staying still. They’d think: ‘This lake is transparent, clear, and unclouded. And here are the clams and mussels, and pebbles and gravel, and schools of fish swimming about or staying still.’
In the same way, when their mind has become immersed in samādhi like this—purified, bright, flawless, rid of corruptions, pliable, workable, steady, and imperturbable—they project it and extend it toward knowledge of the ending of defilements. This pertains to their wisdom.
This is that spectrum of noble wisdom that the Buddha praised. And there is nothing more to be done.”
“It’s incredible, worthy Ānanda, it’s amazing! This noble spectrum of wisdom is complete, not lacking anything! Such a complete spectrum of wisdom cannot be seen among the other ascetics and brahmins. And there is nothing more to be done. Excellent, worthy Ānanda! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, the worthy Ānanda has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha.585 From this day forth, may the worthy Ānanda remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.”
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Nāḷandā in Pāvārika’s mango grove.586
Then the householder Kevaḍḍha went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him,587 “Sir, this Nāḷandā is successful and prosperous, populous, full of people. Please direct a mendicant to perform a superhuman demonstration of psychic power.588 Then Nāḷandā will become even more devoted to the Buddha!”
When he said this, the Buddha said, “Kevaḍḍha, I do not teach Dhamma to the mendicants like this: ‘Come now, mendicants, perform a superhuman demonstration of psychic power for the white-clothed laypeople.’”589
For a second time, Kevaḍḍha made the same request, “Sir, I am not teaching you the Dhamma,590 but nonetheless I say: ‘Sir, this Nāḷandā is successful and prosperous, populous, full of people. Please direct a mendicant to perform a superhuman demonstration of psychic power. Then Nāḷandā will become even more devoted to the Buddha!’” But for a second time, the Buddha gave the same answer.
For a third time, Kevaḍḍha made the same request, at which the Buddha said the following.
“Kevaḍḍha, there are three kinds of demonstration, which I declare having realized them with my own insight.591 What three? The demonstration of psychic power, the demonstration of revealing, and the demonstration of instruction.592
And what is the demonstration of psychic power? It’s a mendicant who wields the many kinds of psychic power: multiplying themselves and becoming one again; materializing and dematerializing; going unobstructed through a wall, a rampart, or a mountain as if through space; diving in and out of the earth as if it were water; walking on water as if it were earth; flying cross-legged through the sky like a bird; touching and stroking with the hand the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful; controlling the body as far as the realm of divinity.
Someone with faith and confidence sees that mendicant performing those superhuman feats.
They tell someone else who lacks faith and confidence: ‘Oh lord, how incredible, how amazing! The ascetic has such psychic power and might!593 I saw him myself, performing all these superhuman feats!’
But the one lacking faith and confidence would say to them:594 ‘There’s a spell named Gandhārī.595 Using that a mendicant can perform such superhuman feats.’
What do you think, Kevaḍḍha? Wouldn’t someone lacking faith speak like that?”
“They would, sir.”
“Seeing this drawback in psychic power, I’m horrified, repelled, and disgusted by demonstrations of psychic power.596
And what is the demonstration of revealing?597 It’s when a mendicant reveals the mind, mentality, thoughts, and reflections of other beings and individuals:598 ‘This is what you’re thinking, such is your thought, and thus is your state of mind.’599
Someone with faith and confidence sees that mendicant revealing another person’s thoughts. They tell someone else who lacks faith and confidence: ‘Oh lord, how incredible, how amazing! The ascetic has such psychic power and might! I saw him myself, revealing the thoughts of another person!’
But the one lacking faith and confidence would say to them: ‘There’s a spell named Māṇikā.600 Using that a mendicant can reveal another person’s thoughts.’
What do you think, Kevaḍḍha? Wouldn’t someone lacking faith speak like that?”
“They would, sir.”
“Seeing this drawback in revealing, I’m horrified, repelled, and disgusted by demonstrations of revealing.
And what is the demonstration of instruction? It’s when a mendicant instructs others like this: ‘Think like this, not like that. Focus your mind like this, not like that. Give up this, and live having achieved that.’ This is called the demonstration of instruction.
Furthermore, a Realized One arises in the world … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. … They enter and remain in the first absorption … This is called the demonstration of instruction.
They enter and remain in the second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. This too is called the demonstration of instruction.
They project and extend the mind toward knowledge and vision … This too is called the demonstration of instruction.
They understand: ‘… there is nothing further for this place.’ This too is called the demonstration of instruction.
These, Kevaḍḍha, are the three kinds of demonstration, which I declare having realized them with my own insight.
Once upon a time, Kevaḍḍha, a mendicant in this very Saṅgha had the following thought,601 ‘Where do these four principal states cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’602
Then that mendicant attained a state of immersion such that a path to the gods appeared.603 Then he approached the gods of the four great kings and said,604 ‘Reverends, where do these four principal states cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’
When he said this, those gods said to him, ‘Mendicant, we too do not know this. But the four great kings are our superiors.605 They might know.’
Then he approached the four great kings and asked the same question. But they also said to him, ‘Mendicant, we too do not know this. But the gods of the thirty-three …606 Sakka, lord of gods …607 the gods of Yama …608 the godling named Suyāma … the Joyful gods … the godling named Santussita … the gods who love to imagine … the godling named Sunimmita … the gods who control the creation of others … the godling named Vasavattī … the gods of the Divinity’s host are our superiors. They might know.’
Then that mendicant attained a state of immersion such that a path to divinity appeared. Then he approached the gods of the Divinity’s host and said, ‘Reverends, where do these four principal states cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’ But they also said to him, ‘Mendicant, we too do not know this.609 But there is the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. He is our superior.610 He might know.’611
‘But reverends, where is that Divinity now?’ ‘We also don’t know where he is or what way he lies. But by the signs that are seen—light arising and radiance appearing—we know that Divinity will appear. For this is the precursor for the appearance of the Divinity, namely light arising and radiance appearing.’612 Not long afterwards, the Great Divinity appeared.
Then that mendicant approached the Great Divinity and said to him, ‘Reverend, where do these four principal states cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’ The Great Divinity said to him, ‘I am the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born.’613
For a second time, that mendicant said to the Great Divinity, ‘Reverend, I am not asking you whether you are614 the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. I am asking where these four principal states cease without anything left over.’
For a second time, the Great Divinity said to him, ‘I am the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born.’ For a third time, that mendicant said to the Great Divinity,615 ‘Reverend, I am not asking you whether you are the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. I am asking where these four principal states cease without anything left over.’
Then the Great Divinity took that mendicant by the arm, led him off to one side, and said to him,616 ‘Mendicant, these gods think that there is nothing at all that I don’t know and see and understand and realize. That’s why I didn’t answer in front of them. But I too do not know where these four principal states cease with nothing left over.617 Therefore, mendicant, the misdeed is yours alone, the mistake is yours alone, in that you passed over the Buddha and searched elsewhere for an answer to this question. Mendicant, go to the Buddha and ask him this question. You should remember it in line with his answer.’
Then that mendicant, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, vanished from the realm of divinity and reappeared in front of me. Then he bowed, sat down to one side, and said to me, ‘Sir, where do these four principal states cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?’
When he said this, I said to him:
‘Once upon a time, mendicant, some sea-merchants set sail for the ocean deeps, taking with them a land-spotting bird. When their ship was out of sight of land, they released the bird. It flew right away to the east, the west, the north, the south, upwards, and in-between. If it saw land on any side, it went there and stayed. But if it saw no land on any side it returned to the ship.
In the same way, after failing to get an answer to this question even after searching as far as the realm of divinity, you’ve returned to me. Mendicant, this is not how the question should be asked: “Sir, where do these four principal states cease without anything left over, namely, the elements of earth, water, fire, and air?”
This is how the question should be asked:
“Where do water and earth,618
fire and air not remain;619
where long and short,620
fine and coarse, beautiful and ugly?621
Where does name-and-form622
cease with nothing left over?”
And the answer to that is:
“‘Consciousness where no form appears,623
infinite, luminous all-round.’624Regarding this, water and earth,625
fire and air do not remain;626
regarding this, long and short,
fine and coarse, beautiful and ugly.Regarding this, name and form627
ceases with nothing left over—
with the cessation of consciousness,628
they cease in reference to this.”’”629
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the householder Kevaḍḍha approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was wandering in the land of the Kosalans together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants when he arrived at Sālavatikā.630
Now at that time the brahmin Lohicca was living in Sālavatikā. It was a crown property given by King Pasenadi of Kosala, teeming with living creatures, full of hay, wood, water, and grain, a royal park endowed to a brahmin.631
Now at that time Lohicca had the following harmful misconception: “Should an ascetic or brahmin achieve some skillful quality, they ought not inform anyone else. For what can one person do for another?632 Suppose someone cut off an old bond, only to create another new bond. That’s the consequence of such a wicked, greedy deed, I say. For what can one person do for another?”
Lohicca heard:
“It seems the ascetic Gotama—a Sakyan, gone forth from a Sakyan family—has arrived at Sālavatikā, together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants. He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ He has realized with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and he makes it known to others. He proclaims a teaching that is good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he reveals a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. It’s good to see such perfected ones.”
Then Lohicca addressed his barber Rosika,633 “Here, dear Rosika, go to the ascetic Gotama and in my name bow with your head to his feet. Ask him if he is healthy and well, nimble, strong, and living comfortably. And then ask him whether he, together with the mendicant Saṅgha, might please accept tomorrow’s meal from the brahmin Lohicca.”634
“Yes, worthy sir,” Rosika replied. He did as he was asked, and the Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, Rosika got up from his seat, went to Lohicca, and said to him, “I gave the Buddha your message, and he accepted.”
And when the night had passed Lohicca had delicious fresh and cooked foods prepared in his own home. Then he had the Buddha informed of the time, saying, “Here, dear Rosika, go to the ascetic Gotama and announce the time, saying: ‘It’s time, worthy Gotama, the meal is ready.’”
“Yes, worthy sir,” Rosika replied. He did as he was asked.
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went to Sālavatikā together with the Saṅgha of mendicants. Now, Rosika was following behind the Buddha, and told him of Lohicca’s views, adding, “Sir, please dissuade him from that harmful misconception.”635
“Hopefully that’ll happen, Rosika, hopefully that’ll happen.”636
Then the Buddha approached Lohicca’s home, where he sat on the seat spread out. Then Lohicca served and satisfied the mendicant Saṅgha headed by the Buddha with his own hands with delicious fresh and cooked foods.
When the Buddha had eaten and washed his hand and bowl, Lohicca took a low seat and sat to one side.
The Buddha said to him, “Is it really true, Lohicca, that you have such a harmful misconception:637 ‘Should an ascetic or brahmin achieve some skillful quality, they ought not inform anyone else. For what can one person do for another? Suppose someone cut off an old bond, only to create another new bond. That’s the consequence of such a wicked, greedy deed, I say. For what can one person do for another?’”
“Yes, worthy Gotama.”
“What do you think, Lohicca? Do you reside in Sālavatikā?”
“Yes, worthy Gotama.”
“Lohicca, suppose someone were to say: ‘The brahmin Lohicca resides in Sālavatikā. He alone should enjoy the revenues produced in Sālavatikā and not share them with anyone else.’ Would the person who spoke like that make it difficult for those whose living depends on you or not?”
“They would, worthy Gotama.”
“But is someone who creates difficulties for others acting kindly or unkindly?”
“Unkindly, sir.”
“But does an unkind person have love in their heart or hostility?”
“Hostility, sir.”
“And when the heart is full of hostility, is there right view or wrong view?”
“Wrong view, worthy Gotama.”
“An individual with wrong view is reborn in one of two places, I say: hell or the animal realm.
What do you think, Lohicca? Does King Pasenadi reign over Kāsi and Kosala?”638
“Yes, worthy Gotama.”
“Lohicca, suppose someone were to say: ‘King Pasenadi reigns over Kāsi and Kosala. He alone should enjoy the revenues produced in Kāsi and Kosala and not share them with anyone else.’ Would the person who spoke like that make it difficult for yourself and others whose living depends on King Pasenadi or not?”
“They would, worthy Gotama.”
“But is someone who creates difficulties for others acting kindly or unkindly?”
“Unkindly, sir.”
“But does an unkind person have love in their heart or hostility?”
“Hostility, sir.”
“And when the heart is full of hostility, is there right view or wrong view?”
“Wrong view, worthy Gotama.”
“An individual with wrong view is reborn in one of two places, I say: hell or the animal realm.
So it seems, Lohicca, that should someone say such a thing either of Lohicca or of King Pasenadi, that is wrong view.
In the same way, suppose someone were to say: ‘Should an ascetic or brahmin achieve some skillful quality, they ought not inform anyone else. For what can one person do for another? Suppose someone cut off an old bond, only to create another new bond. That’s the consequence of such a wicked, greedy deed, I say. For what can one person do for another?’
Now, there are gentlemen who, relying on the teaching and training proclaimed by the Realized One, achieve a high distinction such as the following: they realize the fruit of stream-entry, the fruit of once-return, the fruit of non-return, or perfection. And in addition, there are those who ripen the seeds for rebirth in a heavenly state. The person who spoke like that makes it difficult for them. They’re acting unkindly, their heart is full of hostility, and they have wrong view.639 An individual with wrong view is reborn in one of two places, I say: hell or the animal realm.
Lohicca, there are three kinds of teachers in the world who deserve to be reprimanded.640 When someone reprimands such teachers, the reprimand is true, correct, legitimate, and blameless. What three?
Firstly, take a teacher who has not reached the goal of the ascetic life for which they went forth from the lay life to homelessness. They teach their disciples: ‘This is for your welfare. This is for your happiness.’ But their disciples don’t want to listen. They don’t actively listen or try to understand. They proceed having turned away from the teacher’s instruction. That teacher deserves to be reprimanded: ‘Venerable, you haven’t reached the goal of the ascetic life; and when you teach disciples they proceed having turned away from the teacher’s instruction. It’s like a man who makes advances on a woman though she pulls away, or embraces her though she turns her back.641 That’s the consequence of such a wicked, greedy deed, I say. For what can one do for another?’ This is the first kind of teacher who deserves to be reprimanded.
Furthermore, take a teacher who has not reached the goal of the ascetic life for which they went forth from the lay life to homelessness. They teach their disciples: ‘This is for your welfare. This is for your happiness.’ Their disciples do want to listen. They actively listen and try to understand. They don’t proceed having turned away from the teacher’s instruction.642 That teacher deserves to be reprimanded: ‘Venerable, you haven’t reached the goal of the ascetic life; and when you teach disciples they don’t proceed having turned away from the teacher’s instruction. It’s like someone who abandons their own field and presumes to weed someone else’s field. That’s the consequence of such a wicked, greedy deed, I say. For what can one do for another?’ This is the second kind of teacher who deserves to be reprimanded.
Furthermore, take a teacher who has reached the goal of the ascetic life for which they went forth from the lay life to homelessness. They teach their disciples: ‘This is for your welfare. This is for your happiness.’ But their disciples don’t want to listen. They don’t actively listen or try to understand. They proceed having turned away from the teacher’s instruction. That teacher deserves to be reprimanded: ‘Venerable, you have reached the goal of the ascetic life; yet when you teach disciples they proceed having turned away from the teacher’s instruction. Suppose someone cut off an old bond, only to create another new bond.643 That’s the consequence of such a wicked, greedy deed, I say. For what can one person do for another?’ This is the third kind of teacher who deserves to be reprimanded.
These are the three kinds of teachers in the world who deserve to be reprimanded. When someone reprimands such teachers, the reprimand is true, correct, legitimate, and blameless.”
When he had spoken, Lohicca said to the Buddha, “But worthy Gotama, is there a teacher in the world who does not deserve to be reprimanded?”644
“There is, Lohicca.”645
“But who is that teacher?”
“It’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. … They enter and remain in the first absorption … A teacher under whom a disciple achieves such a high distinction is one who does not deserve to be reprimanded. When someone reprimands such a teacher, the reprimand is false, baseless, illegitimate, and blameworthy.
They enter and remain in the second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. A teacher under whom a disciple achieves such a high distinction is one who does not deserve to be reprimanded. …
They project and extend the mind toward knowledge and vision … A teacher under whom a disciple achieves such a high distinction is one who does not deserve to be reprimanded. …
They understand: ‘… there is nothing further for this place.’ A teacher under whom a disciple achieves such a high distinction is one who does not deserve to be reprimanded. When someone reprimands such a teacher, the reprimand is false, baseless, illegitimate, and blameworthy.”
When he had spoken, Lohicca said to the Buddha:
“Suppose, worthy Gotama, a person was falling over a cliff, and another person were to grab them by the hair, pull them up, and place them on firm ground.646 In the same way, when I was falling off a cliff the worthy Gotama pulled me up and placed me on safe ground.
Excellent, worthy Gotama! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, worthy Gotama has made the Teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the worthy Gotama remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.”
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was wandering in the land of the Kosalans together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants when he arrived at a village of the Kosalan brahmins named Manasākaṭa.647 He stayed in a mango grove on a bank of the river Aciravatī to the north of Manasākaṭa.648
Now at that time several very well-known well-to-do brahmins were residing in Manasākaṭa. They included the brahmins Caṅkī, Tārukkha, Pokkharasāti, Jānussoṇi, Todeyya, and others.
Then as the students Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja were going for a walk they began a discussion regarding what is the path and what is not the path.649
Vāseṭṭha said this: “This is the only straight path, the direct route that delivers one who practices it to the company of Divinity; namely, that explained by the brahmin Pokkharasāti.”650
Bhāradvāja said this: “This is the only straight path, the direct route that delivers one who practices it to the company of Divinity; namely, that explained by the brahmin Tārukkha.”651
But neither was able to persuade the other. So Vāseṭṭha said to Bhāradvāja, “Bhāradvāja, the ascetic Gotama—a Sakyan, gone forth from a Sakyan family—is staying in a mango grove on a bank of the river Aciravatī to the north of Manasākaṭa. He has this good reputation: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ Come, let’s go to see him and ask him about this matter. As he answers, so we’ll remember it.”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied Bhāradvāja.
So they went to the Buddha and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, they sat down to one side and Vāseṭṭha told him of their conversation, adding: “In this matter we have a dispute, a disagreement, a difference of opinion.”
“So, Vāseṭṭha, it seems that you say that the straight path is that explained by Pokkharasāti, while Bhāradvāja says that the straight path is that explained by Tārukkha. But what exactly is your disagreement about?”
“About what is the path and what is not the path, worthy Gotama. Even though brahmins describe different paths—the Adhvaryu brahmins, the Taittirīya brahmins, the Chāndogya brahmins, the Cāndrāyaṇa brahmins, and the Bahvṛca brahmins—all of them still lead someone who practices them to the company of Divinity.652
It’s like a village or town that has many different roads nearby, yet all of them meet at that village.653 In the same way, even though brahmins describe different paths—the Adhvaryu brahmins, the Taittirīya brahmins, the Chāndogya brahmins, the Cāndrāyaṇa brahmins, and the Bahvṛca brahmins—all of them still lead someone who practices them to the company of Divinity.”
“Do you say, ‘they lead someone’, Vāseṭṭha?”
“I do, worthy Gotama.”
“Do you say, ‘they lead someone’, Vāseṭṭha?”
“I do, worthy Gotama.”
“Do you say, ‘they lead someone’, Vāseṭṭha?”
“I do, worthy Gotama.”
“Well, of the brahmins who are proficient in the three Vedas, Vāseṭṭha, is there even a single one who has seen the Divinity with their own eyes?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Well, has even a single one of their tutors seen the Divinity with their own eyes?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Well, has even a single one of their tutors’ tutors seen the Divinity with their own eyes?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Well, has anyone back to the seventh generation of tutors seen the Divinity with their own eyes?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Well, what of the ancient seers of the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas, namely Aṭṭhaka, Vāmaka, Vāmadeva, Vessāmitta, Yamadaggi, Aṅgīrasa, Bhāradvāja, Vāseṭṭha, Kassapa, and Bhagu? They were the authors and propagators of the hymns. Their hymnal was sung and propagated and compiled in ancient times; and these days, brahmins continue to sing and chant it, chanting what was chanted and teaching what was taught.654 Did they say: ‘We know and see where the Divinity is or what way he lies’?”655
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“So it seems that none of those brahmins have seen the Divinity with their own eyes, and not even the ancient seers claimed to know where he is. Yet the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas say: ‘We teach the path to the company of that which we neither know nor see. This is the only straight path, the direct route that delivers one who practices it to the company of Divinity.’
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? This being so, doesn’t their statement turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”656
“Clearly that’s the case, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha. For it is impossible that they should teach the path to that which they neither know nor see.
Suppose there was a queue of blind men, each holding the one in front: the first one does not see, the middle one does not see, and the last one does not see.657 In the same way, it seems to me that the brahmins’ statement turns out to be comparable to a queue of blind men: the first one does not see, the middle one does not see, and the last one does not see. Their statement turns out to be a joke—mere words, vacuous and hollow.
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Do the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas see the sun and moon just as other folk do? And do they pray to them and exalt them, following their course from where they rise to where they set with joined palms held in worship?”658
“Yes, worthy Gotama.”
“What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Though this is so, are the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas able to teach the path to the company of the sun and moon, saying: ‘This is the only straight path, the direct route that delivers one who practices it to the company of the sun and moon’?”659
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“So it seems that even though the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas see the sun and moon, they are not able to teach the path to the company of the sun and moon.
But it seems that even though they have not seen the Divinity with their own eyes, they still claim to teach the path to the company of that which they neither know nor see.
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? This being so, doesn’t their statement turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha. For it is impossible that they should teach the path to that which they neither know nor see.
Suppose a man were to say, ‘Whoever the finest lady in the land is, it is her that I want, her that I desire!’
They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, that finest lady in the land who you desire—do you know whether she’s an aristocrat, a brahmin, a peasant, or a menial?’ Asked this, he’d say, ‘No.’
They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, that finest lady in the land who you desire—do you know her name or clan? Whether she’s tall or short or medium? Whether her skin is black, brown, or tawny? What village, town, or city she comes from?’
Asked this, he’d say, ‘No.’
They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, do you desire someone who you’ve never even known or seen?’
Asked this, he’d say, ‘Yes.’
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? This being so, doesn’t that man’s statement turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, worthy Gotama.”
“In the same way, doesn’t the statement of those brahmins turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha. For it is impossible that they should teach the path to that which they neither know nor see.
Suppose a man was to build a ladder at the crossroads for climbing up to a stilt longhouse.
They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, that stilt longhouse that you’re building a ladder for—do you know whether it’s to the north, south, east, or west? Or whether it’s tall or short or medium?’
Asked this, he’d say, ‘No.’
They’d say to him, ‘Worthy man, are you building a ladder for a longhouse that you’ve never even known or seen?’
Asked this, he’d say, ‘Yes.’
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? This being so, doesn’t that man’s statement turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, worthy Gotama.”
“In the same way, doesn’t the statement of those brahmins turn out to have no demonstrable basis?”
“Clearly that’s the case, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha. For it is impossible that they should teach the path to that which they neither know nor see.
Suppose the river Aciravatī was full to the brim so a crow could drink from it. Then along comes a person who wants to cross over to the far shore. Standing on the near shore, they’d call out to the far shore, ‘Come here, far shore! Come here, far shore!’
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Would the far shore of the Aciravatī river come over to the near shore because of that man’s call, request, desire, or expectation?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“In the same way, Vāseṭṭha, the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas proceed having given up those things that make one a true brahmin, and having undertaken those things that make one not a true brahmin. Yet they say:660 ‘We call upon Indra! We call upon Soma! We call upon Varuṇa! We call upon Īsāna! We call upon the Progenitor! We call upon the Divinity! We call upon Mahiddhi! We call upon Yama!’661
So long as they proceed in this way it’s impossible that they will, when the body breaks up, after death, be reborn in the company of Divinity.
Suppose the river Aciravatī was full to the brim so a crow could drink from it. Then along comes a person who wants to cross over to the far shore. But while still on the near shore, their arms are tied tightly behind their back with a strong chain.
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Could that person cross over to the far shore?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“In the same way, the five kinds of sensual stimulation are called ‘chains’ and ‘fetters’ in the training of the Noble One. What five? Sights known by the eye, which are likable, desirable, agreeable, pleasant, sensual, and arousing. Sounds known by the ear … Smells known by the nose … Tastes known by the tongue … Touches known by the body, which are likable, desirable, agreeable, pleasant, sensual, and arousing.
These are the five kinds of sensual stimulation that are called ‘chains’ and ‘fetters’ in the training of the Noble One. The brahmins proficient in the three Vedas enjoy these five kinds of sensual stimulation tied, infatuated, attached, blind to the drawbacks, and not understanding the escape. So long as they enjoy them it’s impossible that they will, when the body breaks up, after death, be reborn in the company of Divinity.
Suppose the river Aciravatī was full to the brim so a crow could drink from it. Then along comes a person who wants to cross over to the far shore. But they’d lie down wrapped in cloth from head to foot.
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Could that person cross over to the far shore?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“In the same way, the five hindrances are called ‘obstacles’ and ‘hindrances’ and ‘encasings’ and ‘shrouds’ in the training of the Noble One. What five? The hindrances of sensual desire, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt. These five hindrances are called ‘obstacles’ and ‘hindrances’ and ‘encasings’ and ‘shrouds’ in the training of the Noble One.
The brahmins proficient in the three Vedas are obstructed, hindered, encased, and shrouded by these five hindrances. So long as they are so obstructed it’s impossible that they will, when the body breaks up, after death, be reborn in the company of Divinity.
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Have you heard that the brahmins who are elderly and senior, the tutors of tutors, say whether the Divinity is encumbered with possessions or not?”
“That he is not, worthy Gotama.”
“Is his heart full of enmity or not?”
“It is not.”
“Is his heart full of ill will or not?”
“It is not.”
“Is his heart corrupted or not?”
“It is not.”
“Does he wield power or not?”
“He does.”
“What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Are the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas encumbered with possessions or not?”
“They are.”
“Are their hearts full of enmity or not?”
“They are.”
“Are their hearts full of ill will or not?”
“They are.”
“Are their hearts corrupted or not?”
“They are.”
“Do they wield power or not?”
“They do not.”
“So it seems that the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas are encumbered with possessions, but the Divinity is not. But would brahmins who are encumbered with possessions come together and converge with the Divinity, who isn’t encumbered with possessions?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha! It’s impossible that the brahmins who are encumbered with possessions will, when the body breaks up, after death, be reborn in the company of Divinity, who isn’t encumbered with possessions.
And it seems that the brahmins have enmity, ill will, corruption, and do not wield power, while the Divinity is the opposite in all these things. But would brahmins who are opposite to the Divinity in all things come together and converge with him?”
“No, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha! It’s impossible that such brahmins will, when the body breaks up, after death, be reborn in the company of Divinity.
But here the brahmins proficient in the three Vedas sink down where they have sat, only to drift apart, while imagining they’re crossing over to drier ground.662 That’s why the three Vedas of the brahmins are called a ‘salted land’ and a ‘barren land’ and a ‘disaster’.”
When he said this, Vāseṭṭha said to the Buddha, “I have heard, worthy Gotama, that you know the path to company with Divinity.”
“What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Is the village of Manasākaṭa nearby?”
“Yes it is.”
“What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? Suppose a person was born and raised in Manasākaṭa. And as soon as they left the town some people asked them for the road to Manasākaṭa. Would they be slow or hesitant to answer?”
“No, worthy Gotama. Why is that? Because they were born and raised in Manasākaṭa. They’re well acquainted with all the roads to the village.”
“Still, it’s possible they might be slow or hesitant to answer. But the Realized One is never slow or hesitant when questioned about the realm of divinity or the practice that leads to the realm of divinity. I understand the Divinity, the realm of divinity, and the practice that leads to the realm of divinity, practicing in accordance with which one is reborn in the realm of divinity.”
When he said this, Vāseṭṭha said to the Buddha, “I have heard, worthy Gotama, that you teach the path to company with Divinity.663 Please teach us that path and elevate this generation of brahmins.”
“Well then, Vāseṭṭha, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied Vāseṭṭha.
The Buddha said this:
“It’s when a Realized One arises in the world, perfected, a fully awakened Buddha … That’s how a mendicant is accomplished in ethics. … Seeing that the hindrances have been given up in them, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, they feel bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed.
They meditate spreading a heart full of love to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of love to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will.664
Suppose there was a powerful horn blower. They’d easily make themselves heard in the four quarters. In the same way, when the heart’s release by love has been developed like this, any limited deeds they’ve done don’t remain or persist there.665 This is a path to company with Divinity.
Furthermore, a mendicant meditates spreading a heart full of compassion …666
They meditate spreading a heart full of rejoicing …667
They meditate spreading a heart full of equanimity to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of equanimity to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will.668
Suppose there was a powerful horn blower. They’d easily make themselves heard in the four quarters. In the same way, when the heart’s release by equanimity has been developed and cultivated like this, any limited deeds they’ve done don’t remain or persist there. This too is a path to company with Divinity.669
What do you think, Vāseṭṭha? When a mendicant meditates like this, are they encumbered with possessions or not?”
“They are not.”
“Is their heart full of enmity or not?”
“It is not.”
“Is their heart full of ill will or not?”
“It is not.”
“Is their heart corrupted or not?”
“It is not.”
“Do they wield power or not?”
“They do.”
“So it seems that that mendicant is not encumbered with possessions, and neither is the Divinity. Would a mendicant who is not encumbered with possessions come together and converge with the Divinity, who isn’t encumbered with possessions?”
“Yes, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha! It’s quite possible that a mendicant who is not encumbered with possessions will, when the body breaks up, after death, be reborn in the company of Divinity, who isn’t encumbered with possessions.
And it seems that that mendicant has no enmity, ill will, corruption, and does wield power, while the Divinity is the same in all these things. Would a mendicant who is the same as the Divinity in all things come together and converge with him?”
“Yes, worthy Gotama.”
“Good, Vāseṭṭha! It’s quite possible that that mendicant will, when the body breaks up, after death, be reborn in the company of Divinity.”670
When he had spoken, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja said to him, “Excellent, worthy Gotama! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, worthy Gotama has made the teaching clear in many ways. We go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha.671 From this day forth, may the worthy Gotama remember us as lay followers who have gone for refuge for life.”
So I have heard.672 At one time the Buddha was staying near Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery, in the hut by the kareri tree.673
Then after the meal, on return from almsround, several mendicants sat together in the pavilion by the kareri tree and this Dhamma talk on the subject of past lives came up among them, “So it was in a past life; such it was in a past life.”674
With clairaudience that is purified and superhuman, the Buddha heard that discussion among the mendicants. So he got up from his seat and went to the pavilion, where he sat on the seat spread out and addressed the mendicants, “Mendicants, what were you sitting talking about just now? What conversation was left unfinished?”
The mendicants told him what had happened, adding, “This is the conversation that was unfinished when the Buddha arrived.”
“Would you like to hear a Dhamma talk on the subject of past lives?”
“Now is the time, Blessed One! Now is the time, Holy One! Let the Buddha give a Dhamma talk on the subject of past lives. The mendicants will listen and remember it.”
“Well then, mendicants, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“Ninety-one eons ago, the Buddha Vipassī arose in the world, perfected and fully awakened.675 Thirty-one eons ago, the Buddha Sikhī arose in the world, perfected and fully awakened.676 In the same thirty-first eon, the Buddha Vessabhū arose in the world, perfected and fully awakened.677 In the present fortunate eon, the Buddhas Kakusandha,678 Koṇāgamana,679 and Kassapa arose in the world, perfected and fully awakened.680 And in the present fortunate eon, I have arisen in the world, perfected and fully awakened.681
The Buddhas Vipassī, Sikhī, and Vessabhū were born as aristocrats into aristocrat families. The Buddhas Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, and Kassapa were born as brahmins into brahmin families. I was born as an aristocrat into an aristocrat family.682
Koṇḍañña was the clan of Vipassī,683 Sikhī, and Vessabhū. Kassapa was the clan of Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, and Kassapa. Gotama is my clan.684
For Vipassī, the lifespan was 80,000 years. For Sikhī, the lifespan was 70,000 years. For Vessabhū, the lifespan was 60,000 years. For Kakusandha, the lifespan was 40,000 years. For Koṇāgamana, the lifespan was 30,000 years. For Kassapa, the lifespan was 20,000 years. For me at this time the life-span is short, brief, and fleeting. A long life is a hundred years or a little more.
Vipassī was awakened at the root of a patala tree.685 Sikhī was awakened at the root of a white-mango tree.686 Vessabhū was awakened at the root of a sal tree.687 Kakusandha was awakened at the root of a sirisa tree.688 Koṇāgamana was awakened at the root of a cluster fig tree.689 Kassapa was awakened at the root of a banyan tree.690 I was awakened at the root of a peepal tree.691
Vipassī had a fine pair of chief disciples named Khaṇḍa and Tissa. Sikhī had a fine pair of chief disciples named Abhibhū and Sambhava.692 Vessabhū had a fine pair of chief disciples named Soṇa and Uttara. Kakusandha had a fine pair of chief disciples named Vidhura and Sañjīva. Koṇāgamana had a fine pair of chief disciples named Bhiyyosa and Uttara. Kassapa had a fine pair of chief disciples named Tissa and Bhāradvāja. I have a fine pair of chief disciples named Sāriputta and Moggallāna.
Vipassī had three gatherings of disciples—one of 6,800,000, one of 100,000, and one of 80,000—all of them mendicants who had ended their defilements.693
Sikhī had three gatherings of disciples—one of 100,000, one of 80,000, and one of 70,000—all of them mendicants who had ended their defilements.
Vessabhū had three gatherings of disciples—one of 80,000, one of 70,000, and one of 60,000—all of them mendicants who had ended their defilements.
Kakusandha had one gathering of disciples—40,000 mendicants who had ended their defilements.
Koṇāgamana had one gathering of disciples—30,000 mendicants who had ended their defilements.
Kassapa had one gathering of disciples—20,000 mendicants who had ended their defilements.
I have had one gathering of disciples—1,250 mendicants who had ended their defilements.694
Vipassī had as chief attendant a mendicant named Asoka. Sikhī had as chief attendant a mendicant named Khemaṅkara. Vessabhū had as chief attendant a mendicant named Upasanta. Kakusandha had as chief attendant a mendicant named Buddhija. Koṇāgamana had as chief attendant a mendicant named Sotthija. Kassapa had as chief attendant a mendicant named Sabbamitta. I have as chief attendant a mendicant named Ānanda.
Vipassī’s father was King Bandhumā,695 his birth mother was Queen Bandhumatī, and their capital city was named Bandhumatī.
Sikhī’s father was King Aruṇa,696 his birth mother was Queen Pabhāvatī,697 and their capital city was named Aruṇavatī.698
Vessabhū’s father was King Suppatita,699 his birth mother was Queen Vassavatī, and their capital city was named Anoma.
Kakusandha’s father was the brahmin Aggidatta,700 and his birth mother was the brahmin lady Visākhā.701 At that time the king was Khema, whose capital city was named Khemavatī.702
Koṇāgamana’s father was the brahmin Yaññadatta,703 and his birth mother was the brahmin lady Uttarā.704 At that time the king was Sobha, whose capital city was named Sobhavatī.705
Kassapa’s father was the brahmin Brahmadatta,706 and his birth mother was the brahmin lady Dhanavatī.707 At that time the king was Kikī,708 whose capital city was named Varanasi.
In this life, my father was King Suddhodana,709 my birth mother was Queen Māyā,710 and our capital city was Kapilavatthu.”
That is what the Buddha said. When he had spoken, the Holy One got up from his seat and entered his dwelling.
Soon after the Buddha left, those mendicants discussed among themselves:
“It’s incredible, reverends, it’s amazing! The Realized One has such psychic power and might! For he is able to recollect the birth, names, clans, lifespan, chief disciples, and gatherings of disciples of the Buddhas of the past who have become fully quenched, cut off proliferation, cut off the track, finished off the cycle, and transcended all suffering. He knows their birth, names, clans, conduct, qualities, wisdom, meditation, and freedom.
Is it because the Realized One has clearly comprehended the principle of the teachings that he can recollect all these things?711 Or did deities tell him?” But this conversation among those mendicants was left unfinished.
Then in the late afternoon, the Buddha came out of retreat and went to the pavilion by the kareri tree, where he sat on the seat spread out and addressed the mendicants, “Mendicants, what were you sitting talking about just now? What conversation was left unfinished?”
The mendicants told him what had happened, adding, “This was our conversation that was unfinished when the Buddha arrived.”
“It is because the Realized One has clearly comprehended the principle of the teachings that he can recollect all these things. And the deities also told me.
Would you like to hear a further Dhamma talk on the subject of past lives?”
“Now is the time, Blessed One! Now is the time, Holy One! Let the Buddha give a further Dhamma talk on the subject of past lives. The mendicants will listen and remember it.”
“Well then, mendicants, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“Ninety-one eons ago, the Buddha Vipassī arose in the world, perfected and fully awakened. He was born as an aristocrat into an aristocrat family. His clan was Koṇḍañña. He lived for 80,000 years. He was awakened at the root of a patala tree. He had a fine pair of chief disciples named Khaṇḍa and Tissa. He had three gatherings of disciples—one of 6,800,000, one of 100,000, and one of 80,000—all of them mendicants who had ended their defilements. He had as chief attendant a mendicant named Asoka. His father was King Bandhumā, his birth mother was Queen Bandhumatī, and their capital city was named Bandhumatī.
When Vipassī, the being intent on awakening, passed away from the host of joyful gods, he was conceived in his mother’s womb, mindful and aware.712 This is normal in such a case.713
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening passes away from the host of joyful gods, he is conceived in his mother’s womb. And then—in this world with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—an immeasurable, magnificent light appears, surpassing the glory of the gods. Even in the boundless void of interstellar space—so utterly dark that even the light of the moon and the sun, so mighty and powerful, makes no impression—an immeasurable, magnificent light appears, surpassing the glory of the gods.714 And the sentient beings reborn there recognize each other by that light: ‘So, it seems other sentient beings have been reborn here!’715 And this ten-thousandfold galaxy shakes and rocks and trembles. And an immeasurable, magnificent light appears in the world, surpassing the glory of the gods. This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening is conceived in his mother’s belly, four godlings approach to guard the four quarters, so that no human or non-human or anyone at all shall harm the being intent on awakening or his mother.716 This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening is conceived in his mother’s belly, she becomes naturally ethical. She refrains from killing living creatures, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and beer, wine, and liquor intoxicants.717 This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening is conceived in his mother’s belly, she no longer feels sexual desire for men, and she cannot be violated by a man of lustful intent. This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening is conceived in his mother’s belly, she obtains the five kinds of sensual stimulation and amuses herself, supplied and provided with them.718 This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening is conceived in his mother’s belly, no afflictions beset her. She’s happy and free of bodily fatigue. And she sees the being intent on awakening in her womb, whole in his major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty. Suppose there was a beryl gem that was naturally lustrous, eight-faceted, well-worked, transparent, clear, and unclouded, endowed with all good qualities. And it was strung with a thread of blue, yellow, red, white, or golden brown. And a person with clear eyes were to take it in their hand and examine it: ‘This beryl gem is naturally lustrous, eight-faceted, well-worked, transparent, clear, and unclouded, endowed with all good qualities. And it’s strung with a thread of blue, yellow, red, white, or golden brown.’
In the same way, when the being intent on awakening is conceived in his mother’s belly, no afflictions beset her. She’s happy and free of bodily fatigue. And she sees the being intent on awakening in her womb, whole in his major and minor limbs, not deficient in any faculty. This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, seven days after the being intent on awakening is born, his mother passes away and is reborn in the host of joyful gods.719 This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, while other women carry the infant in the womb for nine or ten months before giving birth, not so the mother of the being intent on awakening. She gives birth after exactly ten months.720 This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, while other women give birth while sitting or lying down, not so the mother of the being intent on awakening. She only gives birth standing up.721 This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, gods receive him first, then humans. This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, before he reaches the ground, four godlings receive him and place him before his mother, saying: ‘Rejoice, O Queen! An illustrious son is born to you.’ This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, he emerges already clean, unsoiled by waters, mucus, blood, or any other kind of impurity, pure and clean. Suppose a jewel-treasure was placed on a cloth from Kāsi. The jewel would not soil the cloth, nor would the cloth soil the jewel.722 Why is that? Because of the cleanliness of them both.
In the same way, when the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, he emerges already clean, unsoiled by waters, mucus, blood, or any other kind of impurity, pure and clean. This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, two showers of water appear from the sky, one cool, one warm, for bathing the being intent on awakening and his mother. This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, as soon as he’s born, the being intent on awakening stands firm with his own feet on the ground. Facing north, he takes seven strides with a white parasol held above him, surveys all quarters, and makes this dramatic proclamation: ‘I am the foremost in the world! I am the eldest in the world! I am the first in the world! This is my last rebirth; now there’ll be no more future lives.’723 This is normal in such a case.
It’s normal that, when the being intent on awakening emerges from his mother’s womb, then—in this world with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—an immeasurable, magnificent light appears, surpassing the glory of the gods. Even in the boundless void of interstellar space—so utterly dark that even the light of the moon and the sun, so mighty and powerful, makes no impression—an immeasurable, magnificent light appears, surpassing the glory of the gods. And the sentient beings reborn there recognize each other by that light: ‘So, it seems other sentient beings have been reborn here!’ And this ten-thousandfold galaxy shakes and rocks and trembles. And an immeasurable, magnificent light appears in the world, surpassing the glory of the gods. This is normal in such a case.
When Prince Vipassī was born, they announced it to King Bandhumā,724 ‘Sire, your son is born! Let your majesty examine him!’ When the king had examined the prince, he had the brahmin soothsayers summoned and said to them,725 ‘Gentlemen, please examine the prince.’ When they had examined him they said to the king, ‘Rejoice, O King! An illustrious son is born to you. You are fortunate, so very fortunate, to have a son such as this born in this family! For the prince possesses the thirty-two marks of a great man. A great man who possesses these has only two possible destinies, no other.726 If he stays at home he becomes a king, a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king. His dominion extends to all four sides, he achieves stability in the country, and he possesses the seven treasures. He has the following seven treasures:727 the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the jewel, the woman, the householder, and the commander as the seventh treasure. He has over a thousand sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. After conquering this land girt by sea, he reigns by principle, without rod or sword. But if he goes forth from the lay life to homelessness, he becomes a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha, who draws back the veil from the world.
And what are the marks which he possesses?728
He has well-planted feet.729
On the soles of his feet there are thousand-spoked wheels, with rims and hubs, complete in every detail.730
He has stretched heels.731
He has long fingers.732
His hands and feet are tender.733
He has serried hands and feet.734
The tops of his feet are arched.735
His calves are like those of an antelope.736
When standing upright and not bending over, the palms of both hands touch the knees.737
His private parts are covered in a foreskin.738
He is golden colored; his skin shines like lustrous gold.739
He has delicate skin, so delicate that dust and dirt don’t stick to his body.740
His hairs grow one per pore.741
His hairs stand up; they’re blue-black and curl clockwise.742
His body is tall and straight-limbed.743
He has bulging muscles in seven places.744
His chest is like that of a lion.745
He is filled out between the shoulders.746
He has the proportional circumference of a banyan tree: the span of his arms equals the height of his body.747
His torso is cylindrical.
He has ridged taste buds.748
His jaw is like that of a lion.
He has forty teeth.
His teeth are even.749
His teeth have no gaps.
His teeth are perfectly white.
He has a large tongue.750
He has the voice of the Divinity, like a cuckoo’s call.
His eyes are indigo.751
He has eyelashes like a cow’s.752
Between his eyebrows there grows a tuft, soft and white like cotton-wool.
The crown of his head is like a turban.753
These are the thirty-two marks of a great man that the prince has. A great man who possesses these has only two possible destinies, no other. If he stays at home he becomes a king, a wheel-turning monarch. But if he goes forth from the lay life to homelessness, he becomes a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha, who draws back the veil from the world.’
Then King Bandhumā had the brahmin soothsayers dressed in unworn clothes and satisfied all their needs.754 Then the king appointed nursemaids for Prince Vipassī.755 Some suckled him, some bathed him, some held him, and some carried him on their hip. From when he was born, a white parasol was held over him night and day, with the thought, ‘Don’t let cold, heat, grass, dust, or damp bother him.’ He was dear and beloved by many people, like a blue water lily, or a pink or white lotus. He was always passed from hip to hip.
From when he was born, his voice was charming, graceful, sweet, and lovely. It was as sweet as the song of a cuckoo-bird found in the Himalayas.
From when he was born, Prince Vipassī had the power of clairvoyance which manifested as a result of past deeds, by which he could see for a league all around both by day and by night.756
And he was unblinkingly watchful, like the gods of the thirty-three. And because it was said that he was unblinkingly watchful, he came to be known as ‘Vipassī’.757
Then while King Bandhumā was sitting in court, he’d sit Prince Vipassī in his lap and explain the case to him. And sitting there in his father’s lap, Vipassī would thoroughly consider the case and draw a conclusion using a logical system. So this was all the more reason for him to be known as ‘Vipassī’.758
Then King Bandhumā had three stilt longhouses built for him—one for the winter, one for the summer, and one for the rainy season, and provided him with the five kinds of sensual stimulation. Prince Vipassī stayed in a stilt longhouse without coming downstairs for the four months of the rainy season, where he was entertained by musicians—none of them men.
The first recitation section.
Then, after many years, many hundred years, many thousand years had passed, Prince Vipassī addressed his charioteer,759 ‘My dear charioteer, harness the finest chariots. We will go to a park and see the scenery.’
‘Yes, sir,’ replied the charioteer. He harnessed the chariots and informed the prince, ‘Sire, the finest chariots are harnessed. Please go at your convenience.’ Then Prince Vipassī mounted a fine carriage and, along with other fine carriages, set out for the park.
Along the way he saw an elderly man, bent double, crooked, leaning on a staff, trembling as he walked, ailing, past his prime. He addressed his charioteer, ‘My dear charioteer, what has that man done? For his hair and his body are unlike those of other men.’
‘That, Your Majesty, is called an old man.’
‘But why is he called an old man?’
‘He’s called an old man because now he has not long to live.’
‘But my dear charioteer, am I liable to grow old? Am I not exempt from old age?’
‘Everyone is liable to grow old, Your Majesty, including you. No-one is exempt from old age.’
‘Well then, my dear charioteer, that’s enough of the park for today. Let’s return to the royal compound.’760
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied the charioteer and did so.
Back at the royal compound, the prince brooded, miserable and sad:761 ‘Curse this thing called rebirth, since old age will come to anyone who’s born.’
Then King Bandhumā summoned the charioteer and said, ‘My dear charioteer, I hope the prince enjoyed himself at the park? I hope he was happy there?’
‘No, Your Majesty, the prince didn’t enjoy himself at the park.’
‘But what did he see on the way to the park?’ And the charioteer told the king about seeing the old man and the prince’s reaction.
Then King Bandhumā thought, ‘Prince Vipassī must not renounce the throne. He must not go forth from the lay life to homelessness. And the words of the brahmin soothsayers must not come true.’762 To this end he provided the prince with even more of the five kinds of sensual stimulation, with which the prince amused himself.
Then, after many thousand years had passed, Prince Vipassī had his charioteer drive him to the park once more.763
Along the way he saw a man who was sick, suffering, gravely ill, collapsed in his own urine and feces, being picked up by some and put down by others. He addressed his charioteer, ‘My dear charioteer, what has that man done? For his eyes and his voice are unlike those of other men.’
‘That, Your Majesty, is called a sick man.’
‘But why is he called a sick man?’
‘He’s called a sick man; hopefully he will recover from that illness.’
‘But my dear charioteer, am I liable to fall sick? Am I not exempt from sickness?’
‘Everyone is liable to fall sick, Your Majesty, including you. No-one is exempt from sickness.’
‘Well then, my dear charioteer, that’s enough of the park for today. Let’s return to the royal compound.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied the charioteer and did so.
Back at the royal compound, the prince brooded, miserable and sad: ‘Curse this thing called rebirth, since old age and sickness will come to anyone who’s born.’
Then King Bandhumā summoned the charioteer and said, ‘My dear charioteer, I hope the prince enjoyed himself at the park? I hope he was happy there?’
‘No, Your Majesty, the prince didn’t enjoy himself at the park.’
‘But what did he see on the way to the park?’ And the charioteer told the king about seeing the sick man and the prince’s reaction.
Then King Bandhumā thought, ‘Prince Vipassī must not renounce the throne. He must not go forth from the lay life to homelessness. And the words of the brahmin soothsayers must not come true.’ To this end he provided the prince with even more of the five kinds of sensual stimulation, with which the prince amused himself.
Then, after many thousand years had passed, Prince Vipassī had his charioteer drive him to the park once more.
Along the way he saw a large crowd gathered making a bier out of garments of different colors.764 He addressed his charioteer, ‘My dear charioteer, why is that crowd making a bier?’
‘That, Your Majesty, is for someone who’s departed.’
‘Well then, drive the chariot up to the departed.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied the charioteer, and did so.
When the prince saw the corpse of the departed, he addressed the charioteer, ‘But why is he called departed?’
‘He’s called departed because now his mother and father, his relatives and kin shall see him no more, and he shall never again see them.’
‘But my dear charioteer, am I liable to die? Am I not exempt from death? Will the king and queen and my other relatives and kin see me no more? And shall I never again see them?’
‘Everyone is liable to die, Your Majesty, including you. No-one is exempt from death. The king and queen and your other relatives and kin shall see you no more, and you shall never again see them.’
‘Well then, my dear charioteer, that’s enough of the park for today. Let’s return to the royal compound.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied the charioteer and did so.
Back at the royal compound, the prince brooded, miserable and sad: ‘Curse this thing called rebirth, since old age, sickness, and death will come to anyone who’s born.’
Then King Bandhumā summoned the charioteer and said, ‘My dear charioteer, I hope the prince enjoyed himself at the park? I hope he was happy there?’
‘No, Your Majesty, the prince didn’t enjoy himself at the park.’
‘But what did he see on the way to the park?’ And the charioteer told the king about seeing the dead man and the prince’s reaction.
Then King Bandhumā thought, ‘Prince Vipassī must not renounce the throne. He must not go forth from the lay life to homelessness. And the words of the brahmin soothsayers must not come true.’ To this end he provided the prince with even more of the five kinds of sensual stimulation, with which the prince amused himself.
Then, after many thousand years had passed, Prince Vipassī had his charioteer drive him to the park once more.
Along the way he saw a man, a renunciate with shaven head, wearing an ocher robe.765 He addressed his charioteer, ‘My dear charioteer, what has that man done? For his head and his clothes are unlike those of other men.’
‘That, Your Majesty, is called a renunciate.’
‘But why is he called a renunciate?’
‘He is called a renunciate because he celebrates principled and fair conduct, skillful actions, good deeds, harmlessness, and sympathy for living creatures.’766
‘Then I celebrate the one called a renunciate, who celebrates principled and fair conduct, skillful actions, good deeds, harmlessness, and sympathy for living creatures! Well then, drive the chariot up to that renunciate.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied the charioteer, and did so.
Then Prince Vipassī said to that renunciate, ‘My good man, what have you done? For your head and your clothes are unlike those of other men.’
‘Sire, I am what is called a renunciate.’
‘But why are you called a renunciate?’
‘I am called a renunciate because I celebrate principled and fair conduct, skillful actions, good deeds, harmlessness, and sympathy for living creatures.’
‘Then I celebrate the one called a renunciate, who celebrates principled and fair conduct, skillful actions, good deeds, harmlessness, and sympathy for living creatures!’
Then the prince addressed the charioteer, ‘Well then, my dear charioteer, take the chariot and return to the royal compound. I shall shave off my hair and beard right here, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness.’767
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied the charioteer and did so.
Then Prince Vipassī shaved off his hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness.
A large crowd of 84,000 people in the capital of Bandhumatī heard that Vipassī had gone forth. It occurred to them, ‘This must be no ordinary teaching and training, no ordinary going forth in which Prince Vipassī has gone forth. If even the prince goes forth, why don’t we do the same?’
Then that great crowd of 84,000 people shaved off their hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and followed the one intent on awakening, Vipassī, by going forth from the lay life to homelessness.768 Escorted by that assembly, Vipassī wandered on tour among the villages, towns, and capital cities.769
Then as he was in private retreat this thought came to his mind, ‘It’s not appropriate for me to live in a crowd. Why don’t I live alone, withdrawn from the group?’ After some time he withdrew from the group to live alone. The 84,000 went one way, but Vipassī went another.
Then as Vipassī, the one intent on awakening, was in private retreat in his dwelling, this thought came to his mind,770 ‘Alas, this world has fallen into trouble. It’s born, grows old, dies, passes away, and is reborn, yet it doesn’t understand how to escape from this suffering, from old age and death.771 Oh, when will an escape be found from this suffering, from old age and death?’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there old age and death? What is a requirement for old age and death?’772 Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom,773 ‘When rebirth exists there’s old age and death. Rebirth is a requirement for old age and death.’774
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there rebirth? What is a requirement for rebirth?’775 Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When continued existence exists there’s rebirth. Continued existence is a requirement for rebirth.’776
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there continued existence? What is a requirement for continued existence?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When grasping exists there’s continued existence. Grasping is a requirement for continued existence.’777
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there grasping? What is a requirement for grasping?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When craving exists there’s grasping. Craving is a requirement for grasping.’778
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there craving? What is a requirement for craving?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When feeling exists there’s craving. Feeling is a requirement for craving.’779
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there feeling? What is a requirement for feeling?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When contact exists there’s feeling. Contact is a requirement for feeling.’780
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there contact? What is a requirement for contact?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When the six sense fields exist there’s contact. The six sense fields are requirements for contact.’781
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists are there the six sense fields? What is a requirement for the six sense fields?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When name and form exist there are the six sense fields. Name and form are requirements for the six sense fields.’782
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists are there name and form? What is a requirement for name and form?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When consciousness exists there are name and form. Consciousness is a requirement for name and form.’783
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what exists is there consciousness? What is a requirement for consciousness?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When name and form exist there’s consciousness. Name and form are requirements for consciousness.’784
Then Vipassī thought, ‘This consciousness turns back from name and form, and doesn’t go beyond that.’785 This is the extent to which one may be reborn, grow old, die, pass away, or reappear. That is: Name and form are requirements for consciousness. Consciousness is a requirement for name and form. Name and form are requirements for the six sense fields. The six sense fields are requirements for contact. Contact is a requirement for feeling. Feeling is a requirement for craving. Craving is a requirement for grasping. Grasping is a requirement for continued existence. Continued existence is a requirement for rebirth. Rebirth is a requirement for old age and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress to come to be.786 That is how this entire mass of suffering originates.’
‘Origination, origination.’ Such was the vision, knowledge, wisdom, realization, and light that arose in Vipassī, the one intent on awakening, regarding teachings not learned before from another.787
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no old age and death? When what ceases do old age and death cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When rebirth doesn’t exist there’s no old age and death. When rebirth ceases, old age and death cease.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no rebirth? When what ceases does rebirth cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When continued existence doesn’t exist there’s no rebirth. When continued existence ceases, rebirth ceases.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no continued existence? When what ceases does continued existence cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When grasping doesn’t exist there’s no continued existence. When grasping ceases, continued existence ceases.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no grasping? When what ceases does grasping cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When craving doesn’t exist there’s no grasping. When craving ceases, grasping ceases.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no craving? When what ceases does craving cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When feeling doesn’t exist there’s no craving. When feeling ceases, craving ceases.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no feeling? When what ceases does feeling cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When contact doesn’t exist there’s no feeling. When contact ceases, feeling ceases.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no contact? When what ceases does contact cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When the six sense fields don’t exist there’s no contact. When the six sense fields cease, contact ceases.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist are there no six sense fields? When what ceases do the six sense fields cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When name and form don’t exist there are no six sense fields. When name and form cease, the six sense fields cease.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist are there no name and form? When what ceases do name and form cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When consciousness doesn’t exist there are no name and form. When consciousness ceases, name and form cease.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘When what doesn’t exist is there no consciousness? When what ceases does consciousness cease?’ Then, through rational application of mind, Vipassī penetrated with wisdom, ‘When name and form don’t exist there’s no consciousness. When name and form cease, consciousness ceases.’
Then Vipassī thought, ‘I have discovered the path to awakening. That is:788 When name and form cease, consciousness ceases. When consciousness ceases, name and form cease. When name and form cease, the six sense fields cease. When the six sense fields cease, contact ceases. When contact ceases, feeling ceases. When feeling ceases, craving ceases. When craving ceases, grasping ceases. When grasping ceases, continued existence ceases. When continued existence ceases, rebirth ceases. When rebirth ceases, old age and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress cease. That is how this entire mass of suffering ceases.’
‘Cessation, cessation.’ Such was the vision, knowledge, wisdom, realization, and light that arose in Vipassī, the one intent on awakening, regarding teachings not learned before from another.789
After some time he meditated observing rise and fall in the five grasping aggregates.790 ‘Such is form, such is the origin of form, such is the ending of form. Such is feeling, such is the origin of feeling, such is the ending of feeling. Such is perception, such is the origin of perception, such is the ending of perception. Such are choices, such is the origin of choices, such is the ending of choices.791 Such is consciousness, such is the origin of consciousness, such is the ending of consciousness.’792 Meditating like this his mind was soon freed from defilements by not grasping.793
The second recitation section.
Then the Blessed One Vipassī, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, thought,794 ‘Why don’t I teach the Dhamma?’795
Then he thought, ‘This principle I have discovered is deep, hard to see, hard to understand, peaceful, sublime, beyond the scope of logic, subtle, comprehensible to the astute.796 But people like clinging, they love it and enjoy it.797 It’s hard for them to see this topic; that is, specific conditionality, dependent origination.798 It’s also hard for them to see this topic; that is, the stilling of all activities, the letting go of all attachments, the ending of craving, fading away, cessation, extinguishment.799 And if I were to teach this principle, others might not understand me, which would be wearying and troublesome for me.’800
And then these verses, which were neither supernaturally inspired, nor learned before in the past, occurred to him:801
‘I’ve struggled hard to realize this,
enough with trying to explain it!
Those mired in greed and hate
can’t really understand this teaching.It goes against the stream, subtle,
deep, obscure, and very fine.
Those besotted by greed cannot see,
for they’re shrouded in a mass of darkness.’802
So, as the Buddha Vipassī reflected like this, his mind inclined to remaining passive, not to teaching the Dhamma.803
Then a certain Great Divinity, knowing the Buddha Vipassī’s train of thought, thought,804 ‘Oh lord! The world will be lost, the world will perish! For the mind of the Blessed One Vipassī, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, inclines to remaining passive, not to teaching the Dhamma.’ Then, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, he vanished from the realm of divinity and reappeared in front of the Buddha Vipassī. He arranged his robe over one shoulder, knelt on his right knee, raised his joined palms toward the Buddha Vipassī, and said, ‘Sir, let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma! Let the Holy One teach the Dhamma!805 There are beings with little dust in their eyes. They’re in decline because they haven’t heard the teaching. There will be those who understand the teaching!’806
When he said this, the Buddha Vipassī said to him, ‘I too thought this, Divinity, “Why don’t I teach the Dhamma?” Then it occurred to me, “If I were to teach this principle, others might not understand me, which would be wearying and troublesome for me.”
So, as I reflected like this, my mind inclined to remaining passive, not to teaching the Dhamma.’
For a second time, and a third time that Great Divinity begged the Buddha to teach.
Then, understanding the Divinity’s invitation, the Buddha Vipassī surveyed the world with the eye of a Buddha, out of his compassion for sentient beings.807 And he saw sentient beings with little dust in their eyes, and some with much dust in their eyes; with keen faculties and with weak faculties, with good qualities and with bad qualities, easy to teach and hard to teach. And some of them lived seeing the danger in the fault to do with the next world, while others did not.808 It’s like a pool with blue water lilies, or pink or white lotuses. Some of them sprout and grow in the water without rising above it, thriving underwater. Some of them sprout and grow in the water reaching the water’s surface. And some of them sprout and grow in the water but rise up above the water and stand with no water clinging to them.
In the same way, the Buddha Vipassī saw sentient beings with little dust in their eyes, and some with much dust in their eyes.
Then that Great Divinity, knowing the Buddha Vipassī’s train of thought, addressed him in verse:
‘Standing high on a rocky mountain,
you can see the people all around.
In just the same way, All-seer, so intelligent,
having ascended the Temple of Truth,
rid of sorrow, look upon the people
swamped with sorrow,oppressed by rebirth and old age. Rise, hero! Victor in battle, caravan leader,809
wander the world cleared of debt.810
Let the Blessed One teach the Dhamma!
There will be those who understand!’
Then the Buddha Vipassī addressed that Great Divinity in verse:
‘Flung open are the doors to freedom from death!
Let those with ears to hear commit to faith.811
Thinking it would be troublesome, Divinity,I did not teach
the sophisticated, sublime Dhamma among mankind.’
Then the Great Divinity, knowing that his request for the Buddha Vipassī to teach the Dhamma had been granted, bowed and respectfully circled him, keeping him on his right, before vanishing right there.
Then the Blessed One Vipassī, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, thought, ‘Who should I teach first of all? Who will quickly understand this teaching?’ Then he thought, ‘That Khaṇḍa, the king’s son, and Tissa, the high priest’s son, are astute, competent, clever, and have long had little dust in their eyes.812 Why don’t I teach them first of all? They will quickly understand this teaching.’
Then, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, he vanished from the tree of awakening and reappeared near the capital city of Bandhumatī, in the deer park named Sanctuary.813
Then the Buddha Vipassī addressed the park keeper,814 ‘My dear park keeper, please enter the city and say this to the king’s son Khaṇḍa and the high priest’s son Tissa: “Sirs, the Blessed One Vipassī, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, has arrived at Bandhumatī and is staying in the deer park named Sanctuary. He wishes to see you.”’
‘Yes, sir,’ replied the park keeper, and did as he was asked.
Then the king’s son Khaṇḍa and the high priest’s son Tissa had the finest carriages harnessed. Then they mounted a fine carriage and, along with other fine carriages, set out from Bandhumatī for the Sanctuary. They went by carriage as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and approached the Buddha Vipassī on foot. They bowed and sat down to one side.
The Buddha Vipassī taught them step by step, with a talk on giving, ethical conduct, and heaven. He explained the drawbacks of sensual pleasures, so sordid and corrupt, and the benefit of renunciation. And when he knew that their minds were ready, pliable, rid of hindrances, elated, and confident he explained the special teaching of the Buddhas: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path. Just as a clean cloth rid of stains would properly absorb dye, in that very seat the stainless, immaculate vision of the Dhamma arose in the king’s son Khaṇḍa and the high priest’s son Tissa: ‘Everything that has a beginning has an end.’
They saw, attained, understood, and fathomed the Dhamma. They went beyond doubt, got rid of indecision, and became self-assured and independent of others regarding the Teacher’s instructions. They said to the Buddha Vipassī, ‘Excellent, sir! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. We go for refuge to the Blessed One and to the teaching. Sir, may we receive the going forth and ordination in the Buddha’s presence?’
And they received the going forth, the ordination in the Buddha Vipassī’s presence.815 Then the Buddha Vipassī educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired them with a Dhamma talk. He explained the drawbacks of conditioned phenomena, so sordid and corrupt, and the benefit of extinguishment. Being taught like this their minds were soon freed from defilements by not grasping.816
A large crowd of 84,000 people in the capital of Bandhumatī heard that the Blessed One Vipassī, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, had arrived at Bandhumatī and was staying in the deer park named Sanctuary. And they heard that the king’s son Khaṇḍa and the high priest’s son Tissa had shaved off their hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and gone forth from the lay life to homelessness in the Buddha’s presence. It occurred to them, ‘This must be no ordinary teaching and training, no ordinary going forth in which the king’s son Khaṇḍa and the high priest’s son Tissa have gone forth. If even they go forth, why don’t we do the same?’ Then those 84,000 people left Bandhumatī for the deer park named Sanctuary, where they approached the Buddha Vipassī, bowed and sat down to one side.
The Buddha Vipassī taught them step by step, with a talk on giving, ethical conduct, and heaven. He explained the drawbacks of sensual pleasures, so sordid and corrupt, and the benefit of renunciation. And when he knew that their minds were ready, pliable, rid of hindrances, elated, and confident he explained the special teaching of the Buddhas: suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path. Just as a clean cloth rid of stains would properly absorb dye, in that very seat the stainless, immaculate vision of the Dhamma arose in those 84,000 people: ‘Everything that has a beginning has an end.’
They saw, attained, understood, and fathomed the Dhamma. They went beyond doubt, got rid of indecision, and became self-assured and independent of others regarding the Teacher’s instructions. They said to the Buddha Vipassī, ‘Excellent, sir! Excellent!’ And just like Khaṇḍa and Tissa they asked for and received ordination. Then the Buddha taught them further.
Being taught like this their minds were soon freed from defilements by not grasping.
The 84,000 people who had gone forth previously also heard: ‘It seems the Blessed One Vipassī, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, has arrived at Bandhumatī and is staying in the deer park named Sanctuary. And he is teaching the Dhamma!’ Then they too went to see the Buddha Vipassī, realized the Dhamma, went forth, and became freed from defilements.
Now at that time a large Saṅgha of 6,800,000 mendicants were residing at Bandhumatī. As the Buddha Vipassī was in private retreat this thought came to his mind, ‘The Saṅgha residing at Bandhumatī now is large. What if I was to urge them:
“Wander forth, mendicants, for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.817 Let not two go by one road. Teach the Dhamma that’s good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And reveal a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. There are beings with little dust in their eyes. They’re in decline because they haven’t heard the teaching. There will be those who understand the teaching! But when six years have passed, you must all come to Bandhumatī to recite the monastic code.”’818
Then a certain Great Divinity, knowing the Buddha Vipassī’s train of thought, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, vanished from the realm of divinity and reappeared in front of the Buddha Vipassī. He arranged his robe over one shoulder, raised his joined palms toward the Buddha Vipassī, and said, ‘That’s so true, Blessed One! That’s so true, Holy One! The Saṅgha residing at Bandhumatī now is large. Please urge them to wander, as you thought. And sir, I’ll make sure that when six years have passed the mendicants will return to Bandhumatī to recite the monastic code.’
That’s what that Great Divinity said. Then he bowed and respectfully circled the Buddha Vipassī, keeping him on his right side, before vanishing right there.
Then in the late afternoon, the Buddha Vipassī came out of retreat and addressed the mendicants, telling them all that had happened. Then he said,
‘Wander forth, mendicants, for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans. Let not two go by one road. Teach the Dhamma that’s good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And reveal a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. There are beings with little dust in their eyes. They’re in decline because they haven’t heard the teaching. There will be those who understand the teaching! But when six years have passed, you must all come to Bandhumatī to recite the monastic code.’
Then most of the mendicants left to wander the country that very day.
Now at that time there were 84,000 monasteries in the Black Plum Tree Land.819 And when the first year came to an end the deities raised the cry: ‘Good fellows, the first year has ended. Now five years remain. When five years have passed, you must all go to Bandhumatī to recite the monastic code.’
And when the second year … the third year … the fourth year … the fifth year came to an end, the deities raised the cry: ‘Good fellows, the fifth year has ended. Now one year remains. When one year has passed, you must all go to Bandhumatī to recite the monastic code.’
And when the sixth year came to an end the deities raised the cry: ‘Good fellows, the sixth year has ended. Now is the time that you must go to Bandhumatī to recite the monastic code.’ Then that very day the mendicants went to Bandhumatī to recite the monastic code. Some went by their own psychic power, and some by the psychic power of the deities.
And there the Blessed One Vipassī, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, recited the monastic code thus:820
‘Patient acceptance is the ultimate fervor.821
Extinguishment is the ultimate, say the Buddhas.822
No true renunciate injures another,
nor does an ascetic hurt another.Not to do any evil;823
to embrace the good;824
to purify one’s mind:825
this is the instruction of the Buddhas.826Not speaking ill nor doing harm;
restraint in the monastic code;827
moderation in eating;
staying in remote lodgings;
commitment to the higher mind—828
this is the instruction of the Buddhas.’
This one time, mendicants, I was staying near Ukkaṭṭhā, in the Subhaga Forest at the root of a magnificent sal tree.829 As I was in private retreat this thought came to mind, ‘It’s not easy to find an abode of sentient beings where I haven’t previously abided in all this long time, except for the gods of the pure abodes.830 Why don’t I go to see them?’
Then, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, I vanished from the Subhaga Forest and reappeared with the gods of Aviha.
In that order of gods, many thousands, many hundreds of thousands of deities approached me, bowed, stood to one side, and said to me,831 ‘Ninety-one eons ago, good fellow, the Buddha Vipassī arose in the world, perfected and fully awakened. He was born as an aristocrat into an aristocrat family. Koṇḍañña was his clan. He lived for 80,000 years. He was awakened at the root of a patala tree. He had a fine pair of chief disciples named Khaṇḍa and Tissa. He had three gatherings of disciples—one of 6,800,000, one of 100,000, and one of 80,000—all of them mendicants who had ended their defilements. He had as chief attendant a mendicant named Asoka. His father was King Bandhumā, his birth mother was Queen Bandhumatī, and their capital city was named Bandhumatī. And such was his renunciation, such his going forth, such his striving, such his awakening, and such his rolling forth of the wheel of Dhamma.832 And good fellow, after leading the spiritual life under that Buddha Vipassī we lost our desire for sensual pleasures and were reborn here.’833
And other deities came and similarly recounted the details of the Buddhas Sikhī, Vessabhū, Kakusandha, Koṇāgamana, and Kassapa.834
In that order of gods, many thousands, many hundreds of thousands of deities approached me, bowed, stood to one side, and said to me, ‘In the present fortunate eon, good fellow, you have arisen in the world, perfected and fully awakened. You were born as an aristocrat into an aristocrat family. Gotama is your clan. For you the life-span is short, brief, and fleeting. A long life is a hundred years or a little more. You were awakened at the root of a peepal tree. You have a fine pair of chief disciples named Sāriputta and Moggallāna. You have had one gathering of disciples—1,250 mendicants who had ended their defilements. You have as chief attendant a mendicant named Ānanda. Your father was King Suddhodana, your birth mother was Queen Māyā, and your capital city was Kapilavatthu. And such was your renunciation, such your going forth, such your striving, such your awakening, and such your rolling forth of the wheel of Dhamma. And good fellow, after leading the spiritual life under you we lost our desire for sensual pleasures and were reborn here.’
Then together with the gods of Aviha I went to see the gods of Atappa … the gods fair to see … and the fair seeing gods. Then together with all these gods I went to see the gods of Akaniṭṭha, where we had a similar conversation.
And that is how the Realized One is able to recollect the birth, names, clans, lifespan, chief disciples, and gatherings of disciples of the Buddhas of the past who have become fully quenched, cut off proliferation, cut off the track, finished off the cycle, and transcended all suffering. It is both because I have clearly comprehended the principle of the teachings, and also because the deities told me.”835
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard.836 At one time the Buddha was staying in the land of the Kurus, near the Kuru town named Kammāsadamma.837
Then Venerable Ānanda went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him,838 “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing, in that this dependent origination is deep and appears deep, yet to me it seems as plain as can be.”839
“Don’t say that, Ānanda, don’t say that! This dependent origination is deep and appears deep.840 It is because of not understanding and not penetrating this teaching that this population has become tangled like string, knotted like a ball of thread, and matted like rushes and reeds, and it doesn’t escape the places of loss, the bad places, the underworld, transmigration.841
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for old age and death?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’842 If they say, ‘What is a requirement for old age and death?’ you should answer, ‘Rebirth is a requirement for old age and death.’843
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for rebirth?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for rebirth?’ you should answer, ‘Continued existence is a requirement for rebirth.’844
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for continued existence?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for continued existence?’ you should answer, ‘Grasping is a requirement for continued existence.’845
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for grasping?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for grasping?’ you should answer, ‘Craving is a requirement for grasping.’
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for craving?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for craving?’ you should answer, ‘Feeling is a requirement for craving.’846
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for feeling?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for feeling?’ you should answer, ‘Contact is a requirement for feeling.’
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for contact?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for contact?’ you should answer, ‘Name and form are requirements for contact.’847
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for name and form?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for name and form?’ you should answer, ‘Consciousness is a requirement for name and form.’
When asked, ‘Is there a specific condition for consciousness?’ you should answer, ‘There is.’ If they say, ‘What is a requirement for consciousness?’ you should answer, ‘Name and form are requirements for consciousness.’848
So: name and form are requirements for consciousness. Consciousness is a requirement for name and form. Name and form are requirements for contact. Contact is a requirement for feeling. Feeling is a requirement for craving. Craving is a requirement for grasping. Grasping is a requirement for continued existence. Continued existence is a requirement for rebirth. Rebirth is a requirement for old age and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress to come to be.849 That is how this entire mass of suffering originates.
‘Rebirth is a requirement for old age and death’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.850 Suppose there were totally and utterly no rebirth for anyone anywhere.851 That is, there were no rebirth of sentient beings into their various realms—of gods, centaurs, spirits, creatures, humans, quadrupeds, birds, or reptiles, each into their own realm. When there’s no rebirth at all, with the cessation of rebirth, would old age and death still be found?”852
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of old age and death, namely rebirth.853
‘Continued existence is a requirement for rebirth’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so. Suppose there were totally and utterly no continued existence for anyone anywhere. That is, continued existence in the sensual realm, the realm of luminous form, or the formless realm. When there’s no continued existence at all, with the cessation of continued existence, would rebirth still be found?”854
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of rebirth, namely continued existence.
‘Grasping is a requirement for continued existence’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so. Suppose there were totally and utterly no grasping for anyone anywhere. That is, grasping at sensual pleasures, views, precepts and observances, and theories of a self. When there’s no grasping at all, with the cessation of grasping, would continued existence still be found?”855
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of continued existence, namely grasping.
‘Craving is a requirement for grasping’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so. Suppose there were totally and utterly no craving for anyone anywhere. That is, craving for sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas. When there’s no craving at all, with the cessation of craving, would grasping still be found?”856
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of grasping, namely craving.
‘Feeling is a requirement for craving’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so. Suppose there were totally and utterly no feeling for anyone anywhere. That is, feeling born of contact through the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. When there’s no feeling at all, with the cessation of feeling, would craving still be found?”857
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of craving, namely feeling.
So it is, Ānanda, that feeling gives rise to craving. Craving gives rise to seeking. Seeking gives rise to gaining material things. Gaining material things gives rise to evaluation. Evaluation gives rise to desire and lust. Desire and lust gives rise to attachment. Attachment gives rise to ownership. Ownership gives rise to stinginess. Stinginess gives rise to safeguarding.858 Owing to safeguarding, many bad, unskillful things come to be: taking up the rod and the sword, quarrels, arguments, and disputes, accusations, divisive speech, and lies.859
‘Owing to safeguarding, many bad, unskillful things come to be: taking up the rod and the sword, quarrels, arguments, and disputes, accusations, divisive speech, and lies’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.860 Suppose there were totally and utterly no safeguarding for anyone anywhere. When there’s no safeguarding at all, with the cessation of safeguarding, would those many bad, unskillful things still come to be?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason for the origination of those many bad, unskillful things, namely safeguarding.
‘Stinginess gives rise to safeguarding’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.861 Suppose there were totally and utterly no stinginess for anyone anywhere. When there’s no stinginess at all, with the cessation of stinginess, would safeguarding still be found?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of safeguarding, namely stinginess.
‘Ownership gives rise to stinginess’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so. Suppose there were totally and utterly no ownership for anyone anywhere. When there’s no ownership at all, with the cessation of ownership, would stinginess still be found?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of stinginess, namely ownership.
‘Attachment gives rise to ownership’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.862 Suppose there were totally and utterly no attachment for anyone anywhere. When there’s no attachment at all, with the cessation of attachment, would ownership still be found?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of ownership, namely attachment.
‘Desire and lust gives rise to attachment’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so. Suppose there were totally and utterly no desire and lust for anyone anywhere. When there’s no desire and lust at all, with the cessation of desire and lust, would attachment still be found?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of attachment, namely desire and lust.
Evaluation gives rise to desire and lust’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.863 Suppose there were totally and utterly no evaluation for anyone anywhere. When there’s no evaluation at all, with the cessation of evaluation, would desire and lust still be found?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of desire and lust, namely evaluation.
‘Gaining material things gives rise to evaluation’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.864 Suppose there were totally and utterly no gaining of material things for anyone anywhere. When there’s no gaining of material things at all, with the cessation of gaining material things, would evaluation still be found?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of evaluation, namely the gaining of material things.
‘Seeking gives rise to gaining material things’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.865 Suppose there were totally and utterly no seeking for anyone anywhere. When there’s no seeking at all, with the cessation of seeking, would the gaining of material things still be found?”
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of gaining material things, namely seeking.
‘Craving gives rise to seeking’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so. Suppose there were totally and utterly no craving for anyone anywhere. That is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for continued existence, and craving to end existence. When there’s no craving at all, with the cessation of craving, would seeking still be found?”866
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of seeking, namely craving. And so, Ānanda, these two things are united by the two aspects of feeling.867
‘Contact is a requirement for feeling’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.868 Suppose there were totally and utterly no contact for anyone anywhere. That is, contact through the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. When there’s no contact at all, with the cessation of contact, would feeling still be found?”869
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of feeling, namely contact.
‘Name and form are requirements for contact’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.870 Suppose there were none of the features, attributes, signs, and details by which the set of mental phenomena known as name is found. Would labeling contact still be found in the set of physical phenomena?”871
“No, sir.”
“Suppose there were none of the features, attributes, signs, and details by which the set of physical phenomena known as form is found. Would impingement contact still be found in the set of mental phenomena?”872
“No, sir.”
“Suppose there were none of the features, attributes, signs, and details by which the set of phenomena known as name and the set of phenomena known as form are found. Would either labeling contact or impingement contact still be found?”873
“No, sir.”
“Suppose there were none of the features, attributes, signs, and details by which name and form are found. Would contact still be found?”874
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of contact, namely name and form.
‘Consciousness is a requirement for name and form’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.875 If consciousness were not conceived in the mother’s womb, would name and form coagulate there?”876
“No, sir.”
“If consciousness, after being conceived in the mother’s womb, were to be miscarried, would name and form be born into this place?”877
“No, sir.”
“If the consciousness of a young boy or girl were to be cut off, would name and form achieve growth, increase, and maturity?”878
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of name and form, namely consciousness.
‘Name and form are requirements for consciousness’—that’s what I said. And this is a way to understand how this is so.879 If consciousness were not established in name and form, would the coming to be of the origin of suffering—of rebirth, old age, and death in the future—be found?”880
“No, sir.”
“That’s why this is the cause, source, origin, and reason of consciousness, namely name and form. This is the extent to which one may be reborn, grow old, die, pass away, or reappear.881 This is how far the scope of labeling, terminology, and description extends; how far the sphere of wisdom extends; how far the cycle of rebirths spins so that this state of being may be found; namely, name and form together with consciousness.882
How do those who describe the self describe it?883 They describe it as formed and limited:884 ‘My self is formed and limited.’885 Or they describe it as formed and infinite: ‘My self is formed and infinite.’886 Or they describe it as formless and limited: ‘My self is formless and limited.’887 Or they describe it as formless and infinite: ‘My self is formless and infinite.’888
Now, take those who describe the self as formed and limited. They describe the self in the present as formed and limited; or they describe it as sure to be in some other place formed and limited; or else they think: ‘Though it is not like that, I will ensure it is provided with what it needs to become like that.’889 This being so, it’s appropriate to say that a view of self as formed and limited underlies them.890
Now, take those who describe the self as formed and infinite … formless and limited … formless and infinite. They describe the self as formless and infinite in the present; or as sure to become formless and infinite in some other place; or else they think: ‘Though it is not like that, I will ensure it is provided with what it needs to become like that.’ This being so, it’s appropriate to say that a view of self as formless and infinite underlies them. That’s how those who describe the self describe it.
How do those who don’t describe the self not describe it?891 They don’t describe it as formed and limited … formed and infinite … formless and limited … formless and infinite: ‘My self is formless and infinite.’
Now, take those who don’t describe the self as formed and limited … formed and infinite … formless and limited … formless and infinite. They don’t describe the self in the present as formless and infinite; or as sure to become in some other place formless and infinite; and they don’t think: ‘Though it is not like that, I will ensure it is provided with what it needs to become like that.’ This being so, it’s appropriate to say that a view of self as formless and infinite doesn’t underlie them. That’s how those who don’t describe the self don’t describe it.
How do those who regard the self regard it?892 They regard feeling as self:893 ‘Feeling is my self.’894 Or they regard it like this: ‘Feeling is definitely not my self. My self does not experience feeling.’895 Or they regard it like this: ‘Feeling is definitely not my self. But it’s not that my self does not experience feeling. My self feels, for my self is liable to feel.’896
Now, as to those who say:897 ‘Feeling is my self.’ You should say this to them: ‘Reverend, there are three feelings: pleasant, painful, and neutral.898 Which one of these do you regard as self?’ Ānanda, at a time when you feel a pleasant feeling, you don’t feel a painful or neutral feeling;899 you only feel a pleasant feeling. At a time when you feel a painful feeling, you don’t feel a pleasant or neutral feeling; you only feel a painful feeling. At a time when you feel a neutral feeling, you don’t feel a pleasant or painful feeling; you only feel a neutral feeling.
Pleasant feelings, painful feelings, and neutral feelings are all impermanent, conditioned, dependently originated, liable to end, vanish, fade away, and cease. When feeling a pleasant feeling they think: ‘This is my self.’ When their pleasant feeling ceases they think: ‘My self has expired.’ When feeling a painful feeling they think: ‘This is my self.’ When their painful feeling ceases they think: ‘My self has expired.’ When feeling a neutral feeling they think: ‘This is my self.’ When their neutral feeling ceases they think: ‘My self has expired.’ So those who say ‘feeling is my self’ regard as self that which is evidently impermanent, mixed with pleasure and pain, and liable to rise and fall. That’s why it’s not acceptable to regard feeling as self.
Now, as to those who say: ‘Feeling is definitely not my self. My self does not experience feeling.’ You should say this to them, ‘But reverend, where there is nothing felt at all, would the thought “I am” occur there?’”900
“No, sir.”
“That’s why it’s not acceptable to regard self as that which does not experience feeling.
Now, as to those who say: ‘Feeling is definitely not my self. But it’s not that my self does not experience feeling. My self feels, for my self is liable to feel.’ You should say this to them, ‘Suppose feelings were to totally and utterly cease without anything left over. When there’s no feeling at all, with the cessation of feeling, would the thought “I am this” occur there?’”901
“No, sir.”
“That’s why it’s not acceptable to regard self as that which is liable to feel.
Not regarding anything in this way, they don’t grasp at anything in the world. Not grasping, they’re not anxious. Not being anxious, they personally become extinguished.902 They understand: ‘Rebirth is ended, the spiritual journey has been completed, what had to be done has been done, there is nothing further for this place.’
It wouldn’t be appropriate to say that a mendicant whose mind is freed like this holds the following views: ‘A realized one still exists after death’; ‘A realized one no longer exists after death’; ‘A realized one both still exists and no longer exists after death’; ‘A realized one neither still exists nor no longer exists after death’.
Why is that? A mendicant is freed by directly knowing this: how far labeling and the scope of labeling extend; how far terminology and the scope of terminology extend; how far description and the scope of description extend; how far wisdom and the sphere of wisdom extend; how far the cycle of rebirths and its continuation extend. It wouldn’t be appropriate to say that a mendicant freed by directly knowing this holds the view: ‘There is no such thing as knowing and seeing.’903
Ānanda, there are seven planes of consciousness and two dimensions.904 What seven?
There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and diverse in perception, such as human beings, some gods, and some beings in the underworld. This is the first plane of consciousness.905
There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and unified in perception, such as the gods reborn in the Divinity’s host through the first absorption. This is the second plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and diverse in perception, such as the gods of streaming radiance. This is the third plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and unified in perception, such as the gods of universal beauty. This is the fourth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond perceptions of form. With the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite space. This is the fifth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite space. Aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the sixth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness. Aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they have been reborn in the dimension of nothingness. This is the seventh plane of consciousness.
Then there is the dimension of non-percipient beings, and secondly, the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.906
Now, regarding these seven planes of consciousness and two dimensions, is it appropriate for someone who understands them—and their origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape—to take pleasure in them?”907
“No, sir.”
“When a mendicant, having truly understood the origin, disappearance, gratification, drawback, and escape regarding these seven planes of consciousness and these two dimensions, is freed by not grasping, they’re called a mendicant who is freed by wisdom.908
Ānanda, there are these eight liberations.909 What eight?
Having physical form, they see forms.910 This is the first liberation.
Not perceiving form internally, they see forms externally.911 This is the second liberation.
They’re focused only on beauty.912 This is the third liberation.
Going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite space. This is the fourth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the fifth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they enter and remain in the dimension of nothingness. This is the sixth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of nothingness, they enter and remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the seventh liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, they enter and remain in the cessation of perception and feeling.913 This is the eighth liberation.
These are the eight liberations.
When a mendicant enters into and withdraws from these eight liberations—in forward order, in reverse order, and in forward and reverse order—wherever they wish, whenever they wish, and for as long as they wish;914 and when they realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements, they’re called a mendicant who is freed both ways.915 And, Ānanda, there is no other freedom both ways that is better or finer than this.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, Venerable Ānanda approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard.916 At one time the Buddha was staying near Rājagaha, on the Vulture’s Peak Mountain. Now at that time King Ajātasattu of Magadha, son of the princess of Videha, wanted to invade the Vajjis.917 He declared: “I shall wipe out these Vajjis, so mighty and powerful! I shall destroy them, and lay ruin and devastation upon them!”918
And then King Ajātasattu addressed Vassakāra the brahmin minister of Magadha,919 “Please, brahmin, go to the Buddha, and in my name bow with your head to his feet. Ask him if he is healthy and well, nimble, strong, and living comfortably. And then say: ‘Sir, King Ajātasattu of Magadha, son of the princess of Videha, wants to invade the Vajjis. He says, “I shall wipe out these Vajjis, so mighty and powerful! I shall destroy them, and lay ruin and devastation upon them!”’920 Remember well how the Buddha answers and tell it to me. For Realized Ones say nothing that is not so.”921
“Yes, worthy sir,” Vassakāra replied. He had the finest carriages harnessed. Then he mounted a fine carriage and, along with other fine carriages, set out from Rājagaha for the Vulture’s Peak Mountain.922 He went by carriage as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and approached the Buddha on foot, and exchanged greetings with him.
When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side and said to the Buddha, “Worthy Gotama, King Ajātasattu of Magadha, son of the princess of Videha, bows with his head to your feet. He asks if you are healthy and well, nimble, strong, and living comfortably. Worthy Gotama, King Ajātasattu wants to invade the Vajjis. He has declared: ‘I shall wipe out these Vajjis, so mighty and powerful! I shall destroy them, and lay ruin and devastation upon them!’”
Now at that time Venerable Ānanda was standing behind the Buddha fanning him.923 Then the Buddha said to him, “Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjis meet frequently and have many meetings?”924
“I have heard that, sir.”
“As long as the Vajjis meet frequently and have many meetings, they can expect growth, not decline.
Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjis meet in harmony, leave in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony?”925
“I have heard that, sir.”
“As long as the Vajjis meet in harmony, leave in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony, they can expect growth, not decline.
Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjis don’t make new decrees or abolish existing decrees, but proceed having undertaken the ancient Vajjian traditions as they have been decreed?”926
“I have heard that, sir.”
“As long as the Vajjis don’t make new decrees or abolish existing decrees, but proceed having undertaken the ancient Vajjian traditions as they have been decreed, they can expect growth, not decline.
Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjis honor, respect, esteem, and venerate Vajjian elders, and think them worth listening to?”
“I have heard that, sir.”
“As long as the Vajjis honor, respect, esteem, and venerate Vajjian elders, and think them worth listening to, they can expect growth, not decline.
Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjis don’t forcibly abduct the women or girls of the clans and make them live with them?”927
“I have heard that, sir.”
“As long as the Vajjis don’t forcibly abduct the women or girls of the clans and make them live with them, they can expect growth, not decline.
Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjis honor, respect, esteem, and venerate the Vajjian shrines, whether inner or outer, not neglecting the proper spirit-offerings that were given and made in the past?”928
“I have heard that, sir.”
“As long as the Vajjis honor, respect, esteem, and venerate the Vajjian shrines, whether inner or outer, not neglecting the proper spirit-offerings that were given and made in the past, they can expect growth, not decline.
Ānanda, have you heard that the Vajjis organize proper protection, shelter, and security for perfected ones, so that more perfected ones might come to the realm and those already here may live in comfort?”929
“I have heard that, sir.”
“As long as the Vajjis organize proper protection, shelter, and security for perfected ones, so that more perfected ones might come to the realm and those already here may live in comfort, they can expect growth, not decline.”
Then the Buddha said to Vassakāra, “Brahmin, this one time I was staying near Vesālī at the Sārandada Shrine.930 There I taught the Vajjis these seven principles that prevent decline.931 As long as these seven principles that prevent decline last among the Vajjis, and as long as the Vajjis are seen following them, they can expect growth, not decline.”
When the Buddha had spoken, Vassakāra said to him, “Worthy Gotama, if the Vajjis follow even a single one of these principles they can expect growth, not decline. How much more so all seven! King Ajātasattu cannot defeat the Vajjis in war, unless by bribery or by sowing dissension.932 Well, now, worthy Gotama, I must go. I have many duties, and much to do.”
“Please, brahmin, go at your convenience.” Then Vassakāra the brahmin, having approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, got up from his seat and left.
Soon after he had left, the Buddha said to Ānanda, “Go, Ānanda, gather all the mendicants staying in the vicinity of Rājagaha together in the assembly hall.”933
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. He did what the Buddha asked. Then he went back, bowed, stood to one side, and said to him, “Sir, the mendicant Saṅgha has assembled. Please, sir, go at your convenience.”
Then the Buddha went to the assembly hall, where he sat on the seat spread out and addressed the mendicants: “Mendicants, I will teach you these seven principles that prevent decline.934 Listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“As long as the mendicants meet frequently and have many meetings, they can expect growth, not decline.935
As long as the mendicants meet in harmony, leave in harmony, and carry on their business in harmony, they can expect growth, not decline.936
As long as the mendicants don’t make new decrees or abolish existing decrees, but undertake and follow the training rules as they have been decreed, they can expect growth, not decline.937
As long as the mendicants honor, respect, esteem, and venerate the senior mendicants—of long standing, long gone forth, fathers and leaders of the Saṅgha—and think them worth listening to, they can expect growth, not decline.938
As long as the mendicants don’t fall under the sway of arisen craving for future lives, they can expect growth, not decline.939
As long as the mendicants take care to live in wilderness lodgings, they can expect growth, not decline.940
As long as the mendicants individually establish mindfulness, so that more good-hearted spiritual companions might come, and those that have already come may live comfortably, they can expect growth, not decline.941
As long as these seven principles that prevent decline last among the mendicants, and as long as the mendicants are seen following them, they can expect growth, not decline.
I will teach you seven more principles that prevent decline. …942
As long as the mendicants don’t relish work, loving it and liking to relish it, they can expect growth, not decline.943
As long as they don’t relish talk …
sleep …
company …
they don’t have corrupt wishes, falling under the sway of corrupt wishes …944
they don’t have bad friends, companions, and associates …
they don’t stop half-way after achieving some trifling distinction, they can expect growth, not decline.945
As long as these seven principles that prevent decline last among the mendicants, and as long as the mendicants are seen following them, they can expect growth, not decline.
I will teach you seven more principles that prevent decline. …946 As long as the mendicants are faithful … conscientious … prudent … learned … energetic … mindful … wise, they can expect growth, not decline. As long as these seven principles that prevent decline last among the mendicants, and as long as the mendicants are seen following them, they can expect growth, not decline.
I will teach you seven more principles that prevent decline. …947
As long as the mendicants develop the awakening factors of mindfulness … investigation of principles … energy … rapture … tranquility … immersion … equanimity, they can expect growth, not decline.
As long as these seven principles that prevent decline last among the mendicants, and as long as the mendicants are seen following them, they can expect growth, not decline.
I will teach you seven more principles that prevent decline. …948
As long as the mendicants develop the perceptions of impermanence … not-self … ugliness … drawbacks … giving up … fading away … cessation, they can expect growth, not decline.
As long as these seven principles that prevent decline last among the mendicants, and as long as the mendicants are seen following them, they can expect growth, not decline.
I will teach you six principles that prevent decline. …949
As long as the mendicants consistently treat their spiritual companions with bodily kindness … verbal kindness … and mental kindness both in public and in private, they can expect growth, not decline.
As long as the mendicants share without reservation any material things they have gained by legitimate means, even the food placed in the alms-bowl, using them in common with their ethical spiritual companions, they can expect growth, not decline.
As long as the mendicants live according to the precepts shared with their spiritual companions, both in public and in private—such precepts as are intact, impeccable, spotless, and unmarred, liberating, praised by sensible people, not mistaken, and leading to immersion—they can expect growth, not decline.
As long as the mendicants live according to the view shared with their spiritual companions, both in public and in private—the view that is noble and emancipating, and delivers one who practices it to the complete end of suffering—they can expect growth, not decline.950
As long as these six principles that prevent decline last among the mendicants, and as long as the mendicants are seen following them, they can expect growth, not decline.”
And while staying there at the Vulture’s Peak the Buddha often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:951
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial.952 When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”953
When the Buddha had stayed in Rājagaha as long as he pleased, he addressed Venerable Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Ambalaṭṭhikā.”954
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at Ambalaṭṭhikā, where he stayed in the royal rest-house. And while staying there, too, he often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”
When the Buddha had stayed in Ambalaṭṭhikā as long as he pleased, he addressed Venerable Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Nāḷandā.”
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at Nāḷandā, where he stayed in Pāvārika’s mango grove.
Then Sāriputta went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him,955 “Sir, I have such confidence in the Buddha that I believe there’s no other ascetic or brahmin—whether past, future, or present—whose direct knowledge is superior to the Buddha when it comes to awakening.”
“That’s a grand and dramatic statement, Sāriputta. You’ve roared a definitive, categorical lion’s roar, saying: ‘I have such confidence in the Buddha that I believe there’s no other ascetic or brahmin—whether past, future, or present—whose direct knowledge is superior to the Buddha when it comes to awakening.’
What about all the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas who lived in the past? Have you comprehended their minds to know that those Buddhas had such ethics, or such qualities, or such wisdom, or such meditation, or such freedom?”
“No, sir.”
“And what about all the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas who will live in the future? Have you comprehended their minds to know that those Buddhas will have such ethics, or such qualities, or such wisdom, or such meditation, or such freedom?”
“No, sir.”
“And what about me, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha at present? Have you comprehended my mind to know that I have such ethics, or such qualities, or such wisdom, or such meditation, or such freedom?”
“No, sir.”
“Well then, Sāriputta, given that you don’t comprehend the minds of Buddhas past, future, or present, what exactly are you doing, making such a grand and dramatic statement, roaring such a definitive, categorical lion’s roar?”
“Sir, though I don’t comprehend the minds of Buddhas past, future, and present, still I understand this by inference from the teaching.956 Suppose there was a king’s frontier citadel with fortified embankments, ramparts, and arches, and a single gate. And it has a gatekeeper who is astute, competent, and intelligent. He keeps strangers out and lets known people in. As he walks around the patrol path, he doesn’t see a hole or cleft in the wall, not even one big enough for a cat to slip out. He thinks: ‘Whatever sizable creatures enter or leave the citadel, all of them do so via this gate.’
In the same way, I understand this by inference from the teaching: ‘All the perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas—whether past, future, or present—give up the five hindrances, corruptions of the heart that weaken wisdom. Their mind is firmly established in the four kinds of mindfulness meditation. They correctly develop the seven awakening factors. And they awaken to the supreme perfect awakening.’”
And while staying at Nāḷandā, too, the Buddha often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”
When the Buddha had stayed in Nāḷandā as long as he pleased, he addressed Venerable Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Pāṭali Village.”957
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at Pāṭali Village.
The lay followers of Pāṭali Village heard that he had arrived. So they went to see him, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him, “Sir, please consent to come to our guest house.” The Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, the lay followers of Pāṭali Village got up from their seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on their right. Then they went to the guest house, where they spread carpets all over, prepared seats, set up a water jar, and placed an oil lamp. Then they went back to the Buddha, bowed, stood to one side, and told him of their preparations, saying: “Please, sir, come at your convenience.”
In the morning, the Buddha robed up and, taking his bowl and robe, went to the guest house together with the Saṅgha of mendicants. Having washed his feet he entered the guest house and sat against the central column facing east. The Saṅgha of mendicants also washed their feet, entered the guest house, and sat against the west wall facing east, with the Buddha right in front of them. The lay followers of Pāṭali Village also washed their feet, entered the guest house, and sat against the east wall facing west, with the Buddha right in front of them.
Then the Buddha addressed them:
“Householders, there are these five drawbacks for an unethical person because of their failure in ethics.958 What five?
Firstly, an unethical person loses great wealth on account of negligence.959 This is the first drawback for an unethical person because of their failure in ethics.
Furthermore, an unethical person gets a bad reputation. This is the second drawback.
Furthermore, an unethical person enters any kind of assembly timid and embarrassed, whether it’s an assembly of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, or ascetics. This is the third drawback.
Furthermore, an unethical person feels lost when they die.960 This is the fourth drawback.
Furthermore, an unethical person, when their body breaks up, after death, is reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. This is the fifth drawback.
These are the five drawbacks for an unethical person because of their failure in ethics.
There are these five benefits for an ethical person because of their accomplishment in ethics. What five?
Firstly, an ethical person gains great wealth on account of diligence. This is the first benefit.
Furthermore, an ethical person gets a good reputation. This is the second benefit.
Furthermore, an ethical person enters any kind of assembly bold and self-assured, whether it’s an assembly of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, or ascetics. This is the third benefit.
Furthermore, an ethical person dies not feeling lost. This is the fourth benefit.
Furthermore, when an ethical person’s body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. This is the fifth benefit.
These are the five benefits for an ethical person because of their accomplishment in ethics.”
The Buddha spent much of the night educating, encouraging, firing up, and inspiring the lay followers of Pāṭali Village with a Dhamma talk. Then he dismissed them, “The night is getting late, householders. Please go at your convenience.”
“Yes, sir,” replied the lay followers of Pāṭali Village. They got up from their seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on their right, before leaving. Soon after they left the Buddha entered a private cubicle.961
Now at that time the Magadhan ministers Sunidha and Vassakāra were building a citadel at Pāṭali Village to keep the Vajjis out.962 At that time thousands of deities were taking possession of building sites in Pāṭali Village.963 Illustrious rulers or royal ministers inclined to build houses at sites possessed by illustrious deities. Middling rulers or royal ministers inclined to build houses at sites possessed by middling deities. Lesser rulers or royal ministers inclined to build houses at sites possessed by lesser deities.
With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, the Buddha saw those deities taking possession of building sites in Pāṭali Village. The Buddha rose at the crack of dawn and addressed Ānanda, “Ānanda, who is building a citadel at Pāṭali Village?”
“Sir, the Magadhan ministers Sunidha and Vassakāra are building a citadel to keep the Vajjis out.”
“It’s as if they were building the citadel in consultation with the gods of the thirty-three. With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, I saw those deities taking possession of building sites. Illustrious rulers or royal ministers inclined to build houses at sites possessed by illustrious deities. Middling rulers or royal ministers inclined to build houses at sites possessed by middling deities. Lesser rulers or royal ministers inclined to build houses at sites possessed by lesser deities. As far as the civilized region extends, as far as the trading zone extends, this will be the chief city: the Pāṭaliputta trade center.964 But Pāṭaliputta will face three threats: from fire, flood, and dissension.”965
Then the Magadhan ministers Sunidha and Vassakāra approached the Buddha, and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, they stood to one side and said, “Would the worthy Gotama together with the mendicant Saṅgha please accept today’s meal from me?” The Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, they went to their own guest house, where they had delicious fresh and cooked foods prepared. Then they had the Buddha informed of the time, saying, “It’s time, worthy Gotama, the meal is ready.”
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went to their guest house together with the mendicant Saṅgha, where he sat on the seat spread out. Then Sunidha and Vassakāra served and satisfied the mendicant Saṅgha headed by the Buddha with their own hands with delicious fresh and cooked foods. When the Buddha had eaten and washed his hand and bowl, Sunidha and Vassakāra took a low seat and sat to one side.
The Buddha expressed his appreciation with these verses:966
“In the place he makes his dwelling,
having fed the astute
and the virtuous here,
the restrained spiritual practitioners,he should dedicate an offering967
to the deities there.
Venerated, they venerate him;
honored, they honor him.After that they have sympathy for him,
like a mother for the child at her breast.
A man beloved of the deities
always sees nice things.”968
When the Buddha had expressed his appreciation to Sunidha and Vassakāra with these verses, he got up from his seat and left.
Sunidha and Vassakāra followed behind the Buddha, thinking, “The gate through which the ascetic Gotama exits today shall be named the Gotama Gate. The ford at which he crosses the Ganges River shall be named the Gotama Ford.”969
Then the gate through which the Buddha exited was named the Gotama Gate.
Then the Buddha came to the Ganges River.
Now at that time the Ganges was full to the brim so a crow could drink from it. Wanting to cross from the near to the far shore, some people were seeking a boat, some a dinghy, while some were tying up a raft.970 But, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, the Buddha, together with the mendicant Saṅgha, vanished from the near shore and landed on the far shore.971
He saw all those humans wanting to cross over. Knowing the meaning of this, on that occasion the Buddha expressed this heartfelt sentiment:
“Those who cross a deluge or stream972
have built a bridge and left the marshes behind.
While some people are still tying a raft,
intelligent people have crossed over.”
The first recitation section.
Then the Buddha said to Venerable Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to the village of Koṭi.”973
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at the village of Koṭi, and stayed there.
There he addressed the mendicants:974
“Mendicants, due to not understanding and not penetrating four noble truths, both you and I have wandered and transmigrated for such a very long time. What four? The noble truths of suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering. These noble truths of suffering, origin, cessation, and the path have been understood and comprehended. Craving for continued existence has been cut off; the conduit to rebirth is ended; now there’ll be no more future lives.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“Because of not truly seeing
the four noble truths,
we have transmigrated for a long time
from one rebirth to the next.But now that these truths have been seen,
the conduit to rebirth is eradicated.
The root of suffering is cut off,
now there’ll be no more future lives.”
And while staying at the village of Koṭi, too, the Buddha often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”
When the Buddha had stayed in the village of Koṭi as long as he pleased, he said to Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to the land of the Ñātikas.”975
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived in the land of the Ñātikas, where he stayed in the brick house at Ñātika.976
Then Venerable Ānanda went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him, “Sir, the monk named Sāḷha has passed away in Ñātika. Where has he been reborn in his next life?977 The nun named Nandā, the layman named Sudatta, and the laywoman named Sujātā have passed away in Ñātika. Where have they been reborn in the next life?978 The laymen named Kakkaṭa,979 Kaḷibha, Nikata, Kaṭissaha, Tuṭṭha, Santuṭṭha, Bhadda, and Subhadda have passed away in Ñātika. Where have they been reborn in the next life?”
“Ānanda, the monk Sāḷha had realized the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, having realized it with his own insight due to the ending of defilements.
The nun Nandā had ended the five lower fetters. She’s been reborn spontaneously, and will be extinguished there, not liable to return from that world.
The layman Sudatta had ended three fetters, and weakened greed, hate, and delusion. He’s a once-returner; he will come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering.
The laywoman Sujātā had ended three fetters. She’s a stream-enterer, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.
The laymen Kakkaṭa, Kaḷibha, Nikata, Kaṭissaha, Tuṭṭha, Santuṭṭha, Bhadda, and Subhadda had ended the five lower fetters. They’ve been reborn spontaneously, and will be extinguished there, not liable to return from that world.980
Over fifty laymen in Ñātika have passed away having ended the five lower fetters. They’ve been reborn spontaneously, and will be extinguished there, not liable to return from that world.
More than ninety laymen in Ñātika have passed away having ended three fetters, and weakened greed, hate, and delusion. They’re once-returners, who will come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering.
More than five hundred laymen in Ñātika have passed away having ended three fetters. They’re stream-enterers, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.981
It’s no wonder that a human being should pass away. But if you should come and ask me about it each and every time someone passes away, that would be a bother for me.
So Ānanda, I will teach you the explanation of the Dhamma called ‘the mirror of the teaching’. A noble disciple who has this may declare of themselves:982 ‘I’ve finished with rebirth in hell, the animal realm, and the ghost realm. I’ve finished with all places of loss, bad places, the underworld. I am a stream-enterer! I’m not liable to be reborn in the underworld, and am bound for awakening.’
And what is that mirror of the teaching?983
It’s when a noble disciple has experiential confidence in the Buddha:984 ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’985
They have experiential confidence in the teaching: ‘The teaching is well explained by the Buddha—apparent in the present life, immediately effective, inviting inspection, relevant, so that sensible people can know it for themselves.’986
They have experiential confidence in the Saṅgha: ‘The Saṅgha of the Buddha’s disciples is practicing the way that’s good, direct, systematic, and proper. It consists of the four pairs, the eight individuals. This is the Saṅgha of the Buddha’s disciples that is worthy of offerings dedicated to the gods, worthy of hospitality, worthy of a religious donation, worthy of greeting with joined palms, and is the supreme field of merit for the world.’987
And a noble disciple’s ethical conduct is loved by the noble ones, unbroken, impeccable, spotless, and unmarred, liberating, praised by sensible people, not mistaken, and leading to immersion.988
This is that mirror of the teaching.”
And while staying there in Ñātika the Buddha often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”
When the Buddha had stayed in Ñātika as long as he pleased, he addressed Venerable Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Vesālī.”
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at Vesālī, where he stayed in Ambapālī’s mango grove.989
There the Buddha addressed the mendicants:
“Mendicants, a mendicant should live mindful and aware.990 This is my instruction to you.
And how is a mendicant mindful?991 It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.992 They meditate observing an aspect of feelings … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.993 That’s how a mendicant is mindful.
And how is a mendicant aware? It’s when a mendicant acts with situational awareness when going out and coming back; when looking ahead and aside; when bending and extending the limbs; when bearing the outer robe, bowl and robes; when eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting; when urinating and defecating; when walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, waking, speaking, and keeping silent. That’s how a mendicant is aware. A mendicant should live mindful and aware. This is my instruction to you.”
Ambapālī the courtesan heard that the Buddha had arrived and was staying in her mango grove.994 She had the finest carriages harnessed. Then she mounted a fine carriage and, along with other fine carriages, set out from Vesālī for her own park. She went by carriage as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and approached the Buddha on foot. She bowed and sat down to one side. The Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired her with a Dhamma talk.
Then she said to the Buddha, “Sir, may the Buddha together with the mendicant Saṅgha please accept tomorrow’s meal from me.” The Buddha consented with silence. Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, Ambapālī got up from her seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on her right, before leaving.
The Licchavis of Vesālī also heard that the Buddha had arrived and was staying in Ambapālī’s mango grove. They had the finest carriages harnessed. Then they mounted a fine carriage and, along with other fine carriages, set out from Vesālī. Some of the Licchavis were in blue, of blue color, clad in blue, adorned with blue. And some were similarly colored in yellow, red, or white.995
Then Ambapālī the courtesan collided with those Licchavi youths, axle to axle, wheel to wheel, yoke to yoke.996 The Licchavis said to her, “What, you wench Ambapālī, are you doing colliding with us axle to axle, wheel to wheel, yoke to yoke?”997
“Well, masters, it’s because I’ve invited the Buddha for tomorrow’s meal together with the mendicant Saṅgha.”
“Wench, give us that meal for a hundred thousand!”
“Masters, even if you were to give me Vesālī with her provinces, I still wouldn’t give that meal to you.”998
Then the Licchavis snapped their fingers, saying, “We’ve been beaten by the aunty! We’ve been beaten by the aunty!”999 Then they continued on to Ambapālī’s mango grove.
The Buddha saw them coming off in the distance, and addressed the mendicants: “Any of the mendicants who’ve never seen the gods of the thirty-three, just have a look at the assembly of Licchavis. See the assembly of Licchavis, check them out: they’re just like the thirty-three!”
The Licchavis went by carriage as far as the terrain allowed, then descended and approached the Buddha on foot. They bowed to the Buddha, sat down to one side, and the Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired them with a Dhamma talk.
Then they said to the Buddha, “Sir, may the Buddha together with the mendicant Saṅgha please accept tomorrow’s meal from us.”
Then the Buddha said to the Licchavis, “I have already accepted tomorrow’s meal from Ambapālī the courtesan.”
Then the Licchavis snapped their fingers, saying, “We’ve been beaten by the aunty! We’ve been beaten by the aunty!”
And then those Licchavis approved and agreed with what the Buddha said. They got up from their seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on their right, before leaving.
And when the night had passed Ambapālī had delicious fresh and cooked foods prepared in her own park. Then she had the Buddha informed of the time, saying, “Sir, it’s time. The meal is ready.”
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went to the home of Ambapālī together with the mendicant Saṅgha, where he sat on the seat spread out. Then Ambapālī served and satisfied the mendicant Saṅgha headed by the Buddha with her own hands with delicious fresh and cooked foods.
When the Buddha had eaten and washed his hands and bowl, Ambapālī took a low seat, sat to one side, and said to the Buddha, “Sir, I present this park to the mendicant Saṅgha headed by the Buddha.”1000
The Buddha accepted the park.1001
Then the Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired her with a Dhamma talk, after which he got up from his seat and left.
And while staying at Vesālī, too, the Buddha often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”
When the Buddha had stayed in Ambapālī’s mango grove as long as he pleased, he addressed Venerable Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to the little village of Beluva.”1002
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at the little village of Beluva, and stayed there.
There the Buddha addressed the mendicants: “Mendicants, please enter the rainy season residence with whatever friends or acquaintances you have around Vesālī.1003 I’ll commence the rainy season residence right here in the little village of Beluva.”
“Yes, sir,” those mendicants replied. They did as the Buddha said, while the Buddha commenced the rainy season residence right there in the little village of Beluva.
After the Buddha had commenced the rainy season residence, he fell severely ill, struck by dreadful pains, close to death. But he endured unbothered, with mindfulness and situational awareness. Then it occurred to the Buddha, “It would not be appropriate for me to be fully extinguished before informing my supporters and taking leave of the mendicant Saṅgha.1004 Why don’t I forcefully suppress this illness, stabilize the life force, and live on?”1005
So that is what he did. Then the Buddha’s illness died down.
Soon after the Buddha had recovered from that sickness, he came out from his dwelling and sat in the shade of the porch on the seat spread out. Then Venerable Ānanda went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him, “Sir, it’s fantastic that the Buddha is comfortable and well. Because when the Buddha was sick, my body felt like it was drugged. I was disorientated, and the teachings weren’t clear to me.1006 Still, at least I was consoled by the thought that the Buddha won’t be fully extinguished without bringing something up regarding the Saṅgha of mendicants.”1007
“But what could the mendicant Saṅgha expect from me, Ānanda?1008 I’ve taught the Dhamma without making any distinction between secret and public teachings.1009 The Realized One doesn’t have the closed fist of a tutor when it comes to the teachings.1010 If there’s anyone who thinks: ‘I shall lead the mendicant Saṅgha,’ or ‘the Saṅgha of mendicants is meant for me,’ let them bring something up regarding the Saṅgha. But the Realized One doesn’t think like this, so why should he bring something up regarding the Saṅgha?1011
I’m now old, elderly and senior. I’m advanced in years and have reached the final stage of life. I’m currently eighty years old. Just as a decrepit old cart is kept going by a rope,1012 in the same way, the Realized One’s body is kept going as if by a rope.1013 Sometimes the Realized One, not focusing on any signs, and with the cessation of certain feelings, enters and remains in the signless immersion of the heart. Only then does the Realized One’s body become more comfortable.1014
So Ānanda, live as your own island, your own refuge, with no other refuge. Let the teaching be your island and your refuge, with no other refuge.1015 And how does a mendicant do this? It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. That’s how a mendicant is their own island, their own refuge, with no other refuge. That’s how the teaching is their island and their refuge, with no other refuge.
Whether now or after I have passed, any who shall live as their own island, their own refuge, with no other refuge; with the teaching as their island and their refuge, with no other refuge—those mendicants of mine who want to train shall be among the best of the best.”1016
The second recitation section.
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Vesālī for alms. Then, after the meal, on his return from almsround, he addressed Venerable Ānanda: “Ānanda, get your sitting cloth.1017 Let’s go to the Cāpāla Shrine for the day’s meditation.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. Taking his sitting cloth he followed behind the Buddha.
Then the Buddha went up to the Cāpāla Shrine, where he sat on the seat spread out. Ānanda bowed to the Buddha and sat down to one side.
The Buddha said to him: “Ānanda, Vesālī is lovely. And the Udena, Gotamaka, Seven Maidens, Many Sons, Sārandada, and Cāpāla Shrines are all lovely.
Whoever has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power—made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them—may, if they wish, live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it.1018 The Realized One has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power, made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them. If he wished, the Realized One could live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it.”
But Ānanda didn’t get it, even though the Buddha dropped such an obvious hint, such a clear sign. He didn’t beg the Buddha: “Sir, may the Blessed One please remain for the proper lifespan! May the Holy One please remain for the proper lifespan! That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.” For his mind was as if possessed by Māra.1019
For a second time … And for a third time, the Buddha said to Ānanda: “Ānanda, Vesālī is lovely. And the Udena, Gotamaka, Seven Maidens, Many Sons, Sārandada, and Cāpāla Shrines are all lovely. Whoever has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power—made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them—may, if they wish, live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it. The Realized One has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power, made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them. If he wished, the Realized One could live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it.”
But Ānanda didn’t get it, even though the Buddha dropped such an obvious hint, such a clear sign. He didn’t beg the Buddha: “Sir, may the Blessed One please remain for the proper lifespan! May the Holy One please remain for the proper lifespan! That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.” For his mind was as if possessed by Māra.
Then the Buddha got up and said to Venerable Ānanda, “Go now, Ānanda, at your convenience.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. He rose from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on his right, before sitting at the root of a tree close by.
And then, not long after Ānanda had left, Māra the Wicked went up to the Buddha, stood to one side, and said to him:1020
“Sir, may the Blessed One now be fully extinguished! May the Holy One now be fully extinguished! Now is the time for the full extinguishment of the Buddha.1021 Sir, you once made this statement: ‘Wicked One, I shall not be fully extinguished until I have monk disciples who are competent, educated, assured, learned, have memorized the teachings, and practice in line with the teachings. Not until they practice properly, living in line with the teaching. Not until they’ve learned their tradition, and explain, teach, assert, establish, disclose, analyze, and make it clear. Not until they can legitimately and completely refute the doctrines of others that come up, and teach with a demonstrable basis.’1022
Today you do have such monk disciples. May the Blessed One now be fully extinguished! May the Holy One now be fully extinguished! Now is the time for the full extinguishment of the Buddha.
Sir, you once made this statement: ‘Wicked One, I shall not be fully extinguished until I have nun disciples who are competent, educated, assured, learned …’1023
Today you do have such nun disciples. May the Blessed One now be fully extinguished! May the Holy One now be fully extinguished! Now is the time for the full extinguishment of the Buddha.
Sir, you once made this statement: ‘Wicked One, I shall not be fully extinguished until I have layman disciples who are competent, educated, assured, learned …’
Today you do have such layman disciples. May the Blessed One now be fully extinguished! May the Holy One now be fully extinguished! Now is the time for the full extinguishment of the Buddha.
Sir, you once made this statement: ‘Wicked One, I shall not be fully extinguished until I have laywoman disciples who are competent, educated, assured, learned …’
Today you do have such laywoman disciples. May the Blessed One now be fully extinguished! May the Holy One now be fully extinguished! Now is the time for the full extinguishment of the Buddha.
Sir, you once made this statement: ‘Wicked One, I will not be fully extinguished until my spiritual path is successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans.’
Today your spiritual path is successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans. May the Blessed One now be fully extinguished! May the Holy One now be fully extinguished! Now is the time for the full extinguishment of the Buddha.”
When this was said, the Buddha said to Māra, “Relax, Wicked One. The full extinguishment of the Realized One will be soon.1024 Three months from now the Realized One will be fully extinguished.”1025
So at the Cāpāla Shrine the Buddha, mindful and aware, surrendered the life force.1026 When he did so there was a great earthquake, awe-inspiring and hair-raising, and thunder cracked the sky.1027 Then, understanding this matter, on that occasion the Buddha expressed this heartfelt sentiment:
“Comparing the incomparable
with the creation of prolonged life,1028
the sage surrendered the life force.1029
Happy inside, serene,
he shattered self-creation like a suit of armor.”1030
Then Venerable Ānanda thought, “How incredible, how amazing! That was a really big earthquake! That was really a very big earthquake; awe-inspiring and hair-raising, and thunder cracked the sky! What’s the cause, what’s the reason for a great earthquake?”
Then Venerable Ānanda went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him, “How incredible, sir, how amazing! That was a really big earthquake! That was really a very big earthquake; awe-inspiring and hair-raising, and thunder cracked the sky! What’s the cause, what’s the reason for a great earthquake?”
“Ānanda, there are these eight causes and reasons for a great earthquake. What eight?
This great earth is grounded on water, the water is grounded on air, and the air stands in space. At a time when a great wind blows, it stirs the water, and the water stirs the earth.1031 This is the first cause and reason for a great earthquake.
Furthermore, there is an ascetic or brahmin with psychic power who has achieved mastery of the mind, or a god who is mighty and powerful. They’ve developed a limited perception of earth and a limitless perception of water. They make the earth shake and rock and tremble.1032 This is the second cause and reason for a great earthquake.
Furthermore, when the being intent on awakening passes away from the host of joyful gods, he’s conceived in his mother’s belly, mindful and aware. Then the earth shakes and rocks and trembles.1033 This is the third cause and reason for a great earthquake.
Furthermore, when the being intent on awakening comes out of his mother’s belly mindful and aware, the earth shakes and rocks and trembles. This is the fourth cause and reason for a great earthquake.
Furthermore, when the Realized One awakens to the supreme perfect awakening, the earth shakes and rocks and trembles.1034 This is the fifth cause and reason for a great earthquake.
Furthermore, when the Realized One rolls forth the supreme Wheel of Dhamma, the earth shakes and rocks and trembles.1035 This is the sixth cause and reason for a great earthquake.
Furthermore, when the Realized One, mindful and aware, surrenders the life force, the earth shakes and rocks and trembles. This is the seventh cause and reason for a great earthquake.
Furthermore, when the Realized One becomes fully extinguished in the element of extinguishment with no residue, the earth shakes and rocks and trembles.1036 This is the eighth cause and reason for a great earthquake.
These are the eight causes and reasons for a great earthquake.
There are, Ānanda, these eight assemblies.1037 What eight? The assemblies of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, and ascetics. An assembly of the gods of the four great kings. An assembly of the gods of the thirty-three. An assembly of Māras. An assembly of divinities.1038
I recall having approached an assembly of hundreds of aristocrats. There I used to sit with them, converse, and engage in discussion. And my appearance and voice became just like theirs. I educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired them with a Dhamma talk. But when I spoke they didn’t know: ‘Who is this that speaks? Is it a god or a human?’ And when my Dhamma talk was finished I vanished. But when I vanished they didn’t know: ‘Who was that who vanished? Was it a god or a human?’1039
I recall having approached an assembly of hundreds of brahmins … householders … ascetics … the gods of the four great kings … the gods of the thirty-three … Māras … divinities. There too I used to sit with them, converse, and engage in discussion. And my appearance and voice became just like theirs. I educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired them with a Dhamma talk. But when I spoke they didn’t know: ‘Who is this that speaks? Is it a god or a human?’ And when my Dhamma talk was finished I vanished. But when I vanished they didn’t know: ‘Who was that who vanished? Was it a god or a human?’
These are the eight assemblies.
Ānanda, there are these eight dimensions of mastery.1040 What eight?
Perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limited, both pretty and ugly.1041 Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the first dimension of mastery.
Perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limitless, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the second dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limited, both pretty and ugly.1042 Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the third dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limitless, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the fourth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are blue, with blue color and blue appearance.1043 They’re like a flax flower that’s blue, with blue color and blue appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, blue, with blue color and blue appearance. In the same way, not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, blue, with blue color and blue appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the fifth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. They’re like a champak flower that’s yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. In the same way, not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the sixth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are red, with red color and red appearance. They’re like a scarlet mallow flower that’s red, with red color and red appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, red, with red color and red appearance. In the same way, not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are red, with red color and red appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the seventh dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are white, with white color and white appearance. They’re like the morning star that’s white, with white color and white appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, white, with white color and white appearance. In the same way, not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are white, with white color and white appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the eighth dimension of mastery.
These are the eight dimensions of mastery.
Ānanda, there are these eight liberations.1044 What eight?
Having physical form, they see forms. This is the first liberation.
Not perceiving form internally, they see forms externally. This is the second liberation.
They’re focused only on beauty. This is the third liberation.
Going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite space. This is the fourth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the fifth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they enter and remain in the dimension of nothingness. This is the sixth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of nothingness, they enter and remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the seventh liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, they enter and remain in the cessation of perception and feeling. This is the eighth liberation.
These are the eight liberations.
Ānanda, this one time, when I was first awakened, I was staying in Uruvelā at the goatherd’s banyan tree on the bank of the Nerañjarā River. Then Māra the wicked approached me, stood to one side, and said: ‘Sir, may the Blessed One now be fully extinguished! May the Holy One now be fully extinguished! Now is the time for the full extinguishment of the Buddha.’ When he had spoken, I said to Māra:
‘Wicked One, I shall not be fully extinguished until I have monk disciples … nun disciples … layman disciples … laywoman disciples who are competent, educated, assured, learned.
I shall not be fully extinguished until my spiritual path is successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans.’
Today, just now at the Cāpāla Shrine Māra the Wicked approached me once more with the same request, reminding me of my former statement, and saying that those conditions had been fulfilled.
When he had spoken, I said to Māra: ‘Relax, Wicked One. The full extinguishment of the Realized One will be soon. Three months from now the Realized One will be fully extinguished.’ So today, just now at the Cāpāla Shrine, mindful and aware, I surrendered the life force.”
When he said this, Venerable Ānanda said to the Buddha, “Sir, may the Blessed One please remain for the proper lifespan! May the Holy One please remain for the proper lifespan! That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.”
“Enough now, Ānanda. Do not beg the Realized One. Now is not the time to beg the Realized One.”
For a second time … For a third time, Ānanda said to the Buddha, “Sir, may the Blessed One please remain for the proper lifespan! May the Holy One please remain for the proper lifespan! That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.”
“Ānanda, do you have faith in the Realized One’s awakening?”
“Yes, sir.”
“Then why do you keep pressing me up to the third time?”
“Sir, I have heard and learned this in the presence of the Buddha:1045 ‘Whoever has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power—made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them—may, if they wish, live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it. The Realized One has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power, made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them. If he wished, the Realized One could live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it.’”
“Do you have faith, Ānanda?”
“Yes, sir.”
“Therefore, Ānanda, the misdeed is yours alone, the mistake is yours alone. For even though the Realized One dropped such an obvious hint, such a clear sign, you didn’t beg me to remain for the proper lifespan, or what’s left of it.1046 If you had begged me, I would have refused you twice, but consented on the third time. Therefore, Ānanda, the misdeed is yours alone, the mistake is yours alone.
Ānanda, this one time I was staying near Rājagaha, on the Vulture’s Peak Mountain.1047 There I said to you: ‘Ānanda, Rājagaha is lovely, and so is the Vulture’s Peak. Whoever has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power—made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them—may, if they wish, live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it. The Realized One has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power, made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them. If he wished, the Realized One could live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it.’ But you didn’t get it, even though I dropped such an obvious hint, such a clear sign. You didn’t beg me to remain for the proper lifespan, or what’s left of it. If you had begged me, I would have refused you twice, but consented on the third time. Therefore, Ānanda, the misdeed is yours alone, the mistake is yours alone.
Ānanda, this one time I was staying right there near Rājagaha, at the Gotama banyan tree …1048 at Bandit’s Cliff …1049 in the Sattapaṇṇi cave on the slopes of Vebhāra …1050 at the Black Rock on the slopes of Isigili …1051 in the Cool Grove, under the Snake’s Hood Grotto …1052 in the Hot Springs Monastery …1053 in the Bamboo Grove, the squirrels’ feeding ground …1054 in Jīvaka’s mango grove … in the Maddakucchi deer park …1055
And in each place I said to you: ‘Ānanda, Rājagaha is lovely, and so are all these places. … If he wished, the Realized One could live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it.’ But you didn’t get it, even though I dropped such an obvious hint, such a clear sign. You didn’t beg me to remain for the proper lifespan, or what’s left of it.
Ānanda, this one time I was staying right here near Vesālī, at the Udena Shrine …1056 at the Gotamaka Shrine …1057 at the Seven Maidens Shrine …1058 at the Many Sons Shrine …1059 at the Sārandada Shrine …1060 and just now, today at the Cāpāla Shrine. There I said to you: ‘Ānanda, Vesālī is lovely. And the Udena, Gotamaka, Seven Maidens, Many Sons, Sārandada, and Cāpāla Shrines are all lovely. Whoever has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power—made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them—may, if they wish, live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it. The Realized One has developed and cultivated the four bases of psychic power, made them a vehicle and a basis, kept them up, consolidated them, and properly implemented them. If he wished, the Realized One could live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it.’ But you didn’t get it, even though I dropped such an obvious hint, such a clear sign. You didn’t beg me to remain for the proper lifespan, or what’s left of it, saying: ‘Sir, may the Blessed One please remain for the proper lifespan! May the Holy One please remain for the proper lifespan! That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.’
If you had begged me, I would have refused you twice, but consented on the third time. Therefore, Ānanda, the misdeed is yours alone, the mistake is yours alone.
Did I not prepare for this when I explained that we must be parted and separated from all we hold dear and beloved? How could it possibly be so that what is born, created, conditioned, and liable to wear out should not wear out? The Realized One has discarded, eliminated, released, given up, relinquished, and surrendered the life force. He has categorically stated: ‘The full extinguishment of the Realized One will be soon. Three months from now the Realized One will be fully extinguished.’ It’s not possible for the Realized One, for the sake of life, to take back the life force once it has been given up like that.1061
Come, Ānanda, let’s go to the Great Wood, the hall with the peaked roof.”1062
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied.
So the Buddha went with Ānanda to the hall with the peaked roof, and said to him, “Go, Ānanda, gather all the mendicants staying in the vicinity of Vesālī together in the assembly hall.”1063
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. He did what the Buddha asked, went up to him, bowed, stood to one side, and said to him, “Sir, the mendicant Saṅgha has assembled. Please, sir, go at your convenience.”
Then the Buddha went to the assembly hall, where he sat on the seat spread out and addressed the mendicants:
“So, mendicants, having carefully memorized those things I have taught you from my direct knowledge, you should cultivate, develop, and make much of them so that this spiritual practice may last for a long time. That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.1064 And what are those things I have taught from my direct knowledge? They are: the four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.1065
These are the things I have taught from my direct knowledge. Having carefully memorized them, you should cultivate, develop, and make much of them so that this spiritual practice may last for a long time. That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.”
Then the Buddha said to the mendicants:
“Come now, mendicants, I say to you all: ‘Conditions fall apart. Persist with diligence.’1066 The full extinguishment of the Realized One will be soon. Three months from now the Realized One will be fully extinguished.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“I’ve reached a ripe old age,1067
and little of my life is left.
Having given it up, I’ll depart;
I’ve made a refuge for myself.Diligent and mindful,
be of good virtues, mendicants!
With well-settled thoughts,1068
take good care of your minds.Whoever meditates diligently
in this teaching and training,
giving up transmigration through rebirths,
will make an end to suffering.”
The third recitation section.
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Vesālī for alms. Then, after the meal, on his return from almsround, he turned to gaze back at Vesālī, the way that elephants do. He said to Venerable Ānanda:1069 “Ānanda, this will be the last time the Realized One sees Vesālī. Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Wares Village.”1070
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied.
Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at Wares Village, and stayed there. There the Buddha addressed the mendicants:
“Mendicants, due to not understanding and not penetrating four things, both you and I have wandered and transmigrated for such a very long time. What four? Noble ethics,1071 immersion, wisdom, and freedom. These noble ethics, immersion, wisdom, and freedom have been understood and comprehended. Craving for continued existence has been cut off; the conduit to rebirth is ended; now there’ll be no more future lives.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“Ethics, immersion, and wisdom,
and the supreme freedom:
these things have been understood
by Gotama the renowned.And so the Buddha, having insight,1072
explained this teaching to the mendicants.
The teacher made an end of suffering,
seeing clearly, he is fully quenched.”1073
And while staying there, too, he often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”
When the Buddha had stayed in Wares Village as long as he pleased, he addressed Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Elephant Village.”…1074
“Let’s go to Mango Village.”…1075
“Let’s go to Black Plum Village.”…1076
“Let’s go to Bhoga City.”1077
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at Bhoga City, where he stayed at the Ānanda Shrine.
There the Buddha addressed the mendicants: “Mendicants, I will teach you the four great references.1078 Listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“Take a mendicant who says: ‘Reverend, I have heard and learned this in the presence of the Buddha:1079 this is the teaching, this is the training, this is the Teacher’s instruction.’1080 You should neither approve nor dismiss that mendicant’s statement.1081 Instead, having carefully memorized those words and phrases, you should make sure they fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training.1082 If they do not fit in the discourse and are not exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion:1083 ‘Clearly this is not the word of the Buddha. It has been incorrectly memorized by that mendicant.’ And so you should reject it. If they do fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: ‘Clearly this is the word of the Buddha. It has been correctly memorized by that mendicant.’ You should remember it. This is the first great reference.1084
Take another mendicant who says: ‘In such-and-such monastery lives a Saṅgha with seniors and leaders.1085 I’ve heard and learned this in the presence of that Saṅgha: this is the teaching, this is the training, this is the Teacher’s instruction.’ You should neither approve nor dismiss that mendicant’s statement. Instead, having carefully memorized those words and phrases, you should make sure they fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training. If they do not fit in the discourse and are not exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: ‘Clearly this is not the word of the Buddha. It has been incorrectly memorized by that Saṅgha.’ And so you should reject it. If they do fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: ‘Clearly this is the word of the Buddha. It has been correctly memorized by that Saṅgha.’ You should remember it. This is the second great reference.
Take another mendicant who says: ‘In such-and-such monastery there are several senior mendicants who are very learned, inheritors of the heritage, who have memorized the teachings, the monastic law, and the outlines.1086 I’ve heard and learned this in the presence of those senior mendicants: this is the teaching, this is the training, this is the Teacher’s instruction.’ You should neither approve nor dismiss that mendicant’s statement. Instead, having carefully memorized those words and phrases, you should make sure they fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training. If they do not fit in the discourse and are not exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: ‘Clearly this is not the word of the Buddha. It has not been correctly memorized by those senior mendicants.’ And so you should reject it. If they do fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: ‘Clearly this is the word of the Buddha. It has been correctly memorized by those senior mendicants.’ You should remember it. This is the third great reference.
Take another mendicant who says: ‘In such-and-such monastery there is a single senior mendicant who is very learned, an inheritor of the heritage, who has memorized the teachings, the monastic law, and the outlines.1087 I’ve heard and learned this in the presence of that senior mendicant: this is the teaching, this is the training, this is the Teacher’s instruction.’ You should neither approve nor dismiss that mendicant’s statement. Instead, having carefully memorized those words and phrases, you should make sure they fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training. If they do not fit in the discourse and are not exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: ‘Clearly this is not the word of the Buddha. It has been incorrectly memorized by that senior mendicant.’ And so you should reject it. If they do fit in the discourse and are exhibited in the training, you should draw the conclusion: ‘Clearly this is the word of the Buddha. It has been correctly memorized by that senior mendicant.’ You should remember it. This is the fourth great reference.
These are the four great references.”1088
And while staying at the Ānanda Shrine, too, the Buddha often gave this Dhamma talk to the mendicants:
“Such is ethics, such is immersion, such is wisdom. When immersion is imbued with ethics it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When wisdom is imbued with immersion it’s very fruitful and beneficial. When the mind is imbued with wisdom it is rightly freed from the defilements, namely, the defilements of sensuality, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.”
When the Buddha had stayed in Bhoga City as long as he pleased, he addressed Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Pāvā.”1089
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants arrived at Pāvā,1090 where he stayed in Cunda the smith’s mango grove.1091
Cunda heard that the Buddha had arrived and was staying in his mango grove. Then he went to the Buddha, bowed, and sat down to one side. The Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired him with a Dhamma talk.1092 Then Cunda said to the Buddha, “Sir, may the Buddha together with the mendicant Saṅgha please accept tomorrow’s meal from me.” The Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, Cunda got up from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on his right, before leaving.
And when the night had passed Cunda had delicious fresh and cooked foods prepared in his own home, and plenty of pork on the turn. Then he had the Buddha informed of the time, saying,1093 “Sir, it’s time. The meal is ready.”
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, went to the home of Cunda together with the mendicant Saṅgha, where he sat on the seat spread out and addressed Cunda, “Cunda, please serve me with the pork on the turn that you’ve prepared.1094 And serve the mendicant Saṅgha with the other foods.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Cunda, and did as he was asked.
Then the Buddha addressed Cunda, “Cunda, any pork on the turn that’s left over, you should bury it in a pit. I don’t see anyone in this world—with its gods, Māras, and Divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its gods and humans—who could properly digest it except for the Realized One.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Cunda. He did as he was asked, then came back to the Buddha, bowed, and sat down to one side. Then the Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired him with a Dhamma talk, after which he got up from his seat and left.
After the Buddha had eaten Cunda’s meal, he fell severely ill with bloody dysentery, struck by dreadful pains, close to death.1095 But he endured unbothered, with mindfulness and situational awareness. Then he addressed Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to Kusinārā.”
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied.
I’ve heard that after eating1096
the meal of Cunda the smith,
the attentive one fell severely ill,
with pains, close to death.A severe sickness struck the Teacher
who had eaten the pork on the turn.
While still purging the Buddha said:
“I’ll go to the citadel of Kusinārā.”
Then the Buddha left the road and went to the root of a certain tree, where he addressed Ānanda, “Please, Ānanda, fold my outer robe in four and spread it out for me. I am tired and will sit down.”1097
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda, and did as he was asked. The Buddha sat on the seat spread out.
When he was seated he said to Venerable Ānanda, “Please, Ānanda, fetch me some water. I am thirsty and will drink.”1098
When he said this, Venerable Ānanda said to the Buddha, “Sir, just now around five hundred carts have passed by. The shallow water has been churned up by their wheels, and it flows cloudy and murky. The Kakudhā river is not far away, with clear, sweet, cool water, clean, with smooth banks, delightful. There the Buddha can drink and cool his limbs.”1099
For a second time, the Buddha asked Ānanda for a drink, and for a second time Ānanda suggested going to the Kakudhā river.
And for a third time, the Buddha said to Ānanda, “Please, Ānanda, fetch me some water. I am thirsty and will drink.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. Taking his bowl he went to the river.1100 Now, though the shallow water in that creek had been churned up by wheels, and flowed cloudy and murky, when Ānanda approached it flowed transparent, clear, and unclouded.
Then Ānanda thought, “Oh lord, how incredible, how amazing! The Realized One has such psychic power and might! For though the shallow water in that creek had been churned up by wheels, and flowed cloudy and murky, when I approached it flowed transparent, clear, and unclouded.” Gathering a bowl of drinking water he went back to the Buddha, and said to him, “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing! The Realized One has such psychic power and might! Just now, though the shallow water in that creek had been churned up by wheels, and flowed cloudy and murky, when I approached it flowed transparent, clear, and unclouded. Drink the water, Blessed One! Drink the water, Holy One!” So the Buddha drank the water.
Now at that time Pukkusa the Malla, a disciple of Āḷāra Kālāma, was traveling along the road from Kusinārā to Pāvā.1101 He saw the Buddha sitting at the root of a certain tree. He went up to him, bowed, sat down to one side, and said, “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing! Those who have gone forth remain in such peaceful meditations.
Once it so happened that Āḷāra Kālāma, while traveling along a road, left the road and sat at the root of a nearby tree for the day’s meditation. Then around five hundred carts passed by right beside Āḷāra Kālāma.1102 Then a certain person coming behind those carts went up to Āḷāra Kālāma and said to him: ‘Sir, didn’t you see the five hundred carts pass by?’1103
‘No, friend, I didn’t see them.’
‘But sir, didn’t you hear a sound?’
‘No, friend, I didn’t hear a sound.’
‘But sir, were you asleep?’
‘No, friend, I wasn’t asleep.’
‘But sir, were you conscious?’
‘Yes, friend.’ ‘So, sir, while conscious and awake you neither saw nor heard a sound as five hundred carts passed by right beside you? Why sir, even your outer robe is covered with dust!’1104
‘Yes, friend.’
Then that person thought: ‘Oh lord, how incredible, how amazing! Those who have gone forth remain in such peaceful meditations, in that, while conscious and awake he neither saw nor heard a sound as five hundred carts passed by right next to him.’ And after declaring his lofty confidence in Āḷāra Kālāma, he left.”
“What do you think, Pukkusa? Which is harder and more challenging to do while conscious and awake: to neither see nor hear a sound as five hundred carts pass by right next to you? Or to neither see nor hear a sound as the heavens are raining and pouring, lightning’s flashing, and thunder’s cracking?”
“What do five hundred carts matter, or six hundred, or seven hundred, or eight hundred, or nine hundred, or a thousand, or even a hundred thousand carts? It’s far harder and more challenging to neither see nor hear a sound as the heavens are raining and pouring, lightning’s flashing, and thunder’s cracking!”
“This one time, Pukkusa, I was staying near Ātumā in a threshing-hut.1105 At that time the heavens were raining and pouring, lightning was flashing, and thunder was cracking. And not far from the threshing-hut two farmers who were brothers were killed, as well as four oxen. Then a large crowd came from Ātumā to the place where that happened.
Now at that time I came out of the threshing-hut and was walking mindfully in the open near the door of the hut. Then having left that crowd, a certain person approached me, bowed, and stood to one side. I said to them, ‘Why, friend, has this crowd gathered?’
‘Just now, sir, the heavens were raining and pouring, lightning was flashing, and thunder was cracking. And two farmers who were brothers were killed, as well as four oxen. Then this crowd gathered here. But sir, where were you?’
‘I was right here, friend.’
‘But sir, did you see?’
‘No, friend, I didn’t see anything.’
‘But sir, didn’t you hear a sound?’
‘No, friend, I didn’t hear a sound.’
‘But sir, were you asleep?’
‘No, friend, I wasn’t asleep.’
‘But sir, were you conscious?’
‘Yes, friend.’
‘So, sir, while conscious and awake you neither saw nor heard a sound as the heavens were raining and pouring, lightning was flashing, and thunder was cracking?’
‘Yes, friend.’
Then that person thought: ‘Oh lord, how incredible, how amazing! Those who have gone forth remain in such peaceful meditations, in that, while conscious and awake he neither saw nor heard a sound as the heavens were raining and pouring, lightning was flashing, and thunder was cracking.’ And after declaring their lofty confidence in me, they bowed and respectfully circled me, keeping me on their right, before leaving.”
When he said this, Pukkusa said to him, “Any confidence I had in Āḷāra Kālāma I sweep away as in a strong wind, or float away as down a swift stream. Excellent, sir! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the Buddha, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the Buddha remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.”
Then Pukkusa addressed a certain man, “Please, my man, fetch a pair of ready to wear garments the color of mountain gold.”1106
“Yes, sir,” replied that man, and did as he was asked. Then Pukkusa brought the garments to the Buddha, “Sir, please accept this pair of ready to wear garments the color of mountain gold from me out of sympathy.”
“Well then, Pukkusa, clothe me in one, and Ānanda in the other.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Pukkusa, and did so.
Then the Buddha educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired Pukkusa the Malla with a Dhamma talk, after which he got up from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha before leaving.
Then, not long after Pukkusa had left, Ānanda placed the pair of garments the color of mountain gold by the Buddha’s body. But when placed by the Buddha’s body they seemed to lose their shine. Then Ānanda said to the Buddha, “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing, how pure and bright is the color of the Realized One’s skin. When this pair of ready to wear garments the color of mountain gold is placed by the Buddha’s body they seem to lose their sheen.”
“That’s so true, Ānanda, that’s so true! There are two times when the color of the Realized One’s skin becomes extra pure and bright. What two? The night when a Realized One awakens to the supreme perfect awakening; and the night he becomes fully extinguished in the element of extinguishment with no residue.1107 These are the are two times when the color of the Realized One’s skin becomes extra pure and bright.
Today, Ānanda, in the last watch of the night, between a pair of sal trees in the sal forest of the Mallas at Upavattana near Kusinārā, shall be the Realized One’s full extinguishment. Come, Ānanda, let’s go to the Kakudhā River.”
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied.
A pair of garments the color of mountain gold1108
was presented by Pukkusa;
when the teacher was clothed with them,
his snow gold skin glowed bright.
Then the Buddha together with a large Saṅgha of mendicants went to the Kakudhā River. He plunged into the river and bathed and drank. And when he had emerged, he went to the mango grove, where he addressed Venerable Cundaka,1109 “Please, Cundaka, fold my outer robe in four and spread it out for me. I am tired and will lie down.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Cundaka, and did as he was asked. And then the Buddha laid down in the lion’s posture—on the right side, placing one foot on top of the other—mindful and aware, and focused on the time of getting up. But Cundaka sat down right there in front of the Buddha.
Having gone to Kakudhā Creek,1110
whose water was transparent, sweet, and clear,
the Teacher, being tired, plunged in,
the Realized One, without compare in the world.And after bathing and drinking the Teacher emerged.
Before the group of mendicants, in the middle,the Buddha,
the Teacherwho rolled forth the present dispensation,1111
the great seer went to the mango grove.He addressed the mendicant named Cundaka:
“Spread out my folded robe so I can lie down.”
The evolved one urged Cunda,
who quickly spread the folded robe.
The Teacher lay down so tired,
while Cunda sat there before him.
Then the Buddha said to Venerable Ānanda:
“Now it may happen, Ānanda, that someone may give rise to regret in Cunda the smith: ‘It’s your loss, respected Cunda, it’s your misfortune, in that the Realized One was fully quenched after eating his last almsmeal from you.’1112 You should dispel remorse in Cunda the smith like this: ‘You’re fortunate, respected Cunda, you’re so very fortunate, in that the Realized One was fully quenched after eating his last almsmeal from you. I have heard and learned this in the presence of the Buddha.
There are two almsmeal offerings that have identical fruit and result, and are more fruitful and beneficial than other almsmeal offerings.1113 What two? The almsmeal after eating which a Realized One awakens to the supreme perfect awakening; and the almsmeal after eating which he becomes fully extinguished in the element of extinguishment with no residue. These two almsmeal offerings have identical fruit and result, and are more fruitful and beneficial than other almsmeal offerings.
You’ve accumulated a deed that leads to long life, beauty, happiness, fame, heaven, and sovereignty.’1114 That’s how you should dispel remorse in Cunda the smith.”
Then, understanding this matter, on that occasion the Buddha expressed this heartfelt sentiment:
“A giver’s merit grows;1115
enmity doesn’t build up when you have self-control.
A skillful person gives up bad things—
with the end of greed, hate, and delusion,they’re quenched.”
The fourth recitation section.
Then the Buddha said to Ānanda, “Come, Ānanda, let’s go to the far shore of the Golden River, and on to the sal forest of the Mallas at Upavattana near Kusinārā.”1116
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied. And that’s where they went. Then the Buddha addressed Ānanda, “Please, Ānanda, set up a cot for me between the twin sal trees, with my head to the north. I am tired and will lie down.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda, and did as he was asked. And then the Buddha laid down in the lion’s posture—on the right side, placing one foot on top of the other—mindful and aware.1117
Now at that time the twin sal trees were in full blossom with flowers out of season.1118 They sprinkled and bestrewed the Realized One’s body in honor of the Realized One. And the flowers of the heavenly Flame Tree fell from the sky, and they too sprinkled and bestrewed the Realized One’s body in honor of the Realized One. And heavenly sandalwood powder fell from the sky, and it too sprinkled and bestrewed the Realized One’s body in honor of the Realized One. And heavenly music played in midair in honor of the Realized One. And heavenly choirs sang in midair in honor of the Realized One.
Then the Buddha pointed out to Ānanda what was happening, adding: “That’s not the full extent of how the Realized One is honored, respected, revered, venerated, and esteemed. Any monk or nun or male or female lay follower who practices in line with the teachings, practicing properly, living in line with the teachings—they honor, respect, revere, venerate, and esteem the Realized One with the highest honor.1119 So Ānanda, you should train like this: ‘We shall practice in line with the teachings, practicing properly, living in line with the teaching.’”1120
Now at that time Venerable Upavāna was standing in front of the Buddha fanning him.1121 Then the Buddha made him move, “Move over, mendicant, don’t stand in front of me.”
Ānanda thought, “This Venerable Upavāna has been the Buddha’s attendant for a long time, close to him, living in his presence.1122 Yet in his final hour the Buddha makes him move, saying: ‘Move over, mendicant, don’t stand in front of me.’ What is the cause, what is the reason for this?”
Then Ānanda said to the Buddha, “This Venerable Upavāna has been the Buddha’s attendant for a long time, close to him, living in his presence. Yet in his final hour the Buddha makes him move, saying: ‘Move over, mendicant, don’t stand in front of me.’ What is the cause, sir, what is the reason for this?”
“Most of the deities from ten solar systems have gathered to see the Realized One. For twelve leagues all around this sal grove there’s no spot, not even a fraction of a hair’s tip, that’s not crowded full of illustrious deities.1123 The deities are complaining: ‘We’ve come such a long way to see the Realized One! Only rarely do Realized Ones arise in the world, perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas. This very day, in the last watch of the night, the Realized One will be fully extinguished. And this illustrious mendicant is standing in front of the Buddha blocking the view. We won’t get to see the Realized One in his final hour!’”
“But sir, what kind of deities are you thinking of?”
“There are, Ānanda, deities—both in space and on the earth—who are aware of the earth. With hair disheveled and arms raised, they fall down like their feet were chopped off, rolling back and forth, lamenting:1124 ‘Too soon the Blessed One will be fully extinguished! Too soon the Holy One will be fully extinguished! Too soon the Eye of the World will vanish!’1125
But the deities who are free of desire endure, mindful and aware, thinking: ‘Conditions are impermanent. How could it possibly be otherwise?’”1126
“Previously, sir, when mendicants had completed the rainy season residence in various districts they came to see the Realized One.1127 We got to see the esteemed mendicants, and to pay homage to them.1128 But when the Buddha has passed, we won’t get to see the esteemed mendicants or to pay homage to them.”
“Ānanda, a faithful gentleman should go to see these four inspiring places.1129 What four? Thinking: ‘Here the Realized One was born!’—that is an inspiring place.1130 Thinking: ‘Here the Realized One became awakened as a supreme fully awakened Buddha!’—that is an inspiring place.1131 Thinking: ‘Here the supreme Wheel of Dhamma was rolled forth by the Realized One!’—that is an inspiring place.1132 Thinking: ‘Here the Realized One was fully quenched in the element of extinguishment with no residue!’—that is an inspiring place.1133 These are the four inspiring places that a faithful gentleman should go to see.
Faithful monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen will come, and think: ‘Here the Realized One was born!’ and ‘Here the Realized One became awakened as a supreme fully awakened Buddha!’ and ‘Here the supreme Wheel of Dhamma was rolled forth by the Realized One!’ and ‘Here the Realized One was fully quenched in the element of extinguishment with no residue!’ Anyone who passes away while on pilgrimage to these shrines will, when their body breaks up, after death, be reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.”
“Sir, how do we proceed when it comes to females?”1134
“Without looking, Ānanda.”1135
“But when looking, how to proceed?”1136
“Without chatting, Ānanda.”1137
“But when chatting, how to proceed?”1138
“Be mindful, Ānanda.”1139
“Sir, how do we proceed when it comes to the Realized One’s corpse?”1140
“Don’t get involved in the rites for venerating the Realized One’s corpse, Ānanda.1141 Please, Ānanda, you must all strive and practice for your heart’s goal! Meditate diligent, keen, and resolute for your heart’s goal!1142 There are astute aristocrats, brahmins, and householders who are devoted to the Realized One. They will perform the rites for venerating the Realized One’s corpse.”
“But sir, how to proceed when it comes to the Realized One’s corpse?”
“Proceed in the same way as they do for the corpse of a wheel-turning monarch.”
“But how do they proceed with a wheel-turning monarch’s corpse?”
“They wrap a wheel-turning monarch’s corpse with unworn cloth, then with uncarded cotton, then again with unworn cloth. In this way they wrap the corpse with five hundred double-layers. Then they place it in an iron case filled with oil and close it up with another case. Then, having built a funeral pyre out of all kinds of aromatics, they cremate the corpse.1143 They build a monument for the wheel-turning monarch at the crossroads.1144 That’s how they proceed with a wheel-turning monarch’s corpse. Proceed in the same way with the Realized One’s corpse.1145 A monument for the Realized One is to be built at the crossroads. When someone there lifts up garlands or fragrance or powder, or bows, or inspires confidence in their heart, that will be for their lasting welfare and happiness.
Ānanda, these four are worthy of a monument. What four? A Realized One, a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha; an independent Buddha; a disciple of a Realized One; and a wheel-turning monarch.
And for what reason is a Realized One worthy of a monument? So that many people will inspire confidence in their hearts, thinking: ‘This is the monument for that Blessed One, perfected and fully awakened!’ And having done so, when their body breaks up, after death, they are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. It is for this reason that a Realized One is worthy of a monument.
And for what reason is an independent Buddha worthy of a monument?1146 So that many people will inspire confidence in their hearts, thinking: ‘This is the monument for that independent Buddha!’ And having done so, when their body breaks up, after death, they are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. It is for this reason that an independent Buddha is worthy of a monument.
And for what reason is a Realized One’s disciple worthy of a monument?1147 So that many people will inspire confidence in their hearts, thinking: ‘This is the monument for that Blessed One’s disciple!’ And having done so, when their body breaks up, after death, they are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. It is for this reason that a Realized One’s disciple is worthy of a monument.
And for what reason is a wheel-turning monarch worthy of a monument? So that many people will inspire confidence in their hearts, thinking: ‘This is the monument for that just and principled king!’1148 And having done so, when their body breaks up, after death, they are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. It is for this reason that a wheel-turning monarch is worthy of a monument.
These four are worthy of a monument.”
Then Venerable Ānanda entered a building, and stood there leaning against the door-jamb and crying,1149 “Oh! I’m still only a trainee with work left to do; and my Teacher is about to be fully extinguished, he who is so kind to me!”1150
Then the Buddha said to the mendicants, “Mendicants, where is Ānanda?”
“Sir, Ānanda has entered a dwelling, and stands there leaning against the door-jamb and crying: ‘Oh! I’m still only a trainee with work left to do; and my Teacher is about to be fully extinguished, he who is so kind to me!’”
So the Buddha addressed one of the monks, “Please, monk, in my name tell Ānanda that the teacher summons him.”
“Yes, sir,” that monk replied. He went to Ānanda and said to him, “Reverend Ānanda, the teacher summons you.”
“Yes, reverend,” Ānanda replied. He went to the Buddha, bowed, and sat down to one side. The Buddha said to him:
“Enough, Ānanda! Do not grieve, do not lament. Did I not prepare for this when I explained that1151 we must be parted and separated from all we hold dear and beloved? How could it possibly be so that what is born, created, conditioned, and liable to wear out should not wear out, even the Realized One’s body? For a long time, Ānanda, you’ve treated the Realized One with deeds of body, speech, and mind that are loving, beneficial, pleasant, undivided, and limitless.1152 You have done good deeds, Ānanda. Devote yourself to meditation, and you will soon be free of defilements.”1153
Then the Buddha said to the mendicants:
“The Buddhas of the past or the future have attendants who are no better than Ānanda is for me.1154 Ānanda is astute, he is intelligent. He knows the time for monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, king’s ministers, monastics of other religions and their disciples to visit the Realized One.1155
There are these four incredible and amazing things about Ānanda.1156 What four? If an assembly of monks goes to see Ānanda, they’re uplifted by seeing him and uplifted by hearing him speak. And when he falls silent, they’ve never had enough. If an assembly of nuns … laymen … or laywomen goes to see Ānanda, they’re uplifted by seeing him and uplifted by hearing him speak. And when he falls silent, they’ve never had enough. These are the four incredible and amazing things about Ānanda.
There are these four incredible and amazing things about a wheel-turning monarch.1157 What four? If an assembly of aristocrats goes to see a wheel-turning monarch, they’re uplifted by seeing him and uplifted by hearing him speak. And when he falls silent, they’ve never had enough. If an assembly of brahmins … householders … or ascetics goes to see a wheel-turning monarch, they’re uplifted by seeing him and uplifted by hearing him speak. And when he falls silent, they’ve never had enough.
In the same way, there are those four incredible and amazing things about Ānanda.”
When he said this, Venerable Ānanda said to the Buddha:
“Sir, please don’t be fully extinguished in this little hamlet, this jungle hamlet, this branch hamlet. There are other great cities such as Campā, Rājagaha, Sāvatthī, Sāketa, Kosambī, and Varanasi.1158 Let the Buddha be fully extinguished there. There are many well-to-do aristocrats, brahmins, and householders there who are devoted to the Buddha. They will perform the rites of venerating the Realized One’s corpse.”
“Don’t say that Ānanda! Don’t say that this is a little hamlet, a jungle hamlet, a branch hamlet.
Once upon a time there was a king named Mahāsudassana who was a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king. His dominion extended to all four sides, he achieved stability in the country, and he possessed the seven treasures.1159 His capital was this Kusinārā, which at the time was named Kusāvatī.1160 It stretched for twelve leagues from east to west, and seven leagues from north to south.1161 The royal capital of Kusāvatī was successful, prosperous, populous, full of people, with plenty of food. It was just like Āḷakamandā, the royal capital of the gods, which is successful, prosperous, populous, full of spirits, with plenty of food.1162 Kusāvatī was never free of ten sounds by day or night, namely: the sound of elephants, horses, chariots, drums, clay drums, arched harps, singing, horns, gongs, and handbells; and the cry: ‘Eat, drink, be merry!’ as the tenth.
Go, Ānanda, into Kusinārā and inform the Mallas: ‘This very day, Vāseṭṭhas, in the last watch of the night, the Realized One will be fully extinguished.1163 Come forth, Vāseṭṭhas! Come forth, Vāseṭṭhas! Don’t regret it later, thinking: ‘The Realized One became fully extinguished in our own village district, but we didn’t get a chance to see him in his final hour.’”
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. Then he robed up and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Kusinārā with a companion.1164
Now at that time the Mallas of Kusinārā were sitting together at the town hall on some business.1165 Ānanda went up to them, and announced: “This very day, Vāseṭṭhas, in the last watch of the night, the Realized One will be fully extinguished. Come forth, Vāseṭṭhas! Come forth, Vāseṭṭhas! Don’t regret it later, thinking: ‘The Realized One became fully extinguished in our own village district, but we didn’t get a chance to see him in his final hour.’”
When they heard what Ānanda had to say, the Mallas, their sons, daughters-in-law, and wives became distraught, saddened, and grief-stricken. And some, with hair disheveled and arms raised, falling down like their feet were chopped off, rolling back and forth, lamented, “Too soon the Blessed One will be fully extinguished! Too soon the Holy One will be fully extinguished! Too soon the Eye of the World will vanish!”
Then the Mallas, their sons, daughters-in-law, and wives, distraught, saddened, and grief-stricken went to the Mallian sal grove at Upavattana and approached Ānanda.
Then Ānanda thought, “If I have the Mallas pay homage to the Buddha one by one, they won’t be finished before first light. I’d better separate them family by family and then have them pay homage, saying: ‘Sir, the Malla named so-and-so with children, wives, retinue, and ministers bows with his head at your feet.’” And so that’s what he did. So by this means Ānanda got the Mallas to finish paying homage to the Buddha in the first watch of the night.
Now at that time a wanderer named Subhadda was residing near Kusinārā.1166 He heard that on that very day, in the last watch of the night, will be the full extinguishment of the ascetic Gotama. He thought: “I have heard that brahmins of the past who were elderly and senior, the tutors of tutors, said: ‘Only rarely do Realized Ones arise in the world, perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas.’ And this very day, in the last watch of the night, will be the full extinguishment of the ascetic Gotama. This state of uncertainty has come up in me. I am quite confident that the Buddha is capable of teaching me so that I can give up this state of uncertainty.”
Then Subhadda went to the Mallian sal grove at Upavattana, approached Ānanda, and said to him, “Master Ānanda, I have heard that brahmins of the past who were elderly and senior, the tutors of tutors, said: ‘Only rarely do Realized Ones arise in the world, perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas.’ And this very day, in the last watch of the night, will be the full extinguishment of the ascetic Gotama. This state of uncertainty has come up in me. I am quite confident that the Buddha is capable of teaching me so that I can give up this state of uncertainty. Worthy Ānanda, please let me see the ascetic Gotama.”
When he had spoken, Ānanda said, “Enough, Reverend Subhadda, do not trouble the Realized One. He is tired.”
For a second time, and a third time, Subhadda asked Ānanda, and a third time Ānanda refused.
The Buddha heard that discussion between Ānanda and Subhadda. He said to Ānanda, “Enough, Ānanda, don’t obstruct Subhadda; let him see the Realized One. For whatever he asks me, he will only be looking to understand, not to trouble me. And he will quickly understand any answer I give to his question.”
So Ānanda said to the wanderer Subhadda, “Go, Reverend Subhadda, the Buddha is making time for you.”
Then the wanderer Subhadda went up to the Buddha, and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side and said to the Buddha:
“Worthy Gotama, there are those ascetics and brahmins who lead an order and a community, and tutor a community. They’re well-known and famous religious founders, deemed holy by many people. Namely: Pūraṇa Kassapa, the bamboo-staffed ascetic Gosāla, Ajita of the hair blanket, Pakudha Kaccāyana, Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta, and the Jain ascetic of the Ñātika clan. According to their own claims, did all of them have direct knowledge, or none of them, or only some?”1167
“Enough, Subhadda, let that be.1168 I shall teach you the Dhamma. Listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” Subhadda replied. The Buddha said this:
“Subhadda, in whatever teaching and training the noble eightfold path is not found, there is no ascetic found, no second ascetic, no third ascetic, and no fourth ascetic.1169 In whatever teaching and training the noble eightfold path is found, there is an ascetic found, a second ascetic, a third ascetic, and a fourth ascetic.1170 In this teaching and training the noble eightfold path is found. Only here is there an ascetic, here a second ascetic, here a third ascetic, and here a fourth ascetic. Other sects are empty of ascetics.
Were these mendicants to practice well, the world would not be empty of perfected ones.1171
I was twenty-nine years of age, Subhadda,1172
when I went forth to discover what is skillful.1173
It’s been over fifty years
since I went forth.
Teacher of the referencesfor the systematic teaching:1174
outside of here there is no ascetic,
no second ascetic, no third ascetic, and no fourth ascetic. Other sects are empty of ascetics. Were these mendicants to practice well, the world would not be empty of perfected ones.”
When he had spoken, Subhadda said to the Buddha, “Excellent, sir! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the Buddha, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. Sir, may I receive the going forth, the ordination in the Buddha’s presence?”
“Subhadda, if someone formerly ordained in another sect wishes to take the going forth, the ordination in this teaching and training, they must spend four months on probation. When four months have passed, if the mendicants are satisfied, they’ll give the going forth, the ordination into monkhood. However, I have recognized individual differences in this matter.”
“Sir, if four months probation are required in such a case, I’ll spend four years on probation. When four years have passed, if the mendicants are satisfied, let them give me the going forth, the ordination into monkhood.”
Then the Buddha said to Ānanda, “Well then, Ānanda, give Subhadda the going forth.”
“Yes, sir,” Ānanda replied.
Then Subhadda said to Ānanda, “You’re so fortunate, Reverand Ānanda, so very fortunate, to be anointed here in the Teacher’s presence as his pupil!” And the wanderer Subhadda received the going forth, the ordination in the Buddha’s presence. Not long after his ordination, Venerable Subhadda, living alone, withdrawn, diligent, keen, and resolute, soon realized the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life. He lived having achieved with his own insight the goal for which gentlemen rightly go forth from the lay life to homelessness.
He understood: “Rebirth is ended; the spiritual journey has been completed; what had to be done has been done; there is nothing further for this place.” And Venerable Subhadda became one of the perfected. He was the last personal disciple of the Buddha.1175
The fifth recitation section.
Then the Buddha addressed Venerable Ānanda:
“Now, Ānanda, some of you might think: ‘The teacher’s dispensation has passed. Now we have no Teacher.’ But you should not see it like this. The teaching and training that I have taught and pointed out for you shall be your Teacher after my passing.1176
After my passing, mendicants ought not address each other as ‘reverend’, as they do today.1177 A more senior mendicant ought to address a more junior mendicant by name or clan, or by saying ‘reverend’. A more junior mendicant ought to address a more senior mendicant using ‘sir’ or ‘venerable’.1178
If it wishes, after my passing the Saṅgha may abolish the lesser and minor training rules.1179
After my passing, give the divine punishment to the mendicant Channa.”1180
“But sir, what is the divine punishment?”
“Channa may say what he likes, but the mendicants should not correct, advise, or instruct him.”1181
Then the Buddha said to the mendicants, “Perhaps even a single mendicant has doubt or uncertainty regarding the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, the path, or the practice. So ask, mendicants! Don’t regret it later, thinking: ‘We were in the Teacher’s presence and we weren’t able to ask the Buddha a question.’”
When this was said, the mendicants kept silent.
For a second time, and a third time the Buddha addressed the mendicants: “Perhaps even a single mendicant has doubt or uncertainty regarding the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, the path, or the practice. So ask, mendicants! Don’t regret it later, thinking: ‘We were in the Teacher’s presence and we weren’t able to ask the Buddha a question.’”
For a third time, the mendicants kept silent. Then the Buddha said to the mendicants,
“Mendicants, perhaps you don’t ask out of respect for the Teacher. So let a friend tell a friend.”
When this was said, the mendicants kept silent.
Then Venerable Ānanda said to the Buddha, “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing! I am quite confident that there is not even a single mendicant in this Saṅgha who has doubt or uncertainty regarding the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, the path, or the practice.”
“Ānanda, you speak out of faith. But the Realized One knows that there is not even a single mendicant in this Saṅgha who has doubt or uncertainty regarding the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, the path, or the practice. Even the last of these five hundred mendicants is a stream-enterer, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.”
Then the Buddha said to the mendicants: “Come now, mendicants, I say to you all: ‘Conditions fall apart. Persist with diligence.’”
These were the Realized One’s last words.1182
Then the Buddha entered the first absorption. Emerging from that, he entered the second absorption. Emerging from that, he successively entered into and emerged from the third absorption, the fourth absorption, the dimension of infinite space, the dimension of infinite consciousness, the dimension of nothingness, and the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. Then he entered the cessation of perception and feeling.1183
Then Venerable Ānanda said to Venerable Anuruddha, “Honorable Anuruddha, has the Buddha become fully quenched?”1184
“No, Reverend Ānanda. He has entered the cessation of perception and feeling.”
Then the Buddha emerged from the cessation of perception and feeling and entered the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. Emerging from that, he successively entered into and emerged from the dimension of nothingness, the dimension of infinite consciousness, the dimension of infinite space, the fourth absorption, the third absorption, the second absorption, and the first absorption. Emerging from that, he successively entered into and emerged from the second absorption and the third absorption. Then he entered the fourth absorption. Emerging from that the Buddha immediately became fully extinguished.
When the Buddha was fully quenched, along with the full extinguishment there was a great earthquake, awe-inspiring and hair-raising, and thunder cracked the sky. When the Buddha was fully quenched, the divinity Sahampati recited this verse:
“All creatures in this world1185
must lay down this bag of bones.1186
For even a Teacher such as this,
unrivaled in the world,
the Realized One, attained to power,1187
the Buddha was fully quenched.”
When the Buddha was fully quenched, Sakka, lord of gods, recited this verse:
“Oh! Conditions are impermanent,1188
their nature is to rise and fall;
having arisen, they cease;
their stilling is blissful.”
When the Buddha was fully quenched, Venerable Anuruddha recited this verse:
“There was no more breathing1189
for the unaffected one of steady heart.
Imperturbable, committed to peace,
the sage has done his time.He put up with painful feelings
without flinching.
The liberation of his heart
was like the extinguishing of a lamp.”
When the Buddha was fully quenched, Venerable Ānanda recited this verse:
“Then there was terror!1190
Then they had goosebumps!
When the Buddha, endowed with all fine qualities,
became fully quenched.”
When the Buddha was fully quenched, some of the mendicants there who were not free of desire, with arms raised, falling down like their feet were chopped off, rolling back and forth, lamented: “Too soon the Blessed One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Holy One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Eye of the World has vanished!”1191 But the mendicants who were free of desire endured, mindful and aware, thinking, “Conditions are impermanent. How could it possibly be otherwise?”
Then Anuruddha addressed the mendicants: “Enough, reverends, do not grieve or lament. Did the Buddha not prepare us for this when he explained that we must be parted and separated from all we hold dear and beloved? How could it possibly be so that what is born, created, conditioned, and liable to wear out should not wear out? The deities are complaining.”
“But sir, what kind of deities are you thinking of?”
“There are, Ānanda, deities—both in space and on the earth—who are aware of the earth. With hair disheveled and arms raised, they fall down like their feet were chopped off, rolling back and forth, lamenting: ‘Too soon the Blessed One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Holy One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Eye of the World has vanished!’ But the deities who are free of desire endure, mindful and aware, thinking: ‘Conditions are impermanent. How could it possibly be otherwise?’”
Ānanda and Anuruddha spent the rest of the night talking about Dhamma.
Then Anuruddha said to Ānanda, “Go, Ānanda, into Kusinārā and inform the Mallas: ‘Vāseṭṭhas, the Buddha has become fully quenched. Please come at your convenience.’”
“Yes, sir,” replied Ānanda. Then, in the morning, he robed up and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Kusinārā with a companion.
Now at that time the Mallas of Kusinārā were sitting together at the town hall still on the same business.1192 Ānanda went up to them, and announced, “Vāseṭṭhas, the Buddha has become fully quenched. Please come at your convenience.”
When they heard what Ānanda had to say, the Mallas, their sons, daughters-in-law, and wives became distraught, saddened, and grief-stricken. And some, with hair disheveled and arms raised, falling down like their feet were chopped off, rolling back and forth, lamented, “Too soon the Blessed One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Holy One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Eye of the World has vanished!”
Then the Mallas ordered their men, “So then, my men, collect fragrances and garlands, and all the musical instruments in Kusinārā.”
Then—taking those fragrances and garlands, all the musical instruments, and five hundred pairs of garments—they went to the Mallian sal grove at Upavattana and approached the Buddha’s corpse. They spent the day honoring, respecting, revering, and venerating the Buddha’s corpse with dance and song and music and garlands and fragrances, and making awnings and setting up pavilions.1193
Then they thought, “It’s too late to cremate the Buddha’s corpse today. Let’s do it tomorrow.” But they spent the next day the same way, and so too the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth days.1194
Then on the seventh day they thought, “Honoring, respecting, revering, and venerating the Buddha’s corpse with dance and song and music and garlands and fragrances, let us carry it to the south of the town, and cremate it there outside the town.”
Now at that time eight of the leading Mallas, having bathed their heads and dressed in unworn clothes, said,1195 “We shall lift the Buddha’s corpse.” But they were unable to do so.
The Mallas said to Anuruddha, “What is the cause, Honorable Anuruddha, what is the reason why these eight Mallian chiefs are unable to lift the Buddha’s corpse?”
“Vāseṭṭhas, you have one plan, but the deities have a different one.”
“But sir, what is the deities’ plan?”
“You plan to carry the Buddha’s corpse to the south of the town while venerating it with dance and song and music and garlands and fragrances, and cremate it there outside the town. The deities plan to carry the Buddha’s corpse to the north of the town while venerating it with heavenly dance and song and music and garlands and fragrances. Then they plan to enter the town by the northern gate, carry it through the center of the town, leave by the eastern gate, and cremate it there at the Mallian shrine named Coronation.”1196
“Sir, let it be as the deities plan.”
Now at that time the whole of Kusinārā was covered knee-deep with the flowers of the Flame Tree, without gaps even on the filth and rubbish heaps.1197 Then the deities and the Mallas of Kusinārā carried the Buddha’s corpse to the north of the town while venerating it with heavenly and human dance and song and music and garlands and fragrances. Then they entered the town by the northern gate, carried it through the center of the town, left by the eastern gate, and deposited the corpse there at the Mallian shrine named Coronation.
Then the Mallas said to Ānanda, “Honorable Ānanda, how do we proceed when it comes to the Realized One’s corpse?”
“Proceed in the same way as they do for the corpse of a wheel-turning monarch.”
“But how do they proceed with a wheel-turning monarch’s corpse?”
“They wrap a wheel-turning monarch’s corpse with unworn cloth, then with uncarded cotton, then again with unworn cloth. In this way they wrap the corpse with five hundred double-layers. Then they place it in an iron case filled with oil and close it up with another case. Then, having built a funeral pyre out of all kinds of aromatics, they cremate the corpse. They build a monument for the wheel-turning monarch at the crossroads. That’s how they proceed with a wheel-turning monarch’s corpse. Proceed in the same way with the Realized One’s corpse. A monument for the Realized One is to be built at the crossroads. When someone there lifts up garlands or fragrance or powder, or bows, or inspires confidence in their heart, that will be for their lasting welfare and happiness.”
Then the Mallas ordered their men, “So then, my men, collect uncarded cotton.”
So the Mallas wrapped the Buddha’s corpse, and placed it in an iron case filled with oil. Then, having built a funeral pyre out of all kinds of aromatics, they lifted the corpse on to the pyre.
Now at that time Venerable Mahākassapa was traveling along the road from Pāvā to Kusinārā together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants.1198 Then he left the road and sat at the root of a tree.
Now at that time a certain Ājīvaka ascetic had picked up a Flame Tree flower in Kusinārā and was traveling along the road to Pāvā.1199 Mahākassapa saw him coming off in the distance and said to him, “Reverend, might you know about our Teacher?”
“Yes, reverend. Seven days ago the ascetic Gotama was fully quenched. From there I picked up this Flame Tree flower.” Some of the mendicants there who were not free of desire, with arms raised, falling down like their feet were chopped off, rolling back and forth, lamented, “Too soon the Blessed One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Holy One has become fully quenched! Too soon the Eye of the World has vanished!” But the mendicants who were free of desire endured, mindful and aware, thinking, “Conditions are impermanent. How could it possibly be otherwise?”
Now at that time a monk named Subhadda, who had gone forth when old, was sitting in that assembly. He said to those mendicants, “Enough, reverends, do not grieve or lament. We’re well rid of that Great Ascetic. And we are oppressed:1200 ‘This is allowable for you; this is not allowable for you.’ Well, now we shall do what we want and not do what we don’t want.”
Then Venerable Mahākassapa addressed the mendicants, “Enough, reverends, do not grieve or lament. Did the Buddha not prepare us for this when he explained that we must be parted and separated from all we hold dear and beloved? How could it possibly be so that what is born, created, conditioned, and liable to wear out should not wear out, even the Realized One’s body?”
Now at that time four of the leading Mallas, having bathed their heads and dressed in unworn clothes, said, “We shall light the Buddha’s funeral pyre.” But they were unable to do so.
The Mallas said to Anuruddha, “What is the cause, Venerable Anuruddha, what is the reason why these four Mallian chiefs are unable to light the Buddha’s funeral pyre?”
“Vāseṭṭhas, the deities have a different plan.”
“But sir, what is the deities’ plan?”
“The deities’ plan is this: Venerable Mahākassapa is traveling along the road from Pāvā to Kusinārā together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants. The Buddha’s funeral pyre shall not burn until he bows with his head at the Buddha’s feet.”
“Sir, let it be as the deities plan.”
Then Venerable Mahākassapa arrived at the Mallian shrine named Coronation at Kusinārā and approached the Buddha’s funeral pyre. Arranging his robe over one shoulder and raising his joined palms, he respectfully circled the Buddha three times, keeping him on his right, and bowed with his head at the Buddha’s feet. And the five hundred mendicants did likewise. And when Mahākassapa and the five hundred mendicants bowed the Buddha’s funeral pyre burst into flames all by itself.
And when the Buddha’s corpse was cremated no ash or soot was found from outer or inner skin, flesh, sinews, or synovial fluid. Only the relics remained.1201 It’s like when ghee or oil blaze and burn, and neither ashes nor soot are found. In the same way, when the Buddha’s corpse was cremated no ash or soot was found from outer or inner skin, flesh, sinews, or synovial fluid. Only the relics remained. And of those five hundred pairs of garments only two were not burnt: the innermost and the outermost. But when the Buddha’s corpse was consumed the funeral pyre was extinguished by a stream of water that appeared in the sky,1202 by water dripping from the sal trees, and by the Mallas’ fragrant water.
Then the Mallas made a cage of spears for the Buddha’s relics in the town hall and surrounded it with a buttress of bows. For seven days they honored, respected, revered, and venerated them with dance and song and music and garlands and fragrances.
King Ajātasattu of Magadha, son of the princess of Videha, heard1203 that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. He sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was an aristocrat and so am I. I too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. I will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”1204
The Licchavis of Vesālī also heard that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. They sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was an aristocrat and so are we. We too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. We will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”
The Sakyans of Kapilavatthu also heard that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. They sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was our foremost relative. We too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. We will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”
The Bulis of Allakappa also heard1205 that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. They sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was an aristocrat and so are we. We too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. We will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”
The Koliyans of Rāmagāma also heard1206 that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. They sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was an aristocrat and so are we. We too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. We will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”
The brahmin of Veṭhadīpa also heard1207 that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. He sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was an aristocrat and I am a brahmin. I too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. I will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”
The Mallas of Pāvā also heard that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. They sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was an aristocrat and so are we. We too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. We will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”
When they had spoken, the Mallas of Kusinārā said to those various groups: “The Buddha was fully quenched in our village district. We will not give away a share of his relics.”1208
Then Doṇa the brahmin said to those various groups:1209
“Hear, sirs, a single word from me.
Our Buddha’s teaching was acceptance.
It would not be good to fight over1210
a share of the supreme person’s relics.Let us make eight portions, good fellows,
rejoicing in unity and harmony.
Let there be monuments far and wide,1211
so many folk may gain faith in the Clear-eyed One!”
“Well then, brahmin, you yourself should fairly divide the Buddha’s relics in eight portions.”
“Yes, worthy sirs,” replied Doṇa to those various groups. He divided the relics as asked and said to them, “Sirs, please give me the urn, and I shall build a monument for it and conduct a memorial service.” So they gave Doṇa the urn.
The Moriyas of Pippalivana heard1212 that the Buddha had become fully quenched at Kusinārā. They sent an envoy to the Mallas of Kusinārā: “The Buddha was an aristocrat, and so are we. We too deserve a share of the Buddha’s relics. We will build a monument for them and conduct a memorial service.”
“There is no portion of the Buddha’s relics left, they have already been portioned out. Here, take the embers.” So they took the embers.
Then King Ajātasattu of Magadha,1213 the Licchavis of Vesālī, the Sakyans of Kapilavatthu, the Bulis of Allakappa, the Koliyans of Rāmagāma, the brahmin of Veṭhadīpa, the Mallas of Pāvā, the Mallas of Kusinārā, the brahmin Doṇa, and the Moriyas of Pippalivana built monuments for them and conducted memorial services. Thus there were eight monuments for the relics, a ninth for the urn, and a tenth for the embers. That is how it was in the old days.1214
There were eight shares
of the Clear-eyed One’s relics.1215
Seven were worshipped in the Black Plum Tree Land.
But one share of the most excellent of men
was worshipped in Rāmagāma by a dragon king.One tooth is venerated by the gods of the Third Heaven,1216
and one is worshipped in the city of Gandhāra;
another one in the realm of the Kaliṅga King,
and one is worshipped by a dragon king.Through their glory this rich earth
is adorned with the best of offerings.1217
Thus the Clear-eyed One’s corpse
is well honored by the honorable.It’s venerated by lords of gods, dragons, and spirits;
and likewise venerated by the finest lords of men.
Honor it with joined palms when you get the chance,
for a Buddha is rare even in a hundred eons.Altogether forty even teeth,
and the body hair and head hair,
were carried off individually by gods
across the universe.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying between a pair of sal trees in the sal forest of the Mallas at Upavattana near Kusinārā at the time of his full extinguishment.1218
Then Venerable Ānanda went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him, “Sir, please don’t be fully extinguished in this little hamlet, this jungle hamlet, this branch hamlet. There are other great cities such as Campā, Rājagaha, Sāvatthī, Sāketa, Kosambī, and Varanasi. Let the Buddha be fully extinguished there. There are many well-to-do aristocrats, brahmins, and householders there who are devoted to the Buddha. They will perform the rites of venerating the Realized One’s corpse.”
“Don’t say that, Ānanda! Don’t say that this is a little hamlet, a jungle hamlet, a branch hamlet.
Once upon a time there was a king named Mahāsudassana whose dominion extended to all four sides, and who achieved stability in the country. His capital was this Kusinārā, which at the time was named Kusāvatī. It stretched for twelve leagues from east to west, and seven leagues from north to south. The royal capital of Kusāvatī was successful, prosperous, populous, full of people, with plenty of food. It was just like Āḷakamandā, the royal capital of the gods, which is successful, prosperous, populous, full of spirits, with plenty of food.
Kusāvatī was never free of ten sounds by day or night, namely: the sound of elephants, horses, chariots, drums, clay drums, arched harps, singing, horns, gongs, and handbells; and the cry, ‘Eat, drink, be merry!’ as the tenth.
Kusāvatī was encircled by seven ramparts:1219 one made of gold, one made of silver, one made of beryl, one made of crystal, one made of ruby, one made of emerald, and one made of all precious things.
It had four gates, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal. At each gate there were seven pillars, three fathoms deep and four fathoms high,1220 made of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, ruby, emerald, and all precious things.
It was surrounded by seven rows of palm trees, made of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, ruby, emerald, and all precious things. The golden palms had trunks of gold, and leaves and fruits of silver. The silver palms had trunks of silver, and leaves and fruits of gold. The beryl palms had trunks of beryl, and leaves and fruits of crystal. The crystal palms had trunks of crystal, and leaves and fruits of beryl. The ruby palms had trunks of ruby, and leaves and fruits of emerald. The emerald palms had trunks of emerald, and leaves and fruits of ruby. The palms of all precious things had trunks of all precious things, and leaves and fruits of all precious things. When those rows of palm trees were blown by the wind they sounded graceful, tantalizing, sensuous, lovely, and intoxicating, like a quintet made up of skilled musicians who had practiced well and kept excellent rhythm. And any addicts, carousers, or drunkards in Kusāvatī at that time were entertained by that sound.1221
King Mahāsudassana possessed seven treasures and four blessings. What seven?
On a fifteenth day sabbath, King Mahāsudassana had bathed his head and gone upstairs in the royal longhouse to observe the sabbath.1222 And the heavenly wheel-treasure appeared to him, with a thousand spokes, with rim and hub, complete in every detail.1223 Seeing this, the king thought, ‘I have heard that when the heavenly wheel-treasure appears to a king in this way, he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. Am I then a wheel-turning monarch?’
Then King Mahāsudassana, rising from his seat and arranging his robe over one shoulder, took a ceremonial vase in his left hand and besprinkled the wheel-treasure with his right hand, saying:1224 ‘Roll forth, O wheel-treasure! Triumph, O wheel-treasure!’
Then the wheel-treasure rolled towards the east. And the king followed it together with his army of four divisions. In whatever place the wheel-treasure stood still, there the king came to stay together with his army.1225
And any opposing rulers of the eastern quarter came to him and said, ‘Come, great king! Welcome, great king! We are yours, great king, instruct us.’
The king said, ‘Do not kill living creatures. Do not steal. Do not commit sexual misconduct. Do not lie. Do not drink liquor. Maintain the current level of taxation.’1226 And so the opposing rulers of the eastern quarter became his vassals.
Then the wheel-treasure, having plunged into the eastern ocean and emerged again, rolled towards the south. …1227
Having plunged into the southern ocean and emerged again, it rolled towards the west. …
Having plunged into the western ocean and emerged again, it rolled towards the north, followed by the king together with his army of four divisions. In whatever place the wheel-treasure stood still, there the king came to stay together with his army.
And any opposing rulers of the northern quarter came to him and said, ‘Come, great king! Welcome, great king! We are yours, great king, instruct us.’
The king said, ‘Do not kill living creatures. Do not steal. Do not commit sexual misconduct. Do not lie. Do not drink liquor. Maintain the current level of taxation.’ And so the opposing rulers of the northern quarter became his vassals.1228
And then the wheel-treasure, having triumphed over this land surrounded by ocean, returned to the royal capital. There it stood still by the gate to the royal compound at the High Court as if fixed to an axle, illuminating the royal compound.1229 Such is the wheel-treasure that appeared to King Mahāsudassana.
Next, the elephant-treasure appeared to King Mahāsudassana. It was an all-white sky-walker with psychic power, touching the ground in seven places, a king of elephants named Sabbath.1230 Seeing him, the king was impressed, ‘This would truly be a fine elephant vehicle, if he would submit to taming.’ Then the elephant-treasure submitted to taming, as if he was a fine thoroughbred elephant that had been tamed for a long time.
Once it so happened that King Mahāsudassana, testing that same elephant-treasure, mounted him in the morning and traversed the land surrounded by ocean before returning to the royal capital in time for breakfast. Such is the elephant-treasure that appeared to King Mahāsudassana.
Next, the horse-treasure appeared to King Mahāsudassana. It was an all-white sky-walker with psychic power, with head of black and mane like woven reeds, a royal steed named Thundercloud.1231 Seeing him, the king was impressed, ‘This would truly be a fine horse vehicle, if he would submit to taming.’ Then the horse-treasure submitted to taming, as if he was a fine thoroughbred horse that had been tamed for a long time.
Once it so happened that King Mahāsudassana, testing that same horse-treasure, mounted him in the morning and traversed the land surrounded by ocean before returning to the royal capital in time for breakfast. Such is the horse-treasure that appeared to King Mahāsudassana.
Next, the jewel-treasure appeared to King Mahāsudassana. It was a beryl gem that was naturally lustrous, eight-faceted, well-worked, transparent, clear, and unclouded, endowed with all good qualities. And the radiance of that jewel spread all-round for a league.
Once it so happened that King Mahāsudassana, testing that same jewel-treasure, mobilized his army of four divisions and, with the jewel hoisted on his banner, set out in the dark of the night. Then the villagers around them set off to work, thinking that it was day. Such is the jewel-treasure that appeared to King Mahāsudassana.
Next, the woman-treasure appeared to King Mahāsudassana. She was attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty. She was neither too tall nor too short; neither too thin nor too fat; neither too dark nor too light. She outdid human beauty without reaching heavenly beauty. And her touch was like a tuft of cotton-wool or kapok. When it was cool her limbs were warm, and when it was warm her limbs were cool. The fragrance of sandal floated from her body, and lotus from her mouth. She got up before the king and went to bed after him, and was obliging, behaving nicely and speaking politely. The woman-treasure did not betray the wheel-turning monarch even in thought, still less in deed. Such is the woman-treasure that appeared to King Mahāsudassana.
Next, the householder-treasure appeared to King Mahāsudassana. The power of clairvoyance manifested in him as a result of past deeds, by which he sees treasure troves, both owned and ownerless.
He approached the king and said, ‘Relax, sire. I will take care of the treasury.’
Once it so happened that the wheel-turning monarch, testing that same householder-treasure, boarded a boat and sailed to the middle of the Ganges river. Then he said to the householder-treasure, ‘Householder, I need gold, both coined and uncoined.’
‘Well then, great king, draw the boat up to one shore.’
‘It’s right here, householder, that I need gold, both coined and uncoined.’
Then that householder-treasure, immersing both hands in the water, pulled up a pot full of gold, both coined and uncoined, and said to the king, ‘Is this sufficient, great king? Has enough been done, great king, enough offered?’
The king said, ‘That is sufficient, householder. Enough has been done, enough offered.’
Such is the householder-treasure that appeared to King Mahāsudassana.
Next, the commander-treasure appeared to King Mahāsudassana. He was astute, competent, intelligent, and capable of getting the king to appoint who should be appointed, dismiss who should be dismissed, and retain who should be retained.1232
He approached the king and said, ‘Relax, sire. I shall issue instructions.’
Such is the commander-treasure that appeared to King Mahāsudassana.
These are the seven treasures possessed by King Mahāsudassana.
King Mahāsudassana possessed four blessings. And what are the four blessings?
He was attractive, good-looking, lovely, of surpassing beauty, more so than other humans. This is the first blessing.
Furthermore, he was long-lived, more so than other humans. This is the second blessing.
Furthermore, he was rarely ill or unwell, and his stomach digested well, being neither too hot nor too cold, more so than other humans. This is the third blessing.
Furthermore, he was as dear and beloved to the brahmins and householders as a father is to his children. And the brahmins and householders were as dear to the king as children are to their father.
Once it so happened that King Mahāsudassana went with his army of four divisions to visit a park. Then the brahmins and householders went up to him and said, ‘Slow down, Your Majesty, so we may see you longer!’ And the king addressed his charioteer, ‘Drive slowly, charioteer, so I can see the brahmins and householders longer!’ This is the fourth blessing.
These are the four blessings possessed by King Mahāsudassana.
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘Why don’t I have lotus ponds built between the palms, at intervals of a hundred bow lengths?’
So that’s what he did. The lotus ponds were lined with tiles of four colors, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal.
And four flights of stairs of four colors descended into each lotus pond, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal. The golden stairs had posts of gold, and banisters and finials of silver. The silver stairs had posts of silver, and banisters and finials of gold. The beryl stairs had posts of beryl, and banisters and finials of crystal. The crystal stairs had posts of crystal, and banisters and finials of beryl. Those lotus ponds were surrounded by two balustrades, made of gold and silver. The golden balustrades had posts of gold, and banisters and finials of silver. The silver balustrades had posts of silver, and banisters and finials of gold.
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘Why don’t I plant flowers in the lotus ponds such as blue water lilies, and lotuses of pink, yellow, and white, blooming all year round, and accessible to the public?’ So that’s what he did.
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘Why don’t I appoint bath attendants to help bathe the people who come to bathe in the lotus ponds?’ So that’s what he did.
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘Why don’t I set up charities on the banks of the lotus ponds, so that those in need of food, drink, clothes, vehicles, beds, women, coined gold, or uncoined gold can get what they need?’1233 So that’s what he did.
Then the brahmins and householders came to the king bringing abundant wealth and said,1234 ‘Sire, this abundant wealth is specially for you alone; may Your Highness accept it!’
‘There’s enough raised for me through regular taxes. Let this be for you; and here, take even more!’
When the king turned them down, they withdrew to one side to think up a plan, ‘It wouldn’t be proper for us to take this abundant wealth back to our own homes. Why don’t we build a home for King Mahāsudassana?’
They went up to the king and said, ‘We shall have a home built for you, sire!’ King Mahāsudassana consented with silence.
And then Sakka, lord of gods, knowing the king’s train of thought, addressed the godling Vissakamma, ‘Come, dear Vissakamma, build a palace named Principle as a home for King Mahāsudassana.’1235
‘Yes, lord,’ replied Vissakamma. Then, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, he vanished from the gods of the thirty-three and appeared in front of King Mahāsudassana.
Vissakamma said to the king, ‘I shall build a palace named Principle as a home for you, sire.’ King Mahāsudassana consented with silence.
And so that’s what Vissakamma did.
The Palace of Principle stretched for a league from east to west, and half a league from north to south. It was lined with tiles of four colors, three fathoms high, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal.
It had 84,000 pillars of four colors, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal. It was covered with panels of four colors, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal.
It had twenty-four staircases of four colors, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal. The golden stairs had posts of gold, and banisters and finials of silver. The silver stairs had posts of silver, and banisters and finials of gold. The beryl stairs had posts of beryl, and banisters and finials of crystal. The crystal stairs had posts of crystal, and banisters and finials of beryl.
It had 84,000 chambers of four colors,1236 made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal. In each chamber a couch was spread: in the golden chamber a couch of silver; in the silver chamber a couch of gold; in the beryl chamber a couch of ivory; in the crystal chamber a couch of hardwood. At the door of the golden chamber stood a palm tree of silver, with trunk of silver, and leaves and fruits of gold. At the door of the silver chamber stood a palm tree of gold, with trunk of gold, and leaves and fruits of silver. At the door of the beryl chamber stood a palm tree of crystal, with trunk of crystal, and leaves and fruits of beryl. At the door of the crystal chamber stood a palm tree of beryl, with trunk of beryl, and leaves and fruits of crystal.
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘Why don’t I build a grove of golden palm trees at the door to the great foyer, where I can sit for the day?’ So that’s what he did.
The Palace of Principle was surrounded by two balustrades, made of gold and silver. The golden balustrades had posts of gold, and banisters and finials of silver. The silver balustrades had posts of silver, and banisters and finials of gold.
The Palace of Principle was surrounded by two nets of bells, made of gold and silver. The golden net had bells of silver, and the silver net had bells of gold. When those nets of bells were blown by the wind they sounded graceful, tantalizing, sensuous, lovely, and intoxicating, like a quintet made up of skilled musicians who had practiced well and kept excellent rhythm. And any addicts, carousers, or drunkards in Kusāvatī at that time were entertained by that sound. When it was finished, the palace was hard to look at, dazzling to the eyes. It was like how in the last month of the rainy season, in autumn, when the heavens are clear and cloudless, as the sun is rising to the firmament, it is hard to look at, dazzling to the eyes.
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘Why don’t I build a lotus pond named Principle in front of the palace?’ So that’s what he did. The Lotus Pond of Principle stretched for a league from east to west, and half a league from north to south. It was lined with tiles of four colors, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal.
It had twenty-four staircases of four colors, made of gold, silver, beryl, and crystal. The golden stairs had posts of gold, and banisters and finials of silver. The silver stairs had posts of silver, and banisters and finials of gold. The beryl stairs had posts of beryl, and banisters and finials of crystal. The crystal stairs had posts of crystal, and banisters and finials of beryl.
It was surrounded by two balustrades, made of gold and silver. The golden balustrades had posts of gold, and banisters and finials of silver. The silver balustrades had posts of silver, and banisters and finials of gold.
It was surrounded by seven rows of palm trees, made of gold, silver, beryl, crystal, ruby, emerald, and all precious things. The golden palms had trunks of gold, and leaves and fruits of silver. The silver palms had trunks of silver, and leaves and fruits of gold. The beryl palms had trunks of beryl, and leaves and fruits of crystal. The crystal palms had trunks of crystal, and leaves and fruits of beryl. The ruby palms had trunks of ruby, and leaves and fruits of emerald. The emerald palms had trunks of emerald, and leaves and fruits of ruby. The palms of all precious things had trunks of all precious things, and leaves and fruits of all precious things. When those rows of palm trees were blown by the wind they sounded graceful, tantalizing, sensuous, lovely, and intoxicating, like a quintet made up of skilled musicians who had practiced well and kept excellent rhythm. And any addicts, carousers, or drunkards in Kusāvatī at that time were entertained by that sound.
When the palace and its lotus pond were finished, King Mahāsudassana served those who were deemed true ascetics and brahmins with all they desired. Then he ascended the Palace of Principle.
The first recitation section.
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘Of what deed of mine is this the fruit and result, that I am now so mighty and powerful?’
Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘It is the fruit and result of three kinds of deeds:1237 giving, self-control, and restraint.’
Then he went to the great foyer, stood at the door, and expressed this heartfelt sentiment:1238 ‘Stop here, sensual, malicious, and cruel thoughts—1239 no further!’
Then he entered the great foyer and sat on the golden couch. Quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, he entered and remained in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected.1240 As the placing of the mind and keeping it connected were stilled, he entered and remained in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. And with the fading away of rapture, he entered and remained in the third absorption, where he meditated with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ With the giving up of pleasure and pain, and the ending of former happiness and sadness, he entered and remained in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness.
Then King Mahāsudassana left the great foyer and entered the golden chamber, where he sat on the golden couch. He meditated spreading a heart full of love to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way he spread a heart full of love above, below, across, everywhere, all around, to everyone in the world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. He meditated spreading a heart full of compassion … He meditated spreading a heart full of rejoicing … He meditated spreading a heart full of equanimity to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, he spread a heart full of equanimity to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will.
King Mahāsudassana had 84,000 cities, with the royal capital of Kusāvatī foremost. He had 84,000 palaces, with the Palace of Principle foremost. He had 84,000 chambers, with the great foyer foremost. He had 84,000 couches made of gold, silver, ivory, and hardwood. They were spread with woollen covers—shag-piled, pure white, or embroidered with flowers—and spread with a fine deer hide, with a canopy above and red pillows at both ends.1241 He had 84,000 bull elephants with gold adornments and banners, covered with snow gold netting, with the royal bull elephant named Sabbath foremost. He had 84,000 horses with gold adornments and banners, covered with snow gold netting, with the royal steed named Thundercloud foremost. He had 84,000 chariots upholstered with the hide of lions, tigers, and leopards, and cream rugs, with gold adornments and banners, covered with snow gold netting, with the chariot named Triumph foremost.1242 He had 84,000 jewels, with the jewel-treasure foremost. He had 84,000 women, with Queen Subhaddā foremost. He had 84,000 householders, with the householder-treasure foremost. He had 84,000 aristocrat vassals, with the commander-treasure foremost. He had 84,000 milk-cows with silken reins and bronze pails.1243 He had 8,400,000,000 delicate cloths of linen, cotton, silk, and wool. He had 84,000 servings of food, which were presented to him as offerings in the morning and evening.
Now at that time his 84,000 royal elephants came to attend on him in the morning and evening. Then King Mahāsudassana thought, ‘What if instead half of the elephants took turns to attend on me at the end of each century?’1244 He instructed the commander-treasure to do this, and so it was done.
Then, after many years, many hundred years, many thousand years had passed, Queen Subhaddā thought, ‘It is long since I have seen the king. Why don’t I go to see him?’
So the queen addressed the ladies of the harem, ‘Come, bathe your heads and dress in yellow. It is long since we saw the king, and we shall go to see him.’
‘Yes, ma’am,’ replied the ladies of the harem. They did as she asked and returned to the queen.
Then the queen addressed the commander-treasure, ‘Dear commander-treasure, please ready the army of four divisions. It is long since we saw the king, and we shall go to see him.’
‘Yes, my queen,’ he replied, and did as he was asked. He informed the queen, ‘My queen, the army of four divisions is ready, please go at your convenience.’
Then Queen Subhaddā together with the ladies of the harem went with the army to the Palace of Principle. She ascended the palace and went to the great foyer, where she stood leaning against a door-post.1245
Hearing them, the king thought, ‘What’s that, it sounds like a big crowd!’ Coming out of the foyer he saw Queen Subhaddā leaning against a door-post and said to her, ‘Please stay there, my queen, don’t enter in here.’1246
Then he addressed a certain man, ‘Come, worthy man, bring the golden couch from the great foyer and set it up in the golden palm grove.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ that man replied, and did as he was asked. The king laid down in the lion’s posture—on the right side, placing one foot on top of the other—mindful and aware.
Then Queen Subhaddā thought, ‘The king’s faculties are so very clear, and the complexion of his skin is pure and bright. Let him not pass away!’ She said to him,1247 ‘Sire, you have 84,000 cities, with the royal capital of Kusāvatī foremost. Arouse desire for these! Take an interest in life!’1248
And she likewise urged the king to live on by taking an interest in all his possessions as described above.
When the queen had spoken, the king said to her, ‘For a long time, my queen, you have spoken to me with words that are welcome, desirable, agreeable, and pleasant. And yet in my final hour, your words are unwelcome, undesirable, disagreeable, and unpleasant!’1249
‘Then how exactly, Your Majesty, am I to speak to you?’
‘Like this, my queen: “Sire, we must be parted and separated from all we hold dear and beloved. Don’t pass away with concerns. Such concern is suffering, and it’s criticized.1250 Sire, you have 84,000 cities, with the royal capital of Kusāvatī foremost. Give up desire for these! Take no interest in life!”’ And so on for all the king’s possessions.
When the king had spoken, Queen Subhaddā cried and burst out in tears.1251 Wiping away her tears, the queen said to the king: ‘Sire, we must be parted and separated from all we hold dear and beloved. Don’t pass away with concerns. Such concern is suffering, and it’s criticized. Sire, you have 84,000 cities, with the royal capital of Kusāvatī foremost. Give up desire for these! Take no interest in life!’ And she continued, listing all the king’s possessions.
Not long after that, King Mahāsudassana passed away. And the feeling he had close to death was like a householder or their child falling asleep after eating a satisfying meal.1252
When he passed away King Mahāsudassana was reborn in a good place, a realm of divinity. Ānanda, King Mahāsudassana played children’s games for 84,000 years. He ruled as viceroy for 84,000 years. He ruled as king for 84,000 years. He led the spiritual life as a layman in the Palace of Principle for 84,000 years. And having developed the four divine meditations, when his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in a good place, a realm of divinity.
Now, Ānanda, you might think: ‘Surely King Mahāsudassana must have been someone else at that time?’ But you should not see it like that. I myself was King Mahāsudassana at that time.1253
Mine were the 84,000 cities, with the royal capital of Kusāvatī foremost. And mine were all the other possessions.
Of those 84,000 cities, I only stayed in one, the capital Kusāvatī. Of those 84,000 mansions, I only dwelt in one, the Palace of Principle. Of those 84,000 chambers, I only dwelt in the great foyer. Of those 84,000 couches, I only used one, made of gold or silver or ivory or heartwood. Of those 84,000 bull elephants, I only rode one, the royal bull elephant named Sabbath. Of those 84,000 horses, I only rode one, the royal horse named Thundercloud. Of those 84,000 chariots, I only rode one, the chariot named Triumph. Of those 84,000 women, I was only served by one, a maiden of the aristocratic or peasant classes.1254 Of those 8,400,000,000 cloths, I only wore one pair, made of delicate linen, cotton, silk, or wool. Of those 84,000 servings of food, I only had one, eating at most a cup of rice with suitable sauce.
See, Ānanda! All those conditioned phenomena have passed, ceased, and perished. So impermanent are conditions, so unstable are conditions, so unreliable are conditions. This is quite enough for you to become disillusioned, dispassionate, and freed regarding all conditions.
Six times, Ānanda, I recall having laid down my body at this place. And the seventh time was as a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king, at which time my dominion extended to all four sides, I achieved stability in the country, and I possessed the seven treasures. But Ānanda, I do not see any place in this world with its gods, Māras, and Divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its gods and humans where the Realized One would lay down his body for the eighth time.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“Oh! Conditions are impermanent,
their nature is to rise and fall;
having arisen, they cease;
their stilling is such bliss.”
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying at Ñātika in the brick house.1255
Now at that time the Buddha was explaining the rebirths of devotees all over the nations; the Kāsis and Kosalans, Vajjis and Mallas, Cetīs and Vacchas, Kurus and Pañcālas, Macchas and Sūrasenas:1256
“This one was reborn here, while that one was reborn there.
Over fifty devotees in Ñātika have passed away having ended the five lower fetters. They’ve been reborn spontaneously, and will be extinguished there, not liable to return from that world.1257
More than ninety devotees in Ñātika have passed away having ended three fetters, and weakened greed, hate, and delusion. They’re once-returners, who will come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering.
More than five hundred devotees in Ñātika have passed away having ended three fetters. They’re stream-enterers, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.”
When the devotees of Ñātika heard about the Buddha’s answers to those questions, they became uplifted and overjoyed, full of rapture and happiness.
Venerable Ānanda heard of the Buddha’s statements and the Ñātikans’ happiness.
Then Venerable Ānanda thought, “But there were also Magadhan devotees—many, and of long standing too—who have passed away.1258 You’d think that Aṅga and Magadha were empty of devotees who have passed away! But they too had confidence in the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, and had fulfilled their ethics. The Buddha hasn’t declared their passing. It would be good to do so, for many people would gain confidence, and so be reborn in a good place.
That King Seniya Bimbisāra of Magadha was a just and principled king who benefited the brahmins and householders, and people of town and country.1259 People still sing his praises: ‘That just and principled king, who made us so happy, has passed away. Life was good under his dominion.’1260 He too had confidence in the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, and had fulfilled his ethics. People say: ‘Until his dying day, King Bimbisāra sang the Buddha’s praises!’1261 The Buddha hasn’t declared his passing. It would be good to do so, for many people would gain confidence, and so be reborn in a good place.
Besides, the Buddha was awakened in Magadha;1262 so why hasn’t he declared the rebirth of the Magadhan devotees? If he fails to do so, they will be dejected.”
After pondering the fate of the Magadhan devotees alone in private, Ānanda rose at the crack of dawn and went to see the Buddha. He bowed, sat down to one side, and told the Buddha of his concerns, finishing by saying, “Why hasn’t the Buddha declared the rebirth of the Magadhan devotees? If he fails to do so, they will be dejected.” Then Ānanda, after making this suggestion regarding the Magadhan devotees, got up from his seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on his right, before leaving.1263
Soon after Ānanda had left, the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Ñātika for alms. He wandered for alms in Ñātika. After the meal, on his return from almsround, he washed his feet and entered the brick house. He paid attention, applied the mind, and concentrated wholeheartedly on the fate of Magadhan devotees, and sat on the seat spread out, thinking,1264 “I shall know their destiny, where they are reborn in the next life.” And he saw where they had been reborn.
Then in the late afternoon, the Buddha came out of retreat. Emerging from the brick house, he sat on the seat spread out in the shade of the porch.
Then Venerable Ānanda went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him, “Sir, you look so serene; your face seems to shine owing to the clarity of your faculties. Have you been abiding in a peaceful meditation today, sir?”
The Buddha then recounted what had happened since speaking to Ānanda, revealing that he had seen the destiny of the Magadhan devotees. He continued:
“Then, Ānanda, an invisible spirit called out: ‘I am Janavasabha, Blessed One! I am Janavasabha, Holy One!’ Ānanda, do you recall having previously heard such a name as Janavasabha?”1265
“No, worthy sir. But when I heard the word, I got goosebumps! I thought, ‘This must be no ordinary spirit to bear such an exalted name as Janavasabha.’”1266
“After making himself heard while vanished, Ānanda, a very beautiful spirit appeared in front of me.1267 And for a second time he called out: ‘I am Bimbisāra, Blessed One! I am Bimbisāra, Holy One! This is the seventh time I am reborn in the company of the Great King Vessavaṇa. When I pass away from here, I can become a king of men.1268
Seven from here, seven from there—
fourteen transmigrations in all.1269
I remember these lives
where I lived before.
For a long time I’ve known that I won’t be reborn in the underworld, but that I still hope to become a once-returner.’1270
‘It’s incredible and amazing that you, the venerable spirit Janavasabha, should say:
“For a long time I’ve been aware that I won’t be reborn in the underworld” and also “But I still hope to become a once-returner.” But from what source do you know that you’ve achieved such a high distinction?’1271
‘None other than the Blessed One’s instruction! None other than the Holy One’s instruction!1272 From the day I had absolute devotion to the Buddha I have known that I won’t be reborn in the underworld, but that I still hope to become a once-returner. Just now, sir, I had been sent out by the great king Vessavaṇa to the great king Virūḷhaka’s presence on some business, and on the way I saw the Buddha giving his attention to the fate of the Magadhan devotees. But it comes as no surprise that I have heard and learned the fate of the Magadhan devotees in the presence of the great king Vessavaṇa as he was speaking to his assembly. It occurred to me, “I shall see the Buddha and inform him of this.” These are the two reasons I’ve come to see the Buddha.
Sir, it was more than a few days ago—on the fifteenth day sabbath on the full moon day at the entry to the rainy season—when all the gods of the thirty-three were sitting together in the Hall of Justice.1273 A large assembly of gods was sitting all around, and the four great kings were seated at the four quarters.1274
The Great King Dhataraṭṭha was seated to the east, facing west, in front of his gods. The Great King Virūḷhaka was seated to the south, facing north, in front of his gods. The Great King Virūpakkha was seated to the west, facing east, in front of his gods. The Great King Vessavaṇa was seated to the north, facing south, in front of his gods. When the gods of the thirty-three have a gathering like this, that is how they are seated. After that come our seats.
Sir, those gods who had been recently reborn in the company of the thirty-three after leading the spiritual life under the Buddha outshone the other gods in beauty and glory. The gods of the thirty-three became uplifted and overjoyed at that, full of rapture and happiness, saying, “The heavenly hosts swell, while the titan hosts dwindle!”
Seeing the joy of those gods, Sakka, lord of gods, celebrated with these verses:
“The gods rejoice—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching;and seeing the new gods,
so beautiful and glorious,
who have come here after leading
the spiritual life under the Buddha!They outshine the others
in beauty, glory, and lifespan.
Here are the distinguished disciples
of he whose wisdom is vast.Seeing this, they delight—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching.”
The gods of the thirty-three became even more uplifted and overjoyed at that, saying: “The heavenly hosts swell, while the titan hosts dwindle!”
Then the gods of the thirty-three, having considered and deliberated on the matter for which they were seated together in the Hall of Justice, advised and instructed the four great kings on the subject. Each one, having been advised, stood at his own seat without leaving.1275
The Kings were instructed,
and heeded good advice.
With clear and peaceful minds,
they stood by their own seats.
Then in the northern quarter a magnificent light arose and radiance appeared, surpassing the glory of the gods.1276 Then Sakka, lord of gods, addressed the gods of the thirty-three, “As indicated by the signs—light arising and radiance appearing—The Divinity will appear. For this is the precursor for the appearance of the Divinity, namely light arising and radiance appearing.”
As indicated by the signs,
The Divinity will appear.
For this is the sign of the Divinity:
a light vast and great.
Then the gods of the thirty-three sat in their own seats, saying, “We shall find out what has caused that light, and only when we have realized it shall we go to it.”1277 And the four great kings did likewise.
Hearing that, the gods of the thirty-three agreed in unison, “We shall find out what has caused that light, and only when we have realized it shall we go to it.”
When the divinity Sanaṅkumāra appears to the gods of the thirty-three, he does so after manifesting in a solid life-form.1278 For a Divinity’s normal appearance is imperceptible in the visual range of the gods of the thirty-three.1279 When the divinity Sanaṅkumāra appears to the gods of the thirty-three, he outshines the other gods in beauty and glory, as a golden statue outshines the human form.1280
When the divinity Sanaṅkumāra appears to the gods of the thirty-three, not a single god in that assembly greets him by bowing down or rising up or inviting him to a seat. They all sit silently on their couches with their joined palms raised, thinking, “Now the divinity Sanaṅkumāra will sit on the couch of whatever god he chooses.” And the god on whose couch the Divinity sits is overjoyed and brimming with happiness, like a king on the day of his coronation.
Then the divinity Sanaṅkumāra manifested in a solid life-form, taking on the appearance of the youth Pañcasikha, and appeared to the gods of the thirty-three.1281 Rising into the air, he sat cross-legged in the sky, like a strong man might sit cross-legged on a well-appointed couch or on level ground. Seeing the joy of those gods, the divinity Sanaṅkumāra celebrated with these verses:
“The gods rejoice—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching;and seeing the new gods,
so beautiful and glorious,
who have come here after leading
the spiritual life under the Buddha!They outshine the others
in beauty, glory, and lifespan.
Here are the distinguished disciples
of he whose wisdom is vast.Seeing this, they delight—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching!”
That is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke.1282 And while he was speaking on that topic, his voice had eight qualities: it was clear, comprehensible, charming, audible, lucid, undistorted, deep, and resonant.1283 He makes sure his voice is intelligible as far as the assembly goes, but the sound doesn’t extend outside the assembly. When someone has a voice like this, they’re said to have the voice of the Divinity.
Then the divinity Sanaṅkumāra, having manifested thirty-three life-forms, sat down on the couches of each of the gods of the thirty-three and addressed them, “What do the good gods of the thirty-three think? How the Buddha has acted for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans!1284 For consider those who have gone for refuge to the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, and have fulfilled their ethics. When their bodies break up, after death, some are reborn in the company of the gods who control what is imagined by others, some with the gods who love to imagine, some with the joyful gods, some with the gods of Yama, some with the gods of the thirty-three, and some with the gods of the four great kings.1285 And at the very least they swell the hosts of the centaurs.”
That is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke. And hearing the sound of the Divinity speaking on that topic, the gods fancied, “The one sitting on my couch is the only one speaking.”
When one is speaking,
all the forms speak.
When one sits in silence,
they all remain silent.But those gods imagine—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
that the one on their seat
is the only one to speak.
Next the divinity Sanaṅkumāra merged into one corporeal form. Then he sat on the couch of Sakka, lord of gods, and addressed the gods of the thirty-three:1286
“What do the good gods of the thirty-three think? How well described by the Blessed One—who knows and sees, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha—are the four bases of psychic power! They are taught for the amplification, burgeoning, and transformation of psychic power.1287 What four? It’s when a mendicant develops the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to enthusiasm, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to energy, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to mental development, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to inquiry, and active effort. These are the four bases of psychic power taught by the Buddha for the amplification, burgeoning, and transformation of psychic power.
All the ascetics and brahmins in the past, future, or present who wield the many kinds of psychic power do so by developing and cultivating these four bases of psychic power. Gentlemen, do you see such psychic might and power in me?”
“Yes, Great Divinity.”
“I too became so mighty and powerful by developing and cultivating these four bases of psychic power.”
That is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke. And having spoken about that, he addressed the gods of the thirty-three:
“What do the good gods of the thirty-three think? How well understood by the Buddha are the three opportunities for achieving happiness!1288 What three?
First, take someone who lives mixed up with sensual pleasures and unskillful qualities.1289 After some time they hear the teaching of the noble ones, rationally apply the mind to how it applies to them, and practice accordingly. They live aloof from sensual pleasures and unskillful qualities.1290 That gives rise to pleasure, and more than pleasure, happiness,1291 like the joy that’s born from gladness. This is the first opportunity for achieving happiness.
Next, take someone whose coarse physical, verbal, and mental processes have not died down.1292 After some time they hear the teaching of the noble ones, rationally apply the mind to how it applies to them, and practice accordingly. Their coarse physical, verbal, and mental processes die down. That gives rise to pleasure, and more than pleasure, happiness, like the joy that’s born from gladness. This is the second opportunity for achieving happiness.
Next, take someone who doesn’t truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful,1293 what is blameworthy and what is blameless, what should be cultivated and what should not be cultivated, what is inferior and what is superior, and what is on the side of dark and the side of bright. After some time they hear the teaching of the noble ones, rationally apply the mind to how it applies to them, and practice accordingly. They truly understand what is skillful and what is unskillful, and so on. Knowing and seeing like this, ignorance is given up and knowledge arises. That gives rise to pleasure, and more than pleasure, happiness, like the joy that’s born from gladness. This is the third opportunity for achieving happiness.
These are the three opportunities for achieving happiness that have been understood by the Buddha.”
That is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke. And having spoken about that, he addressed the gods of the thirty-three:
“What do the good gods of the thirty-three think? How well described by the Buddha are the four kinds of mindfulness meditation! They are taught for achieving what is skillful.1294 What four?
It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body internally—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. As they meditate in this way, they become rightly immersed in that, and rightly serene. Then they give rise to knowledge and vision of other people’s bodies externally.1295
They meditate observing an aspect of feelings internally … Then they give rise to knowledge and vision of other people’s feelings externally.
They meditate observing an aspect of the mind internally … Then they give rise to knowledge and vision of other people’s minds externally.
They meditate observing an aspect of principles internally—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. As they meditate in this way, they become rightly immersed in that, and rightly serene. Then they give rise to knowledge and vision of other people’s principles externally.
These are the four kinds of mindfulness meditation taught by the Buddha for achieving what is skillful.”
That is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke. And having spoken about that, he addressed the gods of the thirty-three:
“What do the good gods of the thirty-three think? How well described by the Buddha are the seven prerequisites of immersion for the development and fulfillment of right immersion!1296 What seven? Right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, and right mindfulness. Unification of mind with these seven factors as prerequisites is what is called noble right immersion ‘with its vital conditions’ and also ‘with its prerequisites’.
Right view produces right thought. Right thought produces right speech. Right speech produces right action. Right action produces right livelihood. Right livelihood produces right effort. Right effort produces right mindfulness. Right mindfulness produces right immersion. Right immersion produces right knowledge. Right knowledge produces right freedom.1297
If anything should be rightly described as ‘a teaching that’s well explained by the Buddha, apparent in the present life, immediately effective, inviting inspection, relevant, so that sensible people can know it for themselves; and the doors to freedom from death are flung open,’ it’s this.1298 For the teaching is well explained by the Buddha—apparent in the present life, immediately effective, inviting inspection, relevant, so that sensible people can know it for themselves—and the doors to freedom from death are flung open.
Whoever has experiential confidence in the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, and has the ethical conduct loved by the noble ones; and whoever is spontaneously reborn, and is trained in the teaching; more than 2,400,000 such Magadhan devotees have passed away having ended three fetters. They’re stream-enterers, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.1299 And there are once-returners here, too.
And as for the rest of folk,1300
who I think have shared in merit—
I couldn’t even number them,
for fear of speaking falsely.”
That is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke. And while he was speaking on that topic, this thought came to the great king Vessavaṇa, “Oh lord, how incredible, how amazing! That there should be such a magnificent Teacher, and such a magnificent exposition of the teaching! And that such achievements of high distinction should be made known!”
And then the divinity Sanaṅkumāra, knowing the great king Vessavaṇa’s train of thought, said to him, “What does Great King Vessavaṇa think? In the past, too, there was such a magnificent Teacher, and such a magnificent exposition of the teaching! And such achievements of high distinction were made known!1301 In the future, too, there will be such a magnificent Teacher, and such a magnificent exposition of the teaching! And such achievements of high distinction will be made known!”
That, sir, is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke to the gods of the thirty-three. And the great king Vessavaṇa, having heard and learned it in the presence of the Divinity as he was speaking on that topic, informed his own assembly.’”1302
And the spirit Janavasabha, having heard and learned it in the presence of the great king Vessavaṇa as he was speaking on that topic to his own assembly, informed the Buddha. And the Buddha, having heard and learned it in the presence of the spirit Janavasabha, and also from his own direct knowledge, informed Venerable Ānanda. And Venerable Ānanda, having heard and learned it in the presence of the Buddha, informed the monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.1303 And that’s how this spiritual life has become successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans.1304
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Rājagaha, on the Vulture’s Peak Mountain.
Then, late at night, the centaur Pañcasikha, lighting up the entire Vulture’s Peak, went up to the Buddha, bowed, stood to one side, and said to him,1305 “Sir, I would tell you of what I heard and learned directly from the gods of the thirty-three.”
“Tell me, Pañcasikha,” said the Buddha.
“Sir, it was more than a few days ago—on the fifteenth day sabbath on the full moon day at the invitation to admonish held at the end of the rainy season—when all the gods of the thirty-three were sitting together in the Hall of Justice.1306 A large assembly of gods was sitting all around, and the four great kings were seated at the four quarters.
The Great King Dhataraṭṭha was seated to the east, facing west, in front of his gods. The Great King Virūḷhaka was seated to the south, facing north, in front of his gods. The Great King Virūpakkha was seated to the west, facing east, in front of his gods. The Great King Vessavaṇa was seated to the north, facing south, in front of his gods.
When the gods of the thirty-three have a gathering like this, that is how they are seated. After that come our seats.
Sir, those gods who had been recently reborn in the company of the thirty-three after leading the spiritual life under the Buddha outshine the other gods in beauty and glory. The gods of the thirty-three became uplifted and overjoyed at that, full of rapture and happiness, saying, ‘The heavenly hosts swell, while the titan hosts dwindle!’
Seeing the joy of those gods, Sakka, lord of gods, celebrated with these verses:
‘The gods rejoice—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching;and seeing the new gods,
so beautiful and glorious,
who have come here after leading
the spiritual life under the Buddha!They outshine the others
in beauty, glory, and lifespan.
Here are the distinguished disciples
of he whose wisdom is vast.Seeing this, they delight—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching!’
The gods of the thirty-three became even more uplifted and overjoyed at that, full of rapture and happiness, saying, ‘The heavenly hosts swell, while the titan hosts dwindle!’
Seeing the joy of those gods, Sakka, lord of gods, addressed them, ‘Gentlemen, would you like to hear eight genuine praises of the Buddha?’1307
‘Indeed we would, sir.’
Then Sakka proffered these eight genuine praises of the Buddha:1308
‘What do the good gods of the thirty-three think?1309 How the Buddha has acted for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans! I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, who has such sympathy for the world, apart from the Buddha.
Also, the Buddha has explained the teaching well—apparent in the present life, immediately effective, inviting inspection, relevant, so that sensible people can know it for themselves. I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, who explains such a relevant teaching, apart from the Buddha.
Also, the Buddha has well described what is skillful and what is unskillful,1310 what is blameworthy and what is blameless, what should be cultivated and what should not be cultivated, what is inferior and what is superior, and what is on the side of dark and the side of bright. I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, who so clearly describes all these things, apart from the Buddha.
Also, the Buddha has well described the practice that leads to extinguishment for his disciples. And extinguishment converges with the practice,1311 as the waters of the Ganges come together and converge with the waters of the Yamuna.1312 I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, who so clearly describes the practice that leads to extinguishment for his disciples, apart from the Buddha.
Also, possessions and popularity have accrued to the Buddha, so much that you’d think it would thrill even the aristocrats. But he takes his food free of vanity.1313 I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, who takes their food so free of vanity, apart from the Buddha.
Also, the Buddha has gained companions, both trainees who are practicing, and those with defilements ended who have completed their journey.1314 The Buddha is committed to the joy of solitude, but doesn’t send them away.1315 I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, so committed to the joy of solitude, apart from the Buddha.
Also, the Buddha does as he says, and says as he does, thus: he does as he says, and says as he does.1316 I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, who so practices in line with the teaching, apart from the Buddha.
Also, the Buddha has gone beyond doubt and got rid of indecision. He has achieved all he wished for regarding the fundamental purpose of the spiritual life.1317 I don’t see any Teacher, past or present, who has achieved these things, apart from the Buddha.’
These are the eight genuine praises of the Buddha proffered by Sakka. Hearing them, the gods of the thirty-three became even more uplifted and overjoyed.
Then some gods thought, ‘If only four fully awakened Buddhas might arise in the world and teach the Dhamma, just like the Blessed One! That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans!’
Other gods thought, ‘Let alone four fully awakened Buddhas; if only three fully awakened Buddhas, or two fully awakened Buddhas might arise in the world and teach the Dhamma, just like the Blessed One! That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans!’
When they said this, Sakka said, ‘It is impossible, gentlemen, for two perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas to arise in the same solar system at the same time.1318 May that Blessed One be healthy and well, and remain with us for a long time!1319 That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans!’
Then the gods of the thirty-three, having considered and deliberated on the matter for which they were seated together in the Hall of Justice, advised and instructed the four great kings on the subject. Each one, having been advised, stood at his own seat without leaving.
The Kings were instructed,
and heeded good advice.
With clear and peaceful minds,
they stood by their own seats.
Then in the northern quarter a magnificent light arose and radiance appeared, surpassing the glory of the gods. Then Sakka, lord of gods, addressed the gods of the thirty-three, ‘As indicated by the signs—light arising and radiance appearing—the Divinity will appear. For this is the precursor for the appearance of the Divinity, namely light arising and radiance appearing.’
As indicated by the signs,
the Divinity will appear.
For this is the sign of the Divinity:
a light vast and great.
Then the gods of the thirty-three sat in their own seats, saying, ‘We shall find out what has caused that light, and only when we have realized it shall we go to it.’ And the four great kings did likewise. Hearing that, the gods of the thirty-three agreed in unison, ‘We shall find out what has caused that light, and only when we have realized it shall we go to it.’
When the divinity Sanaṅkumāra appears to the gods of the thirty-three, he does so after manifesting in a solid corporeal form. For a Divinity’s normal appearance is imperceptible in the visual range of the gods of the thirty-three. When the divinity Sanaṅkumāra appears to the gods of the thirty-three, he outshines the other gods in beauty and glory, as a golden statue outshines the human form. When the divinity Sanaṅkumāra appears to the gods of the thirty-three, not a single god in that assembly greets him by bowing down or rising up or inviting him to a seat. They all sit silently on their couches with their joined palms raised, thinking, ‘Now the divinity Sanaṅkumāra will sit on the couch of whatever god he chooses.’ And the god on whose couch the Divinity sits is overjoyed and brimming with happiness, like a king on the day of his coronation.
Seeing the joy of those gods, the divinity Sanaṅkumāra celebrated with these verses:
‘The gods rejoice—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching;and seeing the new gods,
so beautiful and glorious,
who have come here after leading
the spiritual life under the Buddha!They outshine the others
in beauty, glory, and lifespan.
Here are the distinguished disciples
of he whose wisdom is vast.Seeing this, they delight—
the thirty-three with their Lord—
revering the Realized One,
and the natural excellence of the teaching!’
That is the topic on which the divinity Sanaṅkumāra spoke. And while he was speaking on that topic, his voice had eight qualities: it was clear, comprehensible, charming, audible, lucid, undistorted, deep, and resonant. He makes sure his voice is intelligible as far as the assembly goes, but the sound doesn’t extend outside the assembly. When someone has a voice like this, they’re said to have the voice of the Divinity.
Then the gods of the thirty-three said to the divinity Sanaṅkumāra, ‘Good, Great Divinity! Having appraised this, we rejoice.1320 And there are the eight genuine praises of the Buddha spoken by Sakka—having appraised them, too, we rejoice.’
Then the Divinity said to Sakka, ‘It would be good, lord of gods, if I could also hear the eight genuine praises of the Buddha.’
Saying, ‘Yes, Great Divinity,’ Sakka repeated the eight genuine praises for him.
Hearing them, the divinity Sanaṅkumāra was uplifted and overjoyed, full of rapture and happiness. Then the divinity Sanaṅkumāra manifested in a solid corporeal form, taking on the appearance of the youth Pañcasikha, and appeared to the gods of the thirty-three. Rising into the air, he sat cross-legged in the sky, like a strong man might sit cross-legged on a well-appointed couch or on level ground. There he addressed the gods of the thirty-three:
‘What do the gods of the thirty-three think about the extent of the Buddha’s great wisdom?
Once upon a time, there was a king named Disampati.1321 He had a brahmin high priest named the Steward.1322 Disampati’s son was the prince named Reṇu,1323 while the Steward’s son was the student named Jotipāla.1324 There were Reṇu the prince, Jotipāla the student, and six other aristocrats; these eight became friends.
In due course the brahmin Steward passed away. At his passing, King Disampati lamented, “At a time when I have relinquished all my duties to the brahmin Steward and amuse myself, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation, he passes away!”1325
When he said this, Prince Reṇu said to him, “Sire, don’t lament too much at the Steward’s passing. He has a son named Jotipāla, who is even more astute and expert than his father. He should manage the affairs that were managed by his father.”
“Is that so, my prince?”
“That is so, sire.”
So King Disampati addressed one of his men, “Please, worthy man, go to the student Jotipāla, and say to him, ‘Best wishes, Jotipāla! You are summoned by King Disampati; he wants to see you.’”
“Yes, Your Majesty,” replied that man, and did as he was asked. Then Jotipāla went to the king and exchanged greetings with him.
When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side, and the king said to him, “May you, Jotipāla, manage my affairs—please don’t turn me down! I shall appoint you to your father’s position, and anoint you as Steward.”1326
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied Jotipāla.
So the king anointed him as Steward and appointed him to his father’s position. After his appointment, the Steward Jotipāla managed both the affairs that his father had managed, and other affairs that his father had not managed.1327 He organized both the works that his father had organized, and other works that his father had not organized. When people noticed this they said, “The brahmin is indeed a Steward, a Great Steward!” And that’s how the student Jotipāla came to be known as the Great Steward.
Then the Great Steward went to the six aristocrats and said, “King Disampati is old, elderly and senior, advanced in years, and has reached the final stage of life. Who knows how long he has to live? It’s likely that when he passes away the king-makers will anoint Prince Reṇu as king. Come, sirs, go to Prince Reṇu and say, ‘Prince Reṇu, we are your friends, dear, beloved, and cherished. We have shared your joys and sorrows. King Disampati is old, elderly and senior, advanced in years, and has reached the final stage of life. Who knows how long he has to live? It’s likely that when he passes away the king-makers will anoint you as king. If you should gain kingship, share it with us.’”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the six aristocrats. They went to Prince Reṇu and put the proposal to him.
The prince replied, “Who else, sirs, in my realm ought to prosper if not you?1328 If I gain kingship, I will share it with you all.”
In due course King Disampati passed away. At his passing, the king-makers anointed Prince Reṇu as king. But after being anointed, King Reṇu amused himself, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation.
Then the Great Steward went to the six aristocrats and said, “King Disampati has passed away. But after being anointed, King Reṇu amused himself, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation. Who knows the intoxicating power of sensual pleasures? Come, sirs, go to Prince Reṇu and say, ‘Worthy sir, King Disampati has passed away, and you have been anointed as king. Do you remember what you said?’”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the six aristocrats. They went to King Reṇu and said, “Worthy sir, King Disampati has passed away, and you have been anointed as king. Do you remember what you said?”
“I remember, sirs. Who is able to neatly divide into seven equal parts this great land, so broad in the north and narrow as the front of a cart in the south?”1329
“Who else, sir, if not the Great Steward?”
So King Reṇu addressed one of his men, “Please, worthy man, go to the brahmin Great Steward and say that King Reṇu summons him.”
“Yes, Your Majesty,” replied that man, and did as he was asked. Then the Great Steward went to the king and exchanged greetings with him.
When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side, and the king said to him, “Come, let the good Steward neatly divide into seven equal parts this great land, so broad in the north and narrow as the front of a cart in the south.”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the Great Steward, and did as he was asked. All were arranged like the fronts of carts,1330 and right in the middle was King Reṇu’s nation.1331
Dantapura for the Kaliṅgas;1332
Potana for the Assakas;1333
Māhissatī for the Avantis;1334
Roruka for the Sovīras;1335Mithilā for the Videhas;1336
Campā was laid out for the Aṅgas;1337
and Varanasi for the Kāsis:1338
these were laid out by the Steward.
Then those six aristocrats were delighted with their respective gains, having achieved all they wished for, “We have received exactly what we wanted, what we wished for, what we desired, what we yearned for.”
Sattabhū and Brahmadatta,1339
Vessabhū and Bharata,1340
Reṇu and the two Dhataraṭṭhas:
these were the seven Bhāratas.1341
The first recitation section is finished.
Then the six aristocrats approached the Great Steward and said, “Steward, just as you are King Reṇu’s friend, dear, beloved, and cherished, you are also our friend. Would you manage our affairs? Please don’t turn us down!”
“Yes, worthy sirs,” replied the Great Steward. Then the Great Steward managed the realms of the seven kings. And he taught seven well-to-do brahmins, and seven hundred bathed initiates to recite the hymns.
After some time he got this good reputation, “The Great Steward sees the Divinity in person! The Great Steward discusses, converses, and consults with the Divinity in person!”1342
The Great Steward thought, “I have the reputation of seeing the Divinity in person, and discussing with him in person. But I don’t. I have heard that brahmins of the past who were elderly and senior, the tutors of tutors, said: ‘Whoever goes on retreat for the four months of the rainy season and practices the absorption on compassion sees the Divinity and discusses with him.’1343 Why don’t I do that?”
So the Great Steward went to King Reṇu and told him of the situation, saying, “Sir, I wish to go on retreat for the four months of the rainy season and practice the absorption on compassion. No one should approach me, except for the one who serves my meal.”
“Please do so, Steward, at your convenience.”
Then the Great Steward went to the six aristocrats to put the same proposal, and received the same reply.
He also went to the seven well-to-do brahmins and seven hundred bathed initiates and put to them the same proposal, adding, “Sirs, recite the hymns in detail as you have learned and memorized them, and teach each other how to recite.”
And they too said, “Please do so, Steward, at your convenience.”
Then the Great Steward went to his forty equal wives to put the same proposal to them, and received the same reply.
Then the Great Steward had a new ceremonial hall built to the east of his citadel, where he went on retreat for the four months of the rainy season and practiced the absorption on compassion.1344 And no one approached him except the one who served his meals.
But then, when the four months had passed, the Great Steward became dissatisfied and anxious, “I have heard that brahmins of the past said that whoever goes on retreat for the four months of the rainy season and practices the absorption on compassion sees the Divinity and discusses with him. But I neither see the Divinity nor discuss with him.”
And then the divinity Sanaṅkumāra, knowing the Great Steward’s train of thought, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, vanished from the realm of divinity and reappeared in the Great Steward’s presence. At that, the Great Steward became frightened, scared, his hair standing on end, as he had never seen such a sight before. So he addressed the divinity Sanaṅkumāra in verse:
“Who might you be, sir,
so beautiful, glorious, majestic?
Not knowing, I ask—
how am I to know who you are?”“In the realm of divinity they know me
as ‘The Eternal Youth’.
All the gods know me thus,
and so you should know me, Steward.”“A Divinity deserves a seat and water,
foot-salve, and sweet cakes.
Sir, I ask you to please accept
these gifts of hospitality.”“I accept the gifts of hospitality
of which you speak.
I grant you the opportunity
to ask whatever you desire—
about welfare and benefit in this life,
or happiness in lives to come.”
Then the Great Steward thought, “the divinity Sanaṅkumāra has granted me an opportunity. Should I ask him about what is beneficial for this life or lives to come?”
Then he thought, “I’m skilled in what is beneficial for this life, and others even ask me about it. Why don’t I ask the Divinity about the benefit that specifically applies to lives to come?” So he addressed the divinity Sanaṅkumāra in verse:
“I’m in doubt, so I ask the Divinity—
who is free of doubt—
about things one may learn from another.
Standing on what, training in what
may a mortal reach the deathless realm of divinity?”1345“He among mankind, O brahmin, has given up possessiveness,1346
at one, compassionate,
free of putrefaction, and refraining from sex.
Standing on that, training in that
a mortal may reach the deathless realm of divinity.”
“Sir, I understand what ‘giving up possessiveness’ means.1347 It’s when someone gives up a large or small fortune, and a large or small family circle. They shave off hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness. That’s how I understand ‘giving up possessiveness’.
Sir, I understand what ‘at one’ means.1348 It’s when someone frequents a secluded lodging—a wilderness, the root of a tree, a hill, a ravine, a mountain cave, a charnel ground, a forest, the open air, a heap of straw. That’s how I understand ‘at one’.
Sir, I understand what ‘compassionate’ means. It’s when someone meditates spreading a heart full of compassion to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of compassion to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. That’s how I understand ‘compassionate’.
But I don’t understand what you say about putrefaction.1349
What among mankind, O the Divinity, is putrefaction?
I don’t understand, so tell me, attentive one:
wrapped in what do people stink,
headed for hell, shut out of the realm of divinity?”“Anger, lies, fraud, and deceit,
miserliness, vanity, jealousy,
desire, stinginess, harassing others,1350
greed, hate, vanity, and delusion—
those bound to such thingsare not devoid of putrefaction;
they’re headed for hell,shut out of the realm of divinity.”
“As I understand what you say about putrefaction, it’s not easy to quell while living at home.1351 I shall go forth from the lay life to homelessness!”
“Please do so, Steward, at your convenience.”
So the Great Steward went to King Reṇu and said, “Worthy sir, please now find another high priest to manage the affairs of state for you. I wish to go forth from the lay life to homelessness. As I understand what the Divinity says about putrefaction, it’s not easy to quell while living at home. I shall go forth from the lay life to homelessness.
I announce to King Reṇu,
the lord of the land:
you must learn how to rule,
for I no longer care for my ministry.”“If you’re lacking any pleasures,
I’ll supply them for you.
I’ll protect you from any harm,
for I command the nation’s army.
You are my father, I am your son!1352
O Steward, please don’t leave!”“I’m lacking no pleasures,
and no-one is harming me.
I’ve heard a non-human voice,
so I no longer care for lay life.”“What was that non-human like?
What did he say to you,
hearing which you would abandon
our house and all our people?”“Before entering this retreat,
I only liked to sacrifice.
I kindled the sacred flame,
strewn about with kusa grass.But then the Divinity the Eternal Youth
appeared to me from the realm of divinity.
He answered my question,
hearing which I no longer care for lay life.”“I have faith, O Steward,
in that of which you speak.
Having heard a non-human voice,
what else could you do?We will follow your example,
Steward, be my Teacher!
Like a gem of beryl—
flawless, immaculate, beautiful—
that’s how pure we shall live,
in the Steward’s dispensation.
If the Steward is going forth from the lay life to homelessness, we shall do so too. Your destiny shall be ours.”
Then the Great Steward went to the six aristocrats and said, “Good fellows, please now find another high priest to manage the affairs of state for you. I wish to go forth from the lay life to homelessness. As I understand what the Divinity says about putrefaction, it’s not easy to quell while living at home. I shall go forth from the lay life to homelessness!”
Then the six aristocrats withdrew to one side and thought up a plan, “These brahmins are greedy for wealth. Why don’t we bestow him with wealth?”1353
They returned to the Great Steward and said, “In these seven kingdoms there is abundant wealth. We’ll get you as much as you want.”
“Enough, sirs. I already have abundant wealth, owing to my lords. Giving up all that, I shall go forth.”
Then the six aristocrats withdrew to one side and thought up a plan, “These brahmins are greedy for women. Why don’t we bestow him with women?”
They returned to the Great Steward and said, “In these seven kingdoms there are many women. We’ll get you as many as you want.”
“Enough, sirs. I already have forty equal wives. Giving up all them, I shall go forth.”
“If the Steward is going forth from the lay life to homelessness, we shall do so too. Your destiny shall be ours.”
“If you all give up sensual pleasures,
to which ordinary people are attached,
exert yourselves, being strong,
and possessing the power of patience.This path is the straight path,
this path is supreme.
Guarded by the good, the true teaching1354
leads to rebirth in the realm of divinity.”1355
“Well then, sir, please wait for seven years. When seven years have passed, we shall go forth with you. Your destiny shall be ours.”
“Seven years is too long, sirs. I cannot wait that long. Who knows what will happen to the living? We are heading to the next life. We must be thoughtful and wake up! We must do what’s good and lead the spiritual life, for no-one born can escape death.1356 I shall go forth.”
“Well then, sir, please wait for six years, five years, four years, three years, two years, one year, seven months, six months, five months, four months, three months, two months, one month, or even a fortnight. When a fortnight has passed, we shall go forth. Your destiny shall be ours.”
“A fortnight is too long, sirs. I cannot wait that long. Who knows what will happen to the living? We are heading to the next life. We must be thoughtful and wake up! We must do what’s good and lead the spiritual life, for no-one born can escape death. As I understand what the Divinity says about putrefaction, it’s not easy to quell while living at home. I shall go forth from the lay life to homelessness.”
“Well then, sir, please wait for a week, so that we can instruct our sons and brothers in kingship. When a week has passed, we shall go forth. Your destiny shall be ours.”
“A week is not too long, sirs. I will wait that long.”
Then the Great Steward also went to the seven well-to-do brahmins and seven hundred bathed initiates and said, “Good fellows, please now find another tutor to teach you to recite the hymns. I wish to go forth from the lay life to homelessness. As I understand what the Divinity says about putrefaction, it’s not easy to quell while living at home. I shall go forth from the lay life to homelessness.”
“Please don’t go forth from the lay life to homelessness! The life of one gone forth is of little influence or profit, whereas the life of a brahmin is of great influence and profit.”
“Please, good fellows, don’t say that. Who has greater influence and profit than myself? For now I am like a king to kings, like the Divinity to brahmins, like a deity to householders. Giving up all that, I shall go forth. As I understand what the Divinity says about putrefaction, it’s not easy to quell while living at home. I shall go forth from the lay life to homelessness.”
“If the Steward is going forth from the lay life to homelessness, we shall do so too. Your destiny shall be ours.”
Then the Great Steward went to his forty equal wives and said, “Ladies, please do whatever you wish, whether returning to your own families, or finding another husband. I wish to go forth from the lay life to homelessness. As I understand what the Divinity says about putrefaction, it’s not easy to quell while living at home. I shall go forth from the lay life to homelessness.”
“You are the only family we want! You are the only husband we want! If you are going forth from the lay life to homelessness, we shall do so too. Your destiny shall be ours.”1357
When a week had passed, the Great Steward shaved off his hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness. And when he had gone forth, the seven anointed aristocrat kings, the seven brahmins with seven hundred initiates, the forty equal wives, and many thousands of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, and many harem women shaved off their hair and beards, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness.1358
Escorted by that assembly, the Great Steward wandered on tour among the villages, towns, and capital cities. And at that time, whenever he arrived at a village or town, he was like a king to kings, like the Divinity to brahmins, like a deity to householders. And whenever people sneezed or tripped over they’d say: “Homage to the Great Steward! Homage to the high priest for the seven!”
And the Great Steward meditated spreading a heart full of love to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, he spread a heart full of love to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will.1359 He meditated spreading a heart full of compassion … rejoicing … equanimity to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, he spread a heart full of equanimity to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. And he taught his disciples the path to rebirth in the company of Divinity.
Those of his disciples who completely understood the Great Steward’s instructions, at the breaking up of the body, after death, were reborn in the realm of divinity. Of those disciples who only partly understood the Great Steward’s instructions, some were reborn in the company of the gods who control what is imagined by others, while some were reborn in the company of the gods who love to imagine, or the joyful gods, or the gods of Yama, or the gods of the thirty-three, or the gods of the four great kings. And at the very least they swelled the hosts of the centaurs.
And so the going forth of all those gentlemen was not in vain, was not wasted, but was fruitful and fertile.’
Do you remember this, Blessed One?”
“I remember, Pañcasikha. I myself was the brahmin Great Steward at that time.1360 And I taught those disciples the path to rebirth in the company of Divinity. But that spiritual path of mine doesn’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. It only leads as far as rebirth in the realm of divinity.1361
But this spiritual path does lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. And what is the spiritual path that leads to extinguishment? It is simply this noble eightfold path, that is: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion. This is the spiritual path that leads to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment.
Those of my disciples who completely understand my instructions realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life. And they live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements.
Of those disciples who only partly understand my instructions, some, with the ending of the five lower fetters, become reborn spontaneously. They are extinguished there, and are not liable to return from that world.
Some, with the ending of three fetters, and the weakening of greed, hate, and delusion, become once-returners. They come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering.
And some, with the ending of three fetters, become stream-enterers, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.
And so the going forth of all those gentlemen was not in vain, was not wasted, but was fruitful and fertile.”
That is what the Buddha said. Delighted, the centaur Pañcasikha approved and agreed with what the Buddha said. He bowed and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on his right, before vanishing right there.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying in the land of the Sakyans, in the Great Wood near Kapilavatthu, together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants, all of whom were perfected ones. And most of the deities from ten solar systems had gathered to see the Buddha and the Saṅgha of mendicants.1362
Then four deities of the Pure Abodes, aware of what was happening, thought:1363 “Why don’t we go to the Buddha and each recite a verse in his presence?”
Then, as easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, they vanished from the Pure Abodes and reappeared in front of the Buddha. They bowed to the Buddha and stood to one side. Standing to one side, one deity recited this verse in the Buddha’s presence:
“There’s a great congregation in the woods,1364
where heavenly hosts have assembled.
We’ve come to this righteous congregation
to see the invincible Saṅgha!”
Then another deity recited this verse in the Buddha’s presence:
“The mendicants there are immersed in samādhi,
they’ve straightened their own minds.
Like a charioteer holding the reins,
the astute ones protect their senses.”
Then another deity recited this verse in the Buddha’s presence:
“They snapped the post and snapped the cross-bar,
unstirred, they tore out Indra’s pillar.1365
They live pure and immaculate,
the young giants tamed by the Clear-eyed One.”1366
Then another deity recited this verse in the Buddha’s presence:
“Anyone who has gone to the Buddha for refuge
won’t go to a plane of loss.
After giving up this human body,
they swell the hosts of gods.”1367
Then the Buddha said to the mendicants:
“Mendicants, most of the deities from ten solar systems have gathered to see the Realized One and the mendicant Saṅgha. The Buddhas of the past had, and the Buddhas of the future will have, gatherings of deities that are at most like the gathering for me now.1368 I shall declare the names of the heavenly hosts; I shall extol the names of the heavenly hosts; I shall teach the names of the heavenly hosts. Listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” they replied.
The Buddha said this:
“I invoke a paean of praise!1369
Where the earth-gods dwell,
there, in mountain caves,
resolute and composed,dwell many like lonely lions,
who have mastered their fears.1370
Their minds are bright and pure,
clear and undisturbed.”The teacher knew that over five hundred
were in the wood at Kapilavatthu.
Therefore he addressed
the disciples who love the teaching:“The heavenly hosts have come forth;
mendicants, you should be aware of them.”
Those monks grew keen,
hearing the Buddha’s instruction.Knowledge manifested in them,
seeing those non-human beings.
Some saw a hundred,
a thousand, even seventy thousand,while some saw a hundred thousand
non-human beings.
But some saw an endless number
spread out in every direction.And all that was known
and distinguished by the Clear-eyed One.
Therefore he addressed
the disciples who love the teaching:“The heavenly hosts have come forth;
mendicants, you should be aware of them.
I shall extol them for you,
with lyrics in proper order.There are seven thousand spirits,1371
earth-gods of Kapilavatthu.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.From the Himalayas there are six thousand
spirits of different colors.1372
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.From Mount Sātā there are three thousand1373
spirits of different colors.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.And thus there are sixteen thousand
spirits of different colors.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.From Vessāmitta’s mountain there are five hundred1374
spirits of different colors.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.And there’s Kumbhīra of Rājagaha,1375
whose home is on Mount Vepulla.
Attended by more than
a hundred thousand spirits,
Kumbhīra of Rājagaha
also came to the meeting in the wood.King Dhataraṭṭha rules1376
the eastern quarter.
Lord of the centaurs,1377
he’s a great king, glorious.And he has many mighty sons
all of them named Indra.1378
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.King Virūḷhaka rules1379
the southern quarter.
Lord of the gnomes,1380
he’s a great king, glorious.And he has many mighty sons
all of them named Indra.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.King Virūpakkha rules1381
the western quarter.
Lord of the dragons,
he’s a great king, glorious.And he has many mighty sons
all of them named Indra.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.King Kuvera rules1382
the northern quarter.
Lord of spirits,
he’s a great king, glorious.And he has many mighty sons
all of them named Indra.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.Dhataraṭṭha in the east,
Virūḷhaka to the south,
Virūpakkha to the west,
and Kuvera in the north.These four great kings,1383
all around in the four quarters,
stood there dazzling
in the wood at Kapilavatthu.Their deceitful heathens came,1384
so treacherous and crafty—
the deceivers Kuṭeṇḍu, Viṭeṇḍu,1385
with Viṭucca and Viṭuṭa.1386And Candana and Kāmaseṭṭha,1387
Kinnughaṇḍu and Nighaṇḍu,
Panāda and Opamañña,1388
and Mātali, the god’s charioteer.1389Cittasena the centaur came too,1390
and the kings Nala and Janesabha.1391
Pañcasikha came too, with1392
Timbaru and Suriyavaccasā.These and other kings there were,
the centaurs with their kings.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.Then came the dragons of Nābhasa lake,1393
and those from Vesālī with those from Takkasilā.1394
The Kambalas and Assataras came1395
and those from Payāga with their kin.1396Those from Yamunā, and the Dhataraṭṭha1397
dragons came, so glorious.
And Erāvaṇa the great dragon
also came to the meeting in the wood.Those who seize the dragon kings by force—1398
Heavenly, twice-born birds with piercing vision—1399
swoop down to the wood from the sky;
their name is ‘Rainbow Phoenix’.1400But the dragon kings remained fearless,
for the Buddha kept them safe from the phoenixes.
Inviting each other with gentle words,1401
the dragons and phoenixestook the Buddha as refuge.1402 Defeated by Vajirahattha,1403
the titans live in the ocean.
They’re brothers of Vāsava,1404
powerful and glorious.There’s the terrifying Kālakañjas,1405
the Dānava and Ghasa titans,1406
Vepacitti and Sucitti,1407
Pahārāda with Namuci,1408and Bali’s hundred sons,1409
all named after Virocana.1410
Bali’s army armed themselves
and went to the auspicious Rāhu, saying:1411
‘Now is the time, sir,
for the meeting of mendicants in the wood.’The gods of water and earth,
and fire and wind came there.1412
The gods of Varuṇa and Varuṇa’s offsping,1413
and Soma together with Yasa.1414A host of the gods of love1415
and compassion came, so glorious.
These ten hosts of gods
shone in all different colors.They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.The Vishnu and Sahalī gods,1416
and the unequaled pair of twins.1417
The gods living on the moon came,
with the Moon before them.The gods living on the sun came,
with the Sun before them.
And with the stars before them
came the languid gods of clouds.And Vāsava came, the greatest of the Vasus,1418
who is Sakka the Able, Purindada the Firstgiver:1419
These ten hosts of gods
shone in all different colors.They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.Then came the Sahabhū gods,1420
blazing like a crested flame;
and the Ariṭṭhakas and Rojas too,1421
and the gods hued blue as flax.The Varuṇas and Sahadhammas,1422
the Accutas and Anejakas,1423
the Sūleyyas and Ruciras all came,1424
as did the Vāsavanesi gods.1425
These ten hosts of gods
shone in all different colors.They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.The Samānas, Mahāsamānas,1426
Mānusas, and Mānusuttamas all came,1427
and the gods depraved by play,1428
and those who are malevolent.1429Then came the gods of Mercury,1430
and those who live on Mars.1431
The Pāragas and Mahāpāragas came,1432
such glorious gods.
These ten hosts of gods
shone in all different colors.They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.The gods of Venus, the newborn Sun,
and the Dawn1433
came along with those from Saturn.1434
And the gods of the white globe came1435
leading the brilliant gods.1436The Sadāmattas and Hāragajas,1437
and assorted glorious ones;1438
Pajjuna came thundering,1439
he who rains on all quarters.These ten hosts of gods
shone in all different colors.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.The Khemiyas from the realms of Tusita and Yama,1440
and the glorious Kaṭṭhakas came;1441
the Lambītakas, Lāmaseṭṭhas,1442
those called the Shining,and the gods of Granted Wishes.1443
The gods who love to imagine came too,
and those who control what is imagined by others.These ten hosts of gods
shone in all different colors.
They’re powerful and brilliant,
so beautiful and glorious.
Rejoicing, they’ve come forth
to the meeting of mendicants in the wood.These sixty hosts of gods
shone in all different colors.
They came organized by name,
these and others likewise, thinking:‘They who have shed rebirth, the kindly ones,1444
the undefiled ones who have crossed the flood—
let us see them,with the dragon who brought them across,
who like the Moon has overcome darkness.’Subrahmā and Paramatta came,1445
with sons of those powerful ones.
Sanaṅkumāra and Tissa1446
also came to the meeting in the wood.Of a thousand realms of divinity,
the Great Divinity stands forth.1447
He has arisen, brilliant,
his formidable body so glorious.Ten Gods Almighty came there,1448
each one of them wielding power,
and in the middle of them came
Hārita with his following.”1449When they had all come forth—
the gods with their Lord, and the divinities—
Māra’s army came forth too:
see the stupidity of the Dark Lord!“Come, seize them and bind them,” he said,
“let them be bound by desire!
Surround them on all sides,
don’t let any escape!”And so there the great general,
the Dark Lord sent forth his army.
He struck the ground with his fist
to make a horrifying soundlike a storm cloud shedding rain,
thundering and flashing.
But then he retreated,
furious, out of control.And all that was known
and distinguished by the Clear-eyed One.
Thereupon the Teacher addressed
the disciples who love the teaching:“Māra’s army has arrived;
mendicants, you should be aware of them.”
Those monks grew keen,
hearing the Buddha’s instruction.
The army fled from those free of passion,
and not a single hair was stirred!“All triumphant in battle,
so fearless and glorious.
They rejoice with all the spirits,
the disciples renowned among men.”
So I have heard.1450 At one time the Buddha was staying in the land of the Magadhans, where east of Rājagaha there is a brahmin village named Ambasaṇḍā, north of which, on Mount Vediyaka, is Indra’s hill cave.1451
Now at that time Sakka, the lord of gods, grew eager to see the Buddha. He thought, “Where is the Blessed One at present, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha?”
Seeing that the Buddha was at Indra’s hill cave, he addressed the gods of the thirty-three, “Good fellows, the Buddha is staying in the land of the Magadhans at Indra’s hill cave. What if we were to go and see that Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha?”
“Yes, lord,” replied the gods.
Then Sakka addressed the centaur Pañcasikha,1452 “Dear Pañcasikha, the Buddha is staying in the land of the Magadhans at Indra’s hill cave. What if we were to go and see that Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha?”
“Yes, lord,” replied the centaur Pañcasikha. Taking his arched harp made from the pale timber of wood-apple, he went as Sakka’s attendant.1453
Then Sakka went at the head of a retinue consisting of the gods of the thirty-three and the godling centaur Pañcasikha.1454 As easily as a strong person would extend or contract their arm, he vanished from the heaven of the gods of the thirty-three and landed on Mount Vediyaka north of Ambasaṇḍā.
Now at that time a dazzling light appeared over Mount Vediyaka and Ambasaṇḍā, as happens through the glory of the gods. People in the villages round about, terrified, shocked, and awestruck, said, “Mount Vediyaka must be on fire today, blazing and burning! Oh why has such a dazzling light appeared over Mount Vediyaka and Ambasaṇḍā?”
Then Sakka addressed the centaur Pañcasikha, “My dear Pañcasikha, it is hard for one like me to get near the Realized Ones while they are on retreat practicing absorption, enjoying absorption.1455 But if you were to charm the Buddha first, then I could go to see him.”
“Yes, lord,” replied the centaur Pañcasikha. Taking his arched harp made from the pale timber of wood-apple, he went to Indra’s hill cave. When he had drawn near, he stood to one side, thinking, “This is neither too far nor too near; and he’ll hear my voice.”
Standing to one side, Pañcasikha played his arched harp, and sang these verses on the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, the perfected ones, and sensual love.1456
“O Bhaddā Suriyavaccasā, my Darling Sunshine,1457
I pay homage to your father Timbaru,1458
through whom was born a lady so fine,
to fill me with a joy I never knew.As sweet as a breeze to one who’s sweating,
or when thirsty, a sweet and cooling drink,
so dear are you, Aṅgīrasi, to me—1459
just like the teaching is to all the saints!1460Like a cure when you’re struck by fever dire,
or food to ease the hunger pain,
come on, Bhaddā, please put out my fire,1461
quench me like water on a flame.As elephants burning in the heat of summer,
sink down in a lotus pond to rest,
so cool, full of petals and of pollen—
that’s how I would plunge into your breast.Like elephants bursting bonds in rutting season,1462
beating off the pricks of lance and pikes—
I just don’t understand what is the reason
I’m so crazy for your shapely thighs!For you, my heart is full of passion,
I’m in a besotted state of mind.
There is no going back, I’m just not able,
I’m like a fish that’s hooked up on the line.Come on, my Bhaddā, hold me, fair of thighs!
Embrace me, maid of captivating eyes!
Take me in your arms, my lovely lady,
that’s all I’d ever want or could desire.Ah, then my desire was such a small thing,
my sweet, with your curling wavy hair;
now, like to arahants an offering,
it’s grown so very much from there.Whatever the merit I have forged
by giving to such perfected beings—
may that, my altogether gorgeous,
ripen in togetherness with you.1463Whatever the merit I have forged
in this vast territory,
may that, my altogether gorgeous,
ripen in togetherness with you.As the Sakyan, absorbed, did meditate
at one, alert, and mindful too,
the sage seeking the state free of death—1464
so I, oh my Sunshine, seek for you!And just like the sage would delight,
once he had awakened to the truth,
so I would delight, my fine lady,
were I to become one with you.If Sakka were to grant me one wish,1465
as Lord of the Thirty and Three,
my Bhaddā, you’re all I would wish for,
so strong is the love in me.Like a freshly blossoming sal tree
is your father, my lady so wise.
I pay homage to he, bowing humbly,
whose daughter is of such a kind.”
When Pañcasikha had spoken, the Buddha said to him, “Pañcasikha, the sound of your strings blends well with the sound of your singing,1466 so that neither overpowers the other. But when did you compose these verses on the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, the perfected ones, and sensual love?”1467
“This one time, sir, when you were first awakened, you were staying in Uruvelā at the goatherd’s banyan tree on the bank of the Nerañjarā River. And at that time I was in love with the lady named Bhaddā Suriyavaccasā, ‘Darling Sunshine’, the daughter of the centaur king Timbaru. But the sister desired another.1468 It was the one named Sikhaṇḍī, the son of Mātali the chariot handler, who she loved.1469 Since I couldn’t win that sister by any means, I took my arched harp to Timbaru’s home, where I played those verses.
When I finished, Suriyavaccasā said to me, ‘Good fellow, I have not personally seen the Buddha. But I did hear about him when I went to dance for the gods of the thirty-three in the Hall of Justice. Since you extol the Buddha, let us meet up today.’ And that’s when I met up with that sister. But we have not met since.”
Then Sakka, lord of gods, thought, “Pañcasikha is exchanging pleasantries with the Buddha.”
So he addressed Pañcasikha, “My dear Pañcasikha, please bow to the Buddha for me, saying: ‘Sir, Sakka, lord of gods, with his ministers and retinue, bows with his head at your feet.’”
“Yes, lord,” replied Pañcasikha. He bowed to the Buddha and said, “Sir, Sakka, lord of gods, with his ministers and retinue, bows with his head at your feet.”
“So may Sakka with his ministers and retinue be happy, Pañcasikha,” said the Buddha, “for all want to be happy—whether gods, humans, titans, dragons, centaurs, or any of the other diverse creatures there may be.”
For that is how the Realized Ones salute such illustrious spirits. And being saluted by the Buddha, Sakka entered Indra’s hill cave, bowed to the Buddha, and stood to one side. And the gods of the thirty-three did likewise, as did Pañcasikha.
And at that time the uneven places were evened out, the cramped places were opened up, the darkness vanished in the cave and light appeared, as happens through the glory of the gods.
Then the Buddha said to Sakka, “It’s incredible and amazing that you, the venerable Kosiya, who has so many duties and so much to do, should come here.”1470
“For a long time I’ve wanted to come and see the Buddha, but I wasn’t able, being prevented by my many duties and responsibilities for the gods of the thirty-three. This one time, sir, the Buddha was staying near Sāvatthī in the frankincense-tree hut. Then I went to Sāvatthī to see the Buddha. But at that time the Buddha was sitting immersed in some kind of meditation. And a divine maiden of Great King Vessavaṇa named Bhūjati was attending on the Buddha, standing there paying homage to him with joined palms.1471
So I said to her, ‘Sister, please bow to the Buddha for me, saying: “Sir, Sakka, lord of gods, with his ministers and retinue, bows with his head at your feet.”’
When I said this, she said to me, ‘It’s the wrong time to see the Buddha, as he’s in retreat.’
‘Well then, sister, please convey my message when the Buddha emerges from that immersion.’ I hope that sister bowed to you? Do you remember what she said?”
“She did bow, lord of gods, and I remember what she said. I also remember that it was the sound of your chariot wheels that pulled me out of that immersion.”1472
“Sir, I have heard and learned this in the presence of the gods who were reborn in the host of the thirty-three before me: ‘When a Realized One arises in the world, perfected and fully awakened, the heavenly hosts swell, while the titan hosts dwindle.’ And I have seen this with my own eyes.
Right here in Kapilavatthu there was a Sakyan lady named Gopikā who had confidence in the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, and had fulfilled her ethics.1473 Losing her attachment to femininity, she developed masculinity. When her body broke up, after death, she was reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.1474 In the company of the gods of the thirty-three she became one of my sons. There they knew him as the godling Gopaka.
Meanwhile three others, mendicants who had led the spiritual life under the Buddha, were reborn in the inferior centaur realm.1475 There they amused themselves, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation, and became my servants and attendants.
At that, Gopaka scolded them, ‘Where on earth were you at, good fellows, when you heard the Buddha’s teaching!1476 For while I was still a woman I had confidence in the Buddha, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, and had fulfilled my ethics. I lost my attachment to femininity and developed masculinity. When my body broke up, after death, I was reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. In the company of the gods of the thirty-three I became one of Sakka’s sons. Here they know me as the godling Gopaka. But you, having led the spiritual life under the Buddha, were reborn in the inferior centaur realm. It is a sad sight indeed to see fellow practitioners reborn in the inferior centaur realm.’
When scolded by Gopaka, two of those gods regained their memory right away. They went to the host of the priests of Divinity, but one god remained attached to sensual pleasures.1477
‘“I was a laywoman disciple of the Clear-eyed One,
and my name was Gopikā.
I was devoted to the Buddha and the teaching,
and I faithfully served the Saṅgha.Because of the excellence of the Buddha’s teaching,
I’m now a mighty, brilliant son of Sakka,
reborn in the Third Heaven.
And here they know me as Gopaka.Then I saw some mendicants who I’d seen before,
dwelling in the host of centaurs.
They were disciples of Gotama
when I used to be a human.I served them with food and drink,
and clasped their feet in my own home.1478
Where on earth were these good fellows at
when they learned the Buddha’s teachings?For each must know for themselves the teaching
so well-taught, realized by the Clear-eyed One.
I was one who followed you,1479
having heard the fine words of the noble ones.I’m now a mighty, brilliant son of Sakka,
reborn in the Third Heaven.
But you followed the best of men,
and led the supreme spiritual life,but still you’re born in this lesser realm,
a rebirth unbefitting.
It’s a sad sight I see, good fellows,
fellow practitioners in a lesser realm.Reborn in the host of centaurs,
only to wait upon the gods.
Meanwhile, I dwelt in a house—1480
but see my distinction now!Having been a woman now I’m a male god,
blessed with heavenly sensual pleasures.”
Scolded by that disciple of Gotama,1481
comprehending Gopaka,they were struck with urgency. “Let’s strive, let’s try hard—
we won’t serve others any more!”
Two of them roused up energy,
recalling the Buddha’s instructions.Right away they became dispassionate,
seeing the drawbacks in sensual pleasures.
The fetters and bonds of sensual pleasures—
the ties of the Wicked One so hard to break—they burst them like a bull elephant his ropes,
and passed right over the thirty-three.
The gods with Indra and the Progenitor
were all gathered in the Hall of Justice.As they sat there, they passed over them,
the heroes desireless, practicing purity.
Seeing them, Vāsava was struck with urgency;1482
the master of gods in the midst of the group said,“These were born in the lesser centaur realm,
but now they pass us by!”
Heeding the speech of one so moved,
Gopaka addressed Vāsava,“There is a Buddha, a lord of men, in the world.1483
Known as the Sakyan Sage,he’s mastered the senses.1484
Those sons of his lost their memory;1485
but when scolded by me they gained it back.Of the three, there is one who remains
dwelling in the host of centaurs.
But two, recollecting the path to awakening,
serene, spurn even the gods.Such is the explanation of the teaching here:1486
not a single disciple doubts that.1487
We venerate the Buddha, the victor, lord of men,
who has crossed the flood and cut off doubt.They attained distinction to the extent
they understood the teaching here;
two of them distinguished
in the host of the priests of Divinity.”’1488We have come here, dear sir,
to realize this same teaching.
If the Buddha would give me a chance,
I would ask a question, dear sir.”
Then the Buddha thought, “For a long time now this spirit has led a pure life. Any question he asks me will be beneficial, not unbeneficial. And he will quickly understand any answer I give to his question.”
So the Buddha addressed Sakka in verse:
“Ask me your question, Vāsava,
whatever you want.
I’ll solve each and every
question you have.”
The first recitation section is finished.
Having been granted an opportunity by the Buddha, Sakka asked the first question.
“Good fellow, what fetters bind the gods, humans, titans, dragons, centaurs—and any of the other diverse creatures—so that, though they wish to be free of enmity, violence, hostility, and hate, they still have enmity, violence, hostility, and hate?”1489
Such was Sakka’s question to the Buddha. And the Buddha answered him:
“Lord of gods, the fetters of jealousy and stinginess bind the gods, humans, titans, dragons, centaurs—and any of the other diverse creatures—1490 so that, though they wish to be free of enmity, violence, hostility, and hate, they still have enmity, violence, hostility, and hate.”
Such was the Buddha’s answer to Sakka. Delighted, Sakka approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, saying, “That’s so true, Blessed One! That’s so true, Holy One! Hearing the Buddha’s answer, I’ve gone beyond doubt and got rid of indecision.”
And then, having approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, Sakka asked another question:
“But good fellow, what is the source, origin, birthplace, and inception of jealousy and stinginess?1491 When what exists is there jealousy and stinginess? When what doesn’t exist is there no jealousy and stinginess?”
“The liked and the disliked, lord of gods, are the source of jealousy and stinginess. When the liked and the disliked exist there is jealousy and stinginess. When the liked and the disliked don’t exist there is no jealousy and stinginess.”
“But good fellow, what is the source of what is liked and disliked?”
“Desire is the source of what is liked and disliked.”1492
“But what is the source of desire?”
“Thought is the source of desire.”1493
“But what is the source of thought?”
“Judgments driven by the proliferation of perceptions are the source of thoughts.”1494
“But how does a mendicant fittingly practice for the cessation of judgments driven by the proliferation of perceptions?”
“Lord of gods, there are two kinds of happiness, I say: that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate. There are two kinds of sadness, I say: that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate. There are two kinds of equanimity, I say: that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate.
Why did I say that there are two kinds of happiness? Well, should you know of a happiness:1495 ‘When I cultivate this kind of happiness, unskillful qualities grow, and skillful qualities decline.’ You should not cultivate that kind of happiness. Whereas, should you know of a happiness: ‘When I cultivate this kind of happiness, unskillful qualities decline, and skillful qualities grow.’ You should cultivate that kind of happiness. And that which is free of placing the mind and keeping it connected is better than that which still involves placing the mind and keeping it connected.1496 That’s why I said there are two kinds of happiness.
Why did I say that there are two kinds of sadness? Well, should you know of a sadness: ‘When I cultivate this kind of sadness, unskillful qualities grow, and skillful qualities decline.’ You should not cultivate that kind of sadness. Whereas, should you know of a sadness: ‘When I cultivate this kind of sadness, unskillful qualities decline, and skillful qualities grow.’ You should cultivate that kind of sadness.1497 And that which is free of placing the mind and keeping it connected is better than that which still involves placing the mind and keeping it connected.1498 That’s why I said there are two kinds of sadness.
Why did I say that there are two kinds of equanimity? Well, should you know of an equanimity: ‘When I cultivate this kind of equanimity, unskillful qualities grow, and skillful qualities decline.’ You should not cultivate that kind of equanimity. Whereas, should you know of an equanimity: ‘When I cultivate this kind of equanimity, unskillful qualities decline, and skillful qualities grow.’ You should cultivate that kind of equanimity. And that which is free of placing the mind and keeping it connected is better than that which still involves placing the mind and keeping it connected. That’s why I said there are two kinds of equanimity.
That’s how a mendicant fittingly practices for the cessation of judgments driven by the proliferation of perceptions.”
Such was the Buddha’s answer to Sakka. Delighted, Sakka approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, saying, “That’s so true, Blessed One! That’s so true, Holy One! Hearing the Buddha’s answer, I’ve gone beyond doubt and got rid of indecision.”
And then Sakka asked another question:
“But good fellow, how does a mendicant practice for restraint in the monastic code?”
“Lord of gods, I say that there are two kinds of bodily behavior:1499 that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate. I say that there are two kinds of verbal behavior: that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate. There are two kinds of search, I say: that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate.
Why did I say that there are two kinds of bodily behavior? Well, should you know of a bodily conduct: ‘When I cultivate this kind of bodily conduct, unskillful qualities grow, and skillful qualities decline.’ You should not cultivate that kind of bodily conduct. Whereas, should you know of a bodily conduct: ‘When I cultivate this kind of bodily conduct, unskillful qualities decline, and skillful qualities grow.’ You should cultivate that kind of bodily conduct. That’s why I said there are two kinds of bodily behavior.
Why did I say that there are two kinds of verbal behavior? Well, should you know of a kind of verbal behavior that it causes unskillful qualities to grow while skillful qualities decline, you should not cultivate it. Whereas, should you know of a kind of verbal behavior that it causes unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow, you should cultivate it. That’s why I said there are two kinds of verbal behavior.
Why did I say that there are two kinds of search? Well, should you know of a kind of search that it causes unskillful qualities to grow while skillful qualities decline, you should not cultivate it.1500 Whereas, should you know of a kind of search that it causes unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow, you should cultivate it. That’s why I said there are two kinds of search.
That’s how a mendicant practices for restraint in the monastic code.”
Such was the Buddha’s answer to Sakka. Delighted, Sakka approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, saying, “That’s so true, Blessed One! That’s so true, Holy One! Hearing the Buddha’s answer, I’ve gone beyond doubt and got rid of indecision.”
And then Sakka asked another question:
“But good fellow, how does a mendicant practice for restraint of the sense faculties?”
“Lord of gods, I say that there are two kinds of sight known by the eye: that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate. There are two kinds of sound known by the ear … smells known by the nose … tastes known by the tongue … touches known by the body … ideas known by the mind: that which you should cultivate, and that which you should not cultivate.”
When the Buddha said this, Sakka said to him:
“Sir, this is how I understand the detailed meaning of the Buddha’s brief statement:1501 You should not cultivate the kind of sight known by the eye which causes unskillful qualities to grow while skillful qualities decline.1502 And you should cultivate the kind of sight known by the eye which causes unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow. You should not cultivate the kind of sound, smell, taste, touch, or idea known by the mind which causes unskillful qualities to grow while skillful qualities decline. And you should cultivate the kind of idea known by the mind which causes unskillful qualities to decline while skillful qualities grow.
Sir, that’s how I understand the detailed meaning of the Buddha’s brief statement. Hearing the Buddha’s answer, I’ve gone beyond doubt and got rid of indecision.”
And then Sakka asked another question:
“Good fellow, do all ascetics and brahmins have a single doctrine, ethics, desire, and attachment?”1503
“No, lord of gods, they do not.”
“Why not?”
“The world has many and diverse elements. Whatever element sentient beings insist on in this world of many and diverse elements, they obstinately stick to it, insisting that:1504 ‘This is the only truth, anything else is futile.’ That’s why not all ascetics and brahmins have a single doctrine, ethics, desire, and attachment.”
“Good fellow, have all ascetics and brahmins reached the ultimate end, the ultimate sanctuary from the yoke, the ultimate spiritual life, the ultimate goal?”
“No, lord of gods, they have not.”
“Why not?”
“Those mendicants who are freed through the ending of craving have reached the ultimate end, the ultimate sanctuary from the yoke, the ultimate spiritual life, the ultimate goal. That’s why not all ascetics and brahmins have reached the ultimate end, the ultimate sanctuary from the yoke, the ultimate spiritual life, the ultimate goal.”
Such was the Buddha’s answer to Sakka. Delighted, Sakka approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, saying, “That’s so true, Blessed One! That’s so true, Holy One! Hearing the Buddha’s answer, I’ve gone beyond doubt and got rid of indecision.”1505
And then Sakka, having approved and agreed with what the Buddha said, said to him,
“Turbulence, sir, is a disease, a boil, a dart. Turbulence drags a person to be reborn in life after life.1506 That’s why a person finds themselves in states high and low. Elsewhere, among other ascetics and brahmins, I wasn’t even given a chance to ask these questions that the Buddha has answered. The dart of doubt and indecision has lain within me for a long time, but the Buddha has plucked it out.”
“Lord of gods, do you recall having asked this question of other ascetics and brahmins?”1507
“I do, sir.”
“If you wouldn’t mind, lord of gods, tell me how they answered.”
“It’s no trouble when someone such as the Blessed One is sitting here.”
“Well, speak then, lord of gods.”
“Sir, I approached those who I imagined were ascetics and brahmins living in the wilderness, in remote lodgings. But they were stumped by my question, and they even questioned me in return: ‘What is the venerable’s name?’ So I answered them: ‘Good fellow, I am Sakka, lord of gods.’ So they asked me another question: ‘But lord of gods, what deed brought you to this position?’ So I taught them the Dhamma as I had learned and memorized it. And they were pleased with just that much: ‘We have seen Sakka, lord of gods! And he answered our questions!’ Invariably, they become my disciples, I don’t become theirs. But sir, I am the Buddha’s disciple, a stream-enterer, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.”
“Lord of gods, do you recall ever feeling such joy and happiness before?”
“I do, sir.”
“But how?”
“Once upon a time, sir, a battle was fought between the gods and the titans. In that battle the gods won and the titans lost. It occurred to me as victor, ‘Now the gods shall enjoy both the nectar of the gods and the nectar of the titans.’1508 But sir, that joy and happiness is in the sphere of the rod and the sword. It doesn’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. But the joy and happiness I feel listening to the Buddha’s teaching is not in the sphere of the rod and the sword. It does lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment.”1509
“But lord of gods, what reason do you see for speaking of such joy and happiness?”
“I see six reasons to speak of such joy and happiness, sir.
While staying right here,
remaining in the godly form,
I have gained an extended life:1510
know this, dear sir.
This is the first reason.
When I fall from the heavenly host,
leaving behind the non-human life,
I shall consciously go to a new womb,1511
wherever my mind delights.
This is the second reason.
Living happily under the guidance
of the one of unclouded wisdom,
I shall practice systematically,1512
aware and mindful.
This is the third reason.
And if awakening should arise
as I practice systematically,
I shall live as one who understands,
and my end shall come right there.1513
This is the fourth reason.
When I fall from the human realm,
leaving behind the human life,
I shall become a god again,
supreme in the heaven realm.1514
This is the fifth reason.
They are the finest of gods,
the glorious Akaniṭṭhas.
So long as my final life goes on,1515
there my home will be.
This is the sixth reason.
Seeing these six reasons I speak of such joy and happiness.
My wishes unfulfilled,
doubting and indecisive,
I wandered for such a long time,
in search of the Realized One.I imagined that ascetics
living in seclusion
must surely be awakened,
so I went to sit near them.‘How is there success?
How is there failure?’
But they were stumped by such questions
about the path and practice.And when they found out that I
was Sakka, come from the gods,
they questioned me instead about
the deed that brought me to this state.I taught them the Dhamma
as I had learned it among men.
They were delighted with that, saying:
‘We’ve seen Vāsava!’Now since I’ve seen the Buddha,
who helps us overcome doubt,
today, free of fear,
I pay homage to the awakened one.Destroyer of the dart of craving,
the Buddha is unrivaled.
I bow to the great hero,
the Buddha, Kinsman of the Sun.In the same way that Divinity ought be revered1516
by we gods, dear sir,1517
today we shall revere you—
come, let us revere you ourselves!1518You alone are the Awakened!
You are the Teacher supreme!
In the world with its gods,
you have no rival.”
Then Sakka addressed the centaur Pañcasikha, “Dear Pañcasikha, you were very helpful to me, since you first charmed the Buddha, after which I went to see him. I shall appoint you to your father’s position—you shall be king of the centaurs. And I give you Bhaddā Suriyavaccasā, for she loves you very much.”1519
Then Sakka, touching the ground with his hand, expressed this heartfelt sentiment three times:1520
“Homage to that Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha!
Homage to that Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha!
Homage to that Blessed One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha!”
And while this discourse was being spoken, the stainless, immaculate vision of the Dhamma arose in Sakka, lord of gods: “Everything that has a beginning has an end.” And also for another 80,000 deities.1521
Such were the questions Sakka was invited to ask, and which were answered by the Buddha. And that’s why the name of this discussion is “Sakka’s Questions”.
So I have heard.1522 At one time the Buddha was staying in the land of the Kurus, near the Kuru town named Kammāsadamma. There the Buddha addressed the mendicants, “Mendicants!”
“Venerable sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“Mendicants, the four kinds of mindfulness meditation are the path to convergence. They are in order to purify sentient beings, to get past sorrow and crying, to make an end of pain and sadness, to discover the system, and to realize extinguishment.1523
What four? It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.1524 They meditate observing an aspect of feelings—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.1525 They meditate observing an aspect of the mind—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.1526 They meditate observing an aspect of principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.1527
And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of the body?
It’s when a mendicant—gone to a wilderness, or to the root of a tree, or to an empty hut—sits down cross-legged, sets their body straight, and establishes mindfulness in their presence.1528 Just mindful, they breathe in. Mindful, they breathe out.1529
Breathing in heavily they know: ‘I’m breathing in heavily.’ Breathing out heavily they know: ‘I’m breathing out heavily.’1530
When breathing in lightly they know: ‘I’m breathing in lightly.’ Breathing out lightly they know: ‘I’m breathing out lightly.’1531
They practice like this: ‘I’ll breathe in experiencing the whole body.’ They practice like this: ‘I’ll breathe out experiencing the whole body.’1532
They practice like this: ‘I’ll breathe in stilling the physical process.’ They practice like this: ‘I’ll breathe out stilling the physical process.’1533
It’s like a deft carpenter or carpenter’s apprentice. When making a deep cut they know: ‘I’m making a deep cut,’ and when making a shallow cut they know: ‘I’m making a shallow cut.’1534
And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally.1535 They meditate observing the body as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish.1536 Or mindfulness is established that the body exists, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.1537
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
Furthermore, when a mendicant is walking they know: ‘I am walking.’ When standing they know: ‘I am standing.’ When sitting they know: ‘I am sitting.’ And when lying down they know: ‘I am lying down.’1538 Whatever posture their body is in, they know it.
And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally. They meditate observing the body as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish. Or mindfulness is established that the body exists, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.
That too is how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
Furthermore, a mendicant acts with situational awareness when going out and coming back; when looking ahead and aside; when bending and extending the limbs; when bearing the outer robe, bowl, and robes; when eating, drinking, chewing, and tasting; when urinating and defecating; when walking, standing, sitting, sleeping, waking, speaking, and keeping silent.1539
And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally …
That too is how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
Furthermore, a mendicant examines their own body, up from the soles of the feet and down from the tips of the hairs, wrapped in skin and full of many kinds of filth.1540 ‘In this body there is head hair, body hair, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentery, undigested food, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, saliva, snot, synovial fluid, urine.’1541
It’s as if there were a bag with openings at both ends, filled with various kinds of grains, such as fine rice, wheat, mung beans, peas, sesame, and ordinary rice. And a person with clear eyes were to open it and examine the contents: ‘These grains are fine rice, these are wheat, these are mung beans, these are peas, these are sesame, and these are ordinary rice.’1542
And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally …
That too is how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
Furthermore, a mendicant examines their own body, whatever its placement or posture, according to the elements:1543 ‘In this body there is the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the air element.’1544
It’s as if a deft butcher or butcher’s apprentice were to kill a cow and sit down at the crossroads with the meat cut into chops.1545
And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally …
That too is how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
Furthermore, suppose a mendicant were to see a corpse discarded in a charnel ground. And it had been dead for one, two, or three days, bloated, livid, and festering.1546 They’d compare it with their own body:1547 ‘This body is also of that same nature, that same kind, and cannot go beyond that.’ And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally …
That too is how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
Furthermore, suppose they were to see a corpse discarded in a charnel ground being devoured by crows, hawks, vultures, herons, dogs, tigers, leopards, jackals, and many kinds of little creatures. They’d compare it with their own body: ‘This body is also of that same nature, that same kind, and cannot go beyond that.’ And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally …
That too is how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
Furthermore, suppose they were to see a corpse discarded in a charnel ground, a skeleton with flesh and blood, held together by sinews …
A skeleton without flesh but smeared with blood, and held together by sinews …
A skeleton rid of flesh and blood, held together by sinews …
Bones rid of sinews, scattered in every direction. Here a hand-bone, there a foot-bone, here an ankle bone, there a shin-bone, here a thigh-bone, there a hip-bone, here a rib-bone, there a back-bone, here an arm-bone, there a neck-bone, here a jaw-bone, there a tooth, here the skull. …
White bones, the color of shells …
Decrepit bones, heaped in a pile …
Bones rotted and crumbled to powder.1548 They’d compare it with their own body: ‘This body is also of that same nature, that same kind, and cannot go beyond that.’ And so they meditate observing an aspect of the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally. They meditate observing the body as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish. Or mindfulness is established that the body exists, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.
That too is how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body.
And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of feelings?1549
It’s when a mendicant who feels a pleasant feeling knows: ‘I feel a pleasant feeling.’1550
When they feel a painful feeling, they know: ‘I feel a painful feeling.’
When they feel a neutral feeling, they know: ‘I feel a neutral feeling.’
When they feel a pleasant feeling of the flesh, they know: ‘I feel a pleasant feeling of the flesh.’1551
When they feel a pleasant feeling not of the flesh, they know: ‘I feel a pleasant feeling not of the flesh.’1552
When they feel a painful feeling of the flesh, they know: ‘I feel a painful feeling of the flesh.’
When they feel a painful feeling not of the flesh, they know: ‘I feel a painful feeling not of the flesh.’1553
When they feel a neutral feeling of the flesh, they know: ‘I feel a neutral feeling of the flesh.’
When they feel a neutral feeling not of the flesh, they know: ‘I feel a neutral feeling not of the flesh.’1554
And so they meditate observing an aspect of feelings internally, externally, and both internally and externally. They meditate observing feelings as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish. Or mindfulness is established that feelings exist, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of feelings.
And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of the mind?
It’s when a mendicant understands mind with greed as ‘mind with greed,’1555 and mind without greed as ‘mind without greed.’ They understand mind with hate as ‘mind with hate,’ and mind without hate as ‘mind without hate.’ They understand mind with delusion as ‘mind with delusion,’ and mind without delusion as ‘mind without delusion.’ They know constricted mind as ‘constricted mind,’1556 and scattered mind as ‘scattered mind.’ They know expansive mind as ‘expansive mind,’1557 and unexpansive mind as ‘unexpansive mind.’ They know mind that is not supreme as ‘mind that is not supreme,’ and mind that is supreme as ‘mind that is supreme.’ They know mind immersed in samādhi as ‘mind immersed in samādhi,’ and mind not immersed in samādhi as ‘mind not immersed in samādhi.’ They know freed mind as ‘freed mind,’ and unfreed mind as ‘unfreed mind.’
And so they meditate observing an aspect of the mind internally, externally, and both internally and externally. They meditate observing the mind as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish. Or mindfulness is established that the mind exists, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the mind.
And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of principles?
It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the five hindrances.1558 And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of principles with respect to the five hindrances?
It’s when a mendicant who has sensual desire in them understands: ‘I have sensual desire in me.’ When they don’t have sensual desire in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have sensual desire in me.’ They understand how sensual desire arises; how, when it’s already arisen, it’s given up; and how, once it’s given up, it doesn’t arise again in the future.1559
When they have ill will in them, they understand: ‘I have ill will in me.’ When they don’t have ill will in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have ill will in me.’ They understand how ill will arises; how, when it’s already arisen, it’s given up; and how, once it’s given up, it doesn’t arise again in the future.
When they have dullness and drowsiness in them, they understand: ‘I have dullness and drowsiness in me.’ When they don’t have dullness and drowsiness in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have dullness and drowsiness in me.’ They understand how dullness and drowsiness arise; how, when they’ve already arisen, they’re given up; and how, once they’re given up, they don’t arise again in the future.1560
When they have restlessness and remorse in them, they understand: ‘I have restlessness and remorse in me.’ When they don’t have restlessness and remorse in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have restlessness and remorse in me.’ They understand how restlessness and remorse arise; how, when they’ve already arisen, they’re given up; and how, once they’re given up, they don’t arise again in the future.
When they have doubt in them, they understand: ‘I have doubt in me.’ When they don’t have doubt in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have doubt in me.’ They understand how doubt arises; how, when it’s already arisen, it’s given up; and how, once it’s given up, it doesn’t arise again in the future.
And so they meditate observing an aspect of principles internally, externally, and both internally and externally. They meditate observing the principles as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish. Or mindfulness is established that principles exist, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the five hindrances.
Furthermore, a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the five grasping aggregates. And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of principles with respect to the five grasping aggregates?
It’s when a mendicant contemplates: Such is form, such is the origin of form, such is the ending of form.1561 Such is feeling, such is the origin of feeling, such is the ending of feeling. Such is perception, such is the origin of perception, such is the ending of perception.1562 Such are choices, such is the origin of choices, such is the ending of choices.1563 Such is consciousness, such is the origin of consciousness, such is the ending of consciousness.’ And so they meditate observing an aspect of principles internally …
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the five grasping aggregates.
Furthermore, a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the six interior and exterior sense fields. And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of principles with respect to the six interior and exterior sense fields?
It’s when a mendicant understands the eye, sights, and the fetter that arises dependent on both of these. They understand how the fetter that has not arisen comes to arise; how the arisen fetter comes to be abandoned; and how the abandoned fetter comes to not rise again in the future.1564
They understand the ear, sounds, and the fetter …
They understand the nose, smells, and the fetter …
They understand the tongue, tastes, and the fetter …
They understand the body, touches, and the fetter …
They understand the mind, ideas, and the fetter that arises dependent on both of these. They understand how the fetter that has not arisen comes to arise; how the arisen fetter comes to be abandoned; and how the abandoned fetter comes to not rise again in the future.
And so they meditate observing an aspect of principles internally …
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the six internal and external sense fields.
Furthermore, a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the seven awakening factors.1565 And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of principles with respect to the seven awakening factors?
It’s when a mendicant who has the awakening factor of mindfulness in them understands: ‘I have the awakening factor of mindfulness in me.’ When they don’t have the awakening factor of mindfulness in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have the awakening factor of mindfulness in me.’ They understand how the awakening factor of mindfulness that has not arisen comes to arise; and how the awakening factor of mindfulness that has arisen becomes fulfilled by development.1566
When they have the awakening factor of investigation of principles …1567 energy … rapture … tranquility … immersion … equanimity in them, they understand: ‘I have the awakening factor of equanimity in me.’ When they don’t have the awakening factor of equanimity in them, they understand: ‘I don’t have the awakening factor of equanimity in me.’ They understand how the awakening factor of equanimity that has not arisen comes to arise; and how the awakening factor of equanimity that has arisen becomes fulfilled by development.
And so they meditate observing an aspect of principles internally, externally, and both internally and externally. They meditate observing the principles as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish. Or mindfulness is established that principles exist, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the seven awakening factors.
Furthermore, a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the four noble truths.1568 And how does a mendicant meditate observing an aspect of principles with respect to the four noble truths?
It’s when a mendicant truly understands: ‘This is suffering’ … ‘This is the origin of suffering’ … ‘This is the cessation of suffering’ … ‘This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.’
The first recitation section is finished.
And what is the noble truth of suffering?1569
Rebirth is suffering; old age is suffering; death is suffering; sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress are suffering; association with the disliked is suffering; separation from the liked is suffering; not getting what you wish for is suffering. In brief, the five grasping aggregates are suffering.
And what is rebirth? The rebirth, inception, conception, reincarnation, manifestation of the sets of phenomena, and acquisition of the sense fields of the various sentient beings in the various orders of sentient beings.1570 This is called rebirth.
And what is old age? The old age, decrepitude, broken teeth, grey hair, wrinkly skin, diminished vitality, and failing faculties of the various sentient beings in the various orders of sentient beings. This is called old age.
And what is death? The passing away, passing on, disintegration, demise, mortality, death, decease, breaking up of the aggregates, laying to rest of the corpse, and cutting off of the life faculty of the various sentient beings in the various orders of sentient beings. This is called death.
And what is sorrow? The sorrow, sorrowing, state of sorrow, inner sorrow, inner deep sorrow in someone who has undergone misfortune, who has experienced suffering.1571 This is called sorrow.
And what is lamentation? The wail, lament, wailing, lamenting, state of wailing and lamentation in someone who has undergone misfortune, who has experienced suffering. This is called lamentation.
And what is pain? Physical pain, physical unpleasantness, the painful, unpleasant feeling that’s born from physical contact.1572 This is called pain.
And what is sadness?1573 Mental pain, mental displeasure, the painful, unpleasant feeling that’s born from mental contact. This is called sadness.
And what is distress? The stress, distress, state of stress and distress in someone who has undergone misfortune, who has experienced suffering. This is called distress.
And what is meant by ‘association with the disliked is suffering’? There are sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas, which are unlikable, undesirable, and disagreeable. And there are those who want to harm, injure, disturb, and threaten you. The coming together with these, the joining, inclusion, mixing with them: this is what is meant by ‘association with the disliked is suffering’.
And what is meant by ‘separation from the liked is suffering’? There are sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas, which are likable, desirable, and agreeable. And there are those who want to help, benefit, comfort, and protect you: mother and father, brother and sister, friends and colleagues, relatives and kin. The division from these, the disconnection, segregation, and parting from them:1574 this is what is meant by ‘separation from the liked is suffering’.
And what is meant by ‘not getting what you wish for is suffering’? In sentient beings who are liable to be reborn, such a wish arises: ‘Oh, if only we were not liable to be reborn! If only rebirth would not come to us!’1575 But you can’t get that by wishing. This is what is meant by ‘not getting what you wish for is suffering.’ In sentient beings who are liable to grow old … fall ill … die … experience sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress, such a wish arises: ‘Oh, if only we were not liable to experience sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress! If only sorrow, lamentation, pain, sadness, and distress would not come to us!’ But you can’t get that by wishing. This is what is meant by ‘not getting what you wish for is suffering.’
And what is meant by ‘in brief, the five grasping aggregates are suffering’? They are the grasping aggregates that consist of form, feeling, perception, choices, and consciousness. This is what is meant by ‘in brief, the five grasping aggregates are suffering’.
This is called the noble truth of suffering.
And what is the noble truth of the origin of suffering?
It’s the craving that leads to future lives, mixed up with relishing and greed, taking pleasure wherever it lands. That is, craving for sensual pleasures, craving for continued existence, and craving to end existence.
But where does that craving arise and where does it settle? Whatever in the world seems nice and pleasant, it is there that craving arises and settles.
And what in the world seems nice and pleasant? The eye in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.1576 The ear … nose … tongue … body … mind in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Sights … sounds … smells … tastes … touches … ideas in the world seem nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Eye consciousness …1577 ear consciousness … nose consciousness … tongue consciousness … body consciousness … mind consciousness in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Eye contact …1578 ear contact … nose contact … tongue contact … body contact … mind contact in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Feeling born of eye contact … feeling born of ear contact … feeling born of nose contact … feeling born of tongue contact … feeling born of body contact … feeling born of mind contact in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Perception of sights …1579 perception of sounds … perception of smells … perception of tastes … perception of touches … perception of ideas in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Intention regarding sights …1580 intention regarding sounds … intention regarding smells … intention regarding tastes … intention regarding touches … intention regarding ideas in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Craving for sights … craving for sounds … craving for smells … craving for tastes … craving for touches … craving for ideas in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Thoughts about sights …1581 thoughts about sounds … thoughts about smells … thoughts about tastes … thoughts about touches … thoughts about ideas in the world seem nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
Considerations regarding sights …1582 considerations regarding sounds … considerations regarding smells … considerations regarding tastes … considerations regarding touches … considerations regarding ideas in the world seem nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving arises and settles.
This is called the noble truth of the origin of suffering.
And what is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering?
It’s the fading away and cessation of that very same craving with nothing left over; giving it away, letting it go, releasing it, and not clinging to it.
Whatever in the world seems nice and pleasant, it is there that craving is given up and ceases.
And what in the world seems nice and pleasant? The eye in the world seems nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving is given up and ceases. …
Considerations regarding ideas in the world seem nice and pleasant, and it is there that craving is given up and ceases.
This is called the noble truth of the cessation of suffering.
And what is the noble truth of the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering?
It is simply this noble eightfold path, that is: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion.1583
And what is right view? Knowing about suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.1584 This is called right view.
And what is right thought? Thoughts of renunciation, good will, and harmlessness.1585 This is called right thought.
And what is right speech? The refraining from lying, divisive speech, harsh speech, and talking nonsense. This is called right speech.
And what is right action? Refraining from killing living creatures, stealing, and sexual misconduct.1586 This is called right action.
And what is right livelihood? It’s when a noble disciple gives up wrong livelihood and earns a living by right livelihood.1587 This is called right livelihood.
And what is right effort? It’s when a mendicant generates enthusiasm, tries, makes an effort, exerts the mind, and strives so that bad, unskillful qualities don’t arise. They generate enthusiasm, try, make an effort, exert the mind, and strive so that bad, unskillful qualities that have arisen are given up. They generate enthusiasm, try, make an effort, exert the mind, and strive so that skillful qualities arise. They generate enthusiasm, try, make an effort, exert the mind, and strive so that skillful qualities that have arisen remain, are not lost, but increase, mature, and are completed by development. This is called right effort.
And what is right mindfulness? It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of the mind—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. This is called right mindfulness.
And what is right immersion? It’s when a mendicant, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. As the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, they enter and remain in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. And with the fading away of rapture, they enter and remain in the third absorption, where they meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ With the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, they enter and remain in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. This is called right immersion.
This is called the noble truth of the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.
And so they meditate observing an aspect of principles internally, externally, and both internally and externally. They meditate observing the principles as liable to originate, as liable to fall, and as liable to both originate and vanish. Or mindfulness is established that principles exist, to the extent necessary for knowledge and mindfulness. They meditate independent, not grasping at anything in the world.
That’s how a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of principles with respect to the four noble truths.
Anyone who develops these four kinds of mindfulness meditation in this way for seven years can expect one of two results:1588 enlightenment in this very life, or if there’s something left over, non-return.
Let alone seven years,1589 anyone who develops these four kinds of mindfulness meditation in this way for six years … five years … four years … three years … two years … one year … seven months … six months … five months … four months … three months … two months … one month … a fortnight … Let alone a fortnight, anyone who develops these four kinds of mindfulness meditation in this way for seven days can expect one of two results: enlightenment in this very life, or if there’s something left over, non-return.
‘The four kinds of mindfulness meditation are the path to convergence. They are in order to purify sentient beings, to get past sorrow and crying, to make an end of pain and sadness, to discover the system, and to realize extinguishment.’ That’s what I said, and this is why I said it.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time Venerable Kassapa the Prince was wandering in the land of the Kosalans together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants when he arrived at a Kosalan citadel named Setavyā.1590 He stayed in the grove of Indian Rosewood to the north of Setavyā.1591
Now at that time the chieftain Pāyāsi was living in Setavyā. It was a crown property given by King Pasenadi of Kosala, teeming with living creatures, full of hay, wood, water, and grain, a royal park endowed to a brahmin.1592
Now at that time Pāyāsi had the following harmful misconception: “There is no afterlife. No beings are reborn spontaneously. There’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds.”1593
The brahmins and householders of Setavyā heard, “It seems the ascetic Kassapa the Prince—a disciple of the ascetic Gotama—is staying in the grove of Indian Rosewood to the north of Setavyā. He has this good reputation: ‘He is astute, competent, intelligent, learned, a brilliant speaker, eloquent, mature, a perfected one.’ It’s good to see such perfected ones.” Then, exiting Setavyā, they formed into companies and headed north to the grove.
Now at that time the chieftain Pāyāsi had retired to the upper floor of his stilt longhouse for his midday nap. He saw the brahmins and householders heading north towards the grove, and addressed his butler, “My butler, why are the brahmins and householders heading north towards the grove?”
“The ascetic Kassapa the Prince—a disciple of the ascetic Gotama—is staying in the grove of Indian Rosewood to the north of Setavyā. He has this good reputation: ‘He is astute, competent, intelligent, learned, a brilliant speaker, eloquent, mature, a perfected one.’ They’re going to see that Kassapa the Prince.”
“Well then, go to the brahmins and householders and say to them: ‘Sirs, the chieftain Pāyāsi asks you to wait, as he will also go to see the ascetic Kassapa the Prince.’ Before Kassapa the Prince persuades those foolish and incompetent brahmins and householders that there is an afterlife, there are beings reborn spontaneously, and there is a fruit or result of good and bad deeds—for none of these things are true!”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied the butler, and did as he was asked.
Then Pāyāsi escorted by the brahmins and householders, went up to Kassapa the Prince, and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side. Before sitting down to one side, some of the brahmins and householders of Setavyā bowed, some exchanged greetings and polite conversation, some held up their joined palms toward Kassapa the Prince, some announced their name and clan, while some kept silent.
Seated to one side, the chieftain Pāyāsi said to Venerable Kassapa the Prince, “Worthy Kassapa, this is my doctrine and view: ‘There is no afterlife. No beings are reborn spontaneously. There’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds.’”
“Chieftain, may I never see or hear of anyone holding such a doctrine or view!1594 For how on earth can anyone say such a thing?
Well then, chieftain, I’ll ask you about this in return, and you can answer as you like. What do you think, chieftain? Are the moon and sun in this world or the other world? Are they gods or humans?”
“They are in the other world, worthy Kassapa, and they are gods, not humans.”1595
“By this method it ought to be proven that1596 there is an afterlife, there are beings reborn spontaneously, and there is a fruit or result of good and bad deeds.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife, no beings are reborn spontaneously, and there’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds.”
“Is there a method by which you can prove what you say?”
“There is, worthy Kassapa.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Well, I have friends and colleagues, relatives and kin who kill living creatures, steal, and commit sexual misconduct. They use speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical. And they’re covetous, malicious, with wrong view. Some time later they become sick, suffering, gravely ill. When I know that they will not recover from their illness, I go to them and say, ‘Sirs, there are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: “Those who kill living creatures, steal, and commit sexual misconduct; use speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical; and are covetous, malicious, and have wrong view—when their body breaks up, after death, are reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell.” You do all these things. If what those ascetics and brahmins say is true, when your body breaks up, after death, you’ll be reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. If that happens, sirs, come and tell me that there is an afterlife, there are beings reborn spontaneously, and there is a fruit or result of good and bad deeds. I trust you and believe you. Anything you see will be just as if I’ve seen it for myself.’1597 They agree to this. But they don’t come back to tell me, nor do they send a messenger. This is the method by which I prove that there is no afterlife, no beings are reborn spontaneously, and there’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds.”1598
“Well then, chieftain, I’ll ask you about this in return, and you can answer as you like. What do you think, chieftain? Suppose they were to arrest a bandit, a criminal and present him to you, saying, ‘Sir, this is a bandit, a criminal. Punish him as you will.’ Then you’d say to them, ‘Well then, my men, tie this man’s arms tightly behind his back with a strong rope. Shave his head and march him from street to street and square to square to the beating of a harsh drum. Then take him out the south gate and there, at the place of execution to the south of the city, chop off his head.’ Saying, ‘Good,’ they’d do as they were told, sitting him down at the place of execution. Could that bandit get the executioners to wait, saying, ‘Please, good executioners! I have friends and colleagues, relatives and kin in such and such village or town. Wait until I’ve visited them, then I’ll come back’? Or would they just chop off his head as he prattled on?”1599
“They’d just chop off his head.”
“So even a human bandit couldn’t get his human executioners to stay his execution. What then of your friends and colleagues, relatives and kin who are reborn in a lower realm after doing bad things? Could they get the wardens of hell to wait, saying, ‘Please, good wardens of hell! Wait until I’ve gone to the chieftain Pāyāsi to tell him that there is an afterlife, there are beings reborn spontaneously, and there is a fruit or result of good and bad deeds’? By this method, too, it ought to be proven that1600 there is an afterlife, there are beings reborn spontaneously, and there is a fruit or result of good and bad deeds.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife.”
“Is there a method by which you can prove what you say?”
“There is, worthy Kassapa.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Well, I have friends and colleagues, relatives and kin who refrain from killing living creatures, stealing, and committing sexual misconduct. They refrain from speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical. And they’re content, kind-hearted, with right view. Some time later they become sick, suffering, gravely ill. When I know that they will not recover from their illness, I go to them and say, ‘Sirs, there are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: “Those who refrain from killing living creatures, stealing, and committing sexual misconduct; who refrain from speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical; and are content, kind-hearted, with right view—when their body breaks up, after death, are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.” You do all these things. If what those ascetics and brahmins say is true, when your body breaks up, after death, you’ll be reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. If that happens, sirs, come and tell me that there is an afterlife. I trust you and believe you. Anything you see will be just as if I’ve seen it for myself.’ They agree to this. But they don’t come back to tell me, nor do they send a messenger. This is the method by which I prove that there is no afterlife.”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said. Suppose there were a man sunk over his head in a sewer. Then you were to order someone to pull him out of the sewer, and they’d agree to do so. Then you’d tell them to carefully scrape the dung off that man’s body with bamboo scrapers, and they’d agree to do so. Then you’d tell them to carefully scrub that man’s body down with pale clay three times, and they’d do so. Then you’d tell them to smear that man’s body with oil, and carefully wash him down with fine paste three times, and they’d do so. Then you’d tell them to dress that man’s hair and beard, and they’d do so. Then you’d tell them to provide that man with costly garlands, makeup, and clothes, and they’d do so. Then you’d tell them to bring that man up to the stilt longhouse and set him up with the five kinds of sensual stimulation, and they’d do so.
What do you think, chieftain? Now that man is nicely bathed and anointed, with hair and beard dressed, bedecked with garlands and bracelets, dressed in white, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation upstairs in the royal longhouse. Would he want to dive back into that sewer again?”
“No, worthy Kassapa. Why is that? Because that sewer is filthy, stinking, disgusting, and repulsive, and it’s regarded as such.”
“In the same way, chieftain, to the gods, human beings are filthy, stinking, disgusting, and repulsive, and are regarded as such. The smell of humans reaches the gods even a hundred leagues away.1601 What then of your friends and colleagues, relatives and kin who are reborn in a higher realm after doing good things? Will they come back to tell you that there is an afterlife? By this method, too, it ought to be proven that there is an afterlife.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife.”
“Can you prove it?”
“I can.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Well, I have friends and colleagues, relatives and kin who refrain from killing living creatures and so on. Some time later they become sick, suffering, gravely ill. When I know that they will not recover from their illness, I go to them and say, ‘Sirs, there are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: “Those who refrain from killing living creatures and so on are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm, in the company of the gods of the thirty-three.” You do all these things. If what those ascetics and brahmins say is true, when your body breaks up, after death, you’ll be reborn in the company of the gods of the thirty-three. If that happens, sirs, come and tell me that there is an afterlife. I trust you and believe you. Anything you see will be just as if I’ve seen it for myself.’ They agree to this. But they don’t come back to tell me, nor do they send a messenger. This is how I prove that there is no afterlife.”
“Well then, chieftain, I’ll ask you about this in return, and you can answer as you like. A hundred human years are equivalent to one day and night for the gods of the thirty-three. Thirty such days make a month, and twelve months make a year. The gods of the thirty-three have a lifespan of a thousand such years.1602 Now, as to your friends who are reborn in the company of the gods of the thirty-three after doing good things. If they think, ‘First I’ll amuse myself for two or three days, supplied and provided with the five kinds of heavenly sensual stimulation. Then I’ll go back to Pāyāsi and tell him that there is an afterlife.’ Would they come back to tell you that there is an afterlife?”
“No, worthy Kassapa. For I would be long dead by then.1603 But worthy Kassapa, who has told you that the gods of the thirty-three exist, or that they have such a long lifespan? I don’t believe you.”1604
“Chieftain, suppose there was a person blind from birth. They couldn’t see sights that are dark or bright, or blue, yellow, red, or magenta. They couldn’t see even and uneven ground, or the stars, or the moon and sun. They’d say, ‘There’s no such thing as dark and bright sights, and no-one who sees them. There’s no such thing as blue, yellow, red, magenta, even and uneven ground, stars, moon and sun, and no-one who sees these things. I don’t know it or see it, therefore it doesn’t exist.’ Would they be speaking rightly?”
“No, worthy Kassapa. There are such things as dark and bright sights, and one who sees them. And those other things are real, too, as is the one who sees them. So it’s not right to say this: ‘I don’t know it or see it, therefore it doesn’t exist.’”
“In the same way, chieftain, when you tell me you don’t believe me you seem like the blind man in the simile. You can’t see the other world the way you think, with the eye of the flesh.1605 There are ascetics and brahmins who live in the wilderness, frequenting remote lodgings in the wilderness and the forest. Meditating diligent, keen, and resolute, they purify the heavenly eye, the power of clairvoyance. With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see this world and the other world, and sentient beings who are spontaneously reborn. That’s how to see the other world, not how you think, with the eye of the flesh. By this method, too, it ought to be proven that there is an afterlife.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife.”
“Can you prove it?”
“I can.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Well, I see ascetics and brahmins who are ethical, of good character, who want to live and don’t want to die, who want to be happy and recoil from pain. I think to myself, ‘If those ascetics and brahmins knew that things were going to be better for them after death, they’d drink poison, take their lives, hang themselves, or throw themselves off a cliff. They mustn’t know that things are going to be better for them after death. That’s why they are ethical, of good character, wanting to live and not wanting to die, wanting to be happy and recoiling from pain.’ This is the method by which I prove that there is no afterlife.”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said.
Once upon a time, a certain brahmin had two wives. One had a son ten or twelve years of age, while the other was pregnant and about to give birth. Then the brahmin passed away.
So the youth said to his mother’s co-wife, ‘Madam, all the money, grain, silver, and gold is mine, and you get nothing. Transfer to me my father’s inheritance.’
But the brahmin lady said, ‘Wait, my dear, until I give birth. If it’s a boy, one portion shall be his. If it’s a girl, she will be your reward.’1606
But for a second time, and a third time, the youth insisted that the entire inheritance must be his.
So the brahmin lady took a knife, went to her bedroom, and sliced open her belly, thinking,1607 ‘Until I give birth—whether it’s a boy or a girl!’1608 She destroyed her own life and that of the fetus, as well as any wealth.
Being foolish and incompetent, she sought an inheritance irrationally and fell to ruin and disaster. In the same way, chieftain, being foolish and incompetent, you’re seeking the other world irrationally and will fall to ruin and disaster,1609 just like that brahmin lady. Good ascetics and brahmins don’t force what is unripe to ripen; rather, they wait for it to ripen. For the life of clever ascetics and brahmins is beneficial. So long as they remain, good ascetics and brahmins produce much merit, and act for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans. By this method, too, it ought to be proven that there is an afterlife.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife.”
“Can you prove it?”
“I can.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Suppose they were to arrest a bandit, a criminal and present him to me, saying, ‘Sir, this is a bandit, a criminal. Punish him as you will.’ I say to them, ‘Well then, sirs, place this man in a pot while he’s still alive. Close up the mouth, bind it up with damp leather, and seal it with a thick coat of damp clay. Then lift it up on a stove and light the fire.’1610 They agree, and do what I ask. When we know that that man has passed away, we lift down the pot and break it open, uncover the mouth, and slowly peek inside, thinking, ‘Hopefully we’ll see his soul escaping.’1611 But we don’t see his soul escaping. This is how I prove that there is no afterlife.”
“Well then, chieftain, I’ll ask you about this in return, and you can answer as you like. Do you recall ever having a midday nap and seeing delightful parks, woods, meadows, and lotus ponds in a dream?”1612
“I do, sir.”
“At that time were you guarded by hunchbacks, dwarves, coquettes, and maidens?”
“I was.”
“But did they see your soul entering or leaving?”1613
“No they did not.”
“So if they couldn’t even see your soul entering or leaving while you were still alive, how could you see the soul of a dead man? By this method, too, it ought to be proven that there is an afterlife, there are beings reborn spontaneously, and there is a fruit or result of good and bad deeds.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife.”
“Can you prove it?”
“I can.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Suppose they were to arrest a bandit, a criminal and present him to me, saying, ‘Sir, this is a bandit, a criminal. Punish him as you will.’ I say to them, ‘Well then, sirs, weigh this man with scales while he’s still alive. Then strangle him with a bowstring, and when he’s dead, weigh him again.’1614 They agree, and do what I ask. So long as they are alive, they’re lighter, softer, more flexible. But when they die they become heavier, stiffer, less flexible.1615 This is how I prove that there is no afterlife.”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said. Suppose a person was to heat an iron ball all day until it was burning, blazing, and glowing, and then they weigh it with scales. After some time, when it had cooled and become quenched, they’d weigh it again. When would that iron ball be lighter, softer, and more workable—when it’s burning or when it’s cool?”1616
“So long as the iron ball is full of heat and air—burning, blazing, and glowing—it’s lighter, softer, and more workable. But when it lacks heat and air—cooled and quenched—it’s heavier, stiffer, and less workable.”
“In the same way, so long as this body is full of life and warmth and consciousness it’s lighter, softer, and more flexible. But when it lacks life and warmth and consciousness it’s heavier, stiffer, and less flexible. By this method, too, it ought to be proven that there is an afterlife.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife.”
“Can you prove it?”
“I can.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Suppose they were to arrest a bandit, a criminal and present him to me, saying, ‘Sir, this is a bandit, a criminal. Punish him as you will.’ I say to them, ‘Well then, sirs, take this man’s life without damaging his outer skin, inner skin, flesh, sinews, bones, or marrow. Hopefully we’ll see his soul escaping.’ They agree, and do what I ask. When he’s nearly dead, I tell them to1617 lay him on his back in hope of seeing his soul escape. They do so. But we don’t see his soul escaping. I tell them to lay him bent over, to lay him on his side, to lay him on the other side; to stand him upright, to stand him upside down; to strike him with fists, stones, rods, and swords; and to give him a good shaking in hope of seeing his soul escape. They do all these things. But we don’t see his soul escaping. For him the eye itself is present, and so are those sights. Yet he does not experience that sense-field.1618 The ear itself is present, and so are those sounds. Yet he does not experience that sense-field. The nose itself is present, and so are those smells. Yet he does not experience that sense-field. The tongue itself is present, and so are those tastes. Yet he does not experience that sense-field. The body itself is present, and so are those touches. Yet he does not experience that sense-field. This is how I prove that there is no afterlife.”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said.
Once upon a time, a certain horn blower took his horn and traveled to a borderland,1619 where he went to a certain village. Standing in the middle of the village, he sounded his horn three times, then placed it on the ground and sat down to one side.
Then the people of the borderland thought, ‘What is making this sound, so arousing, sensuous, intoxicating, infatuating, and captivating?’ They gathered around the horn blower and said, ‘Worthy man, what is making this sound, so arousing, sensuous, intoxicating, infatuating, and captivating?’
‘The sound is made by this, which is called a horn.’
They laid that horn on its back, saying, ‘Speak, good horn! Speak, good horn!’ But still the horn made no sound.
Then they lay the horn bent over, they lay it on its side, they lay it on its other side; they stood it upright, they stood it upside down; they struck it with fists, stones, rods, and swords; and they gave it a good shake, saying, ‘Speak, good horn! Speak, good horn!’ But still the horn made no sound.
So the horn blower thought, ‘How foolish are these borderland folk! For how can they seek the sound of a horn so irrationally?’ And as they looked on, he picked up the horn, sounded it three times, and took it away with him.
Then the people of the borderland thought, ‘So, it seems, when what is called a horn is accompanied by a person, effort, and wind, it makes a sound. But when these things are absent it makes no sound.’
In the same way, so long as this body is full of life and warmth and consciousness it walks back and forth, stands, sits, and lies down. It sees sights with the eye, hears sounds with the ear, smells odors with the nose, tastes flavors with the tongue, feels touches with the body, and knows ideas with the mind. But when it lacks life and warmth and consciousness it does none of these things. By this method, too, it ought to be proven that there is an afterlife.”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I think that there is no afterlife.”
“Can you prove it?”
“I can.”
“How, exactly, chieftain?”
“Suppose they were to arrest a bandit, a criminal and present him to me, saying, ‘Sir, this is a bandit, a criminal. Punish him as you will.’ I say to them, ‘Well then, sirs, cut open this man’s outer skin. Hopefully we might see his soul.’ They cut open his outer skin, but we see no soul. I say to them, ‘Well then, sirs, cut open his inner skin, flesh, sinews, bones, or marrow. Hopefully we’ll see his soul.’ They do so, but we see no soul. This is how I prove that there is no afterlife.”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said.
Once upon a time, a certain fire-worshiping matted-hair ascetic settled in a leaf hut in a wilderness region.1620 Then a caravan came out from a certain country. It stayed for one night not far from that ascetic’s hermitage, and then moved on. The ascetic thought, ‘Why don’t I go to that caravan’s campsite? Hopefully I’ll find something useful there.’
So he went, and he saw a little baby boy abandoned there. When he saw this he thought, ‘It’s not proper for me to look on while a human being dies. Why don’t I bring this boy back to my hermitage, nurse him, provide for him, and raise him?’ So that’s what he did.
When the boy was ten or twelve years old, the ascetic had some business come up in the country. So he said to the boy, ‘My dear, I wish to go to the country. Serve the sacred flame. Do not extinguish it. But if you should extinguish it, here is the hatchet, the firewood, and the bundle of drill-sticks. Light the fire and serve it.’ And having instructed the boy, the ascetic went to the country.
But the boy was so engrossed in his play, the fire went out. He thought, ‘My father told me to serve the sacred flame. Why don’t I light it again and serve it?’
So he chopped the bundle of drill-sticks with the hatchet, thinking, ‘Hopefully I’ll get a fire!’ But he still got no fire.
He split the bundle of drill-sticks into two, three, four, five, ten, or a hundred parts. He chopped them into splinters, pounded them in a mortar, and swept them away in a strong wind, thinking, ‘Hopefully I’ll get a fire!’ But he still got no fire.
Then the matted-hair ascetic, having concluded his business in the country, returned to his own hermitage, and said to the boy, ‘I trust, my dear, that the fire didn’t go out?’ And the boy told him what had happened. Then the ascetic thought, ‘How foolish is this boy, how incompetent! For how can he seek a fire so irrationally?’
So while the boy looked on, he took a bundle of fire-sticks, lit the fire, and said, ‘Dear boy, this is how to light a fire. Not the foolish and incompetent way you sought it so irrationally.’ In the same way, chieftain, being foolish and incompetent, you seek the other world irrationally.1621 Let go of this harmful misconception, chieftain, let go of it! Don’t create lasting harm and suffering for yourself!”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I’m not able to let go of that harmful misconception. King Pasenadi of Kosala knows my views, and so do foreign kings. If I let go of this harmful misconception, people will say, ‘How foolish is the chieftain Pāyāsi, how incompetent, that he should hold on to a mistake!’ I shall carry on with this view out of anger, contempt, and spite!”1622
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said.
Once upon a time, a large caravan of a thousand wagons traveled from a country in the east to the west.1623 Wherever they went they quickly used up the grass, wood, water, and the green foliage. Now, that caravan had two leaders, each in charge of five hundred wagons. They thought, ‘This is a large caravan of a thousand wagons. Wherever we go we quickly use up the grass, wood, water, and the green foliage.1624 Why don’t we split the caravan in two halves?’ So that’s what they did.
One caravan leader, having prepared much grass, wood, and water, started the caravan. After two or three days’ journey he saw a dark man with red eyes coming the other way in a donkey cart with muddy wheels. He was armored with a quiver and wreathed with yellow lotus, his clothes and hair all wet. Seeing him, he said,1625 ‘Sir, where do you come from?’
‘From such and such a country.’
‘And where are you going?’
‘To the country named so and so.’
‘But has there been much rain in the desert up ahead?’
‘Indeed there has, sir. The paths are sprinkled with water, and there is much grass, wood, and water. Toss out your grass, wood, and water. Your wagons will move swiftly when lightly-laden, so don’t tire your draught teams.’
So the caravan leader addressed his drivers, ‘This man says that there has been much rain in the desert up ahead. He advises us to toss out the grass, wood, and water. The wagons will move swiftly when lightly-laden, and won’t tire our draught teams. So let’s toss out the grass, wood, and water and restart the caravan with lightly-laden wagons.’
‘Yes, worthy sir,’ the drivers replied, and that’s what they did.
But in the caravan’s first campsite they saw no grass, wood, or water. And in the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh campsites they saw no grass, wood, or water. And all fell to ruin and disaster. And the men and beasts in that caravan were all devoured by that non-human spirit.1626 Only their bones remained.
Now, when the second caravan leader knew that the first caravan was well underway, he prepared much grass, wood, and water and started the caravan. After two or three days’ journey he saw a dark man with red eyes coming the other way in a donkey cart with muddy wheels. He was armored with a quiver and wreathed with yellow lotus, his clothes and hair all wet. Seeing him, he said, ‘Sir, where do you come from?’
‘From such and such a country.’
‘And where are you going?’
‘To the country named so and so.’
‘But has there been much rain in the desert up ahead?’
‘Indeed there has, sir. The paths are sprinkled with water, and there is much grass, wood, and water. Toss out your grass, wood, and water. Your wagons will move swiftly when lightly-laden, so don’t tire your draught teams.’
So the caravan leader addressed his drivers, ‘This man says that there has been much rain in the desert up ahead. He advises us to toss out the grass, wood, and water. The wagons will move swiftly when lightly-laden, and won’t tire our draught teams. But this person is neither our friend nor relative. How can we proceed out of trust in him?1627 We shouldn’t toss out any grass, wood, or water, but continue with our goods laden as before. We shall not toss out any old stock.’
‘Yes, worthy sir,’ the drivers replied, and they restarted the caravan with the goods laden as before.
And in the caravan’s first campsite they saw no grass, wood, or water. And in the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh campsites they saw no grass, wood, or water. And they saw the other caravan that had come to ruin. And they saw the bones of the men and beasts who had been devoured by that non-human spirit.
So the caravan leader addressed his drivers, ‘This caravan came to ruin, as happens when guided by a foolish caravan leader. Well then, sirs, toss out any of our merchandise that’s of little value, and take what’s valuable from this caravan.’
‘Yes, worthy sir’ replied the drivers, and that’s what they did. They crossed over the desert safely, as happens when guided by an astute caravan leader.
In the same way, chieftain, being foolish and incompetent, you will come to ruin seeking the other world irrationally, like the first caravan leader. And those who think you’re worth listening to and trusting will also come to ruin, like the drivers. Let go of this harmful misconception, chieftain, let go of it! Don’t create lasting harm and suffering for yourself!”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I’m not able to let go of that harmful misconception. King Pasenadi of Kosala knows my views, and so do foreign kings. I shall carry on with this view out of anger, contempt, and spite!”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said.
Once upon a time, a certain swineherd went from his own village to another village. There he saw a large pile of dry dung abandoned. He thought, ‘This pile of dry dung can serve as food for my pigs. Why don’t I carry it off?’ So he spread out his upper robe, shoveled the dry dung onto it, tied it up into a bundle, lifted it on to his head, and went on his way. While on his way a large sudden storm poured down. Smeared with leaking, oozing dung down to his fingernails, he kept on carrying the load of dung.
When people saw him they said, ‘Have you gone mad, sir? Have you lost your mind? For how can you, smeared with leaking, oozing dung down to your fingernails, keep on carrying that load of dung?’
‘You’re the mad ones, sirs! You’re the ones who’ve lost your minds! For this will serve as food for my pigs.’
In the same way, chieftain, you seem like the dung carrier in the simile. Let go of this harmful misconception, chieftain, let go of it! Don’t create lasting harm and suffering for yourself!”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I’m not able to let go of that harmful misconception. King Pasenadi of Kosala knows my views, and so do foreign kings. I shall carry on with this view out of anger, contempt, and spite!”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said.
Once upon a time, two gamblers were playing with seed dice. One gambler, every time they took a bad hand, swallowed the losing seed.1628
The second gambler saw him, and said, ‘Well, my friend, you’ve won it all! Give me the seed dice, I will roll them.’1629
‘Yes, my friend,’ the gambler replied, and gave them.
Then the gambler soaked the seed dice in poison and said to the other, ‘Come, my friend, let’s play seed dice.’
‘Yes, my friend,’ the other gambler replied.
And for a second time the gamblers played with seed dice. And for the second time, every time they took a bad hand, that gambler swallowed the losing seed.
The second gambler saw him, and said,
‘The man swallows the dice without realizing
they’re smeared with most terrible venom.
Swallow, you damn cheat, swallow!
Soon you’ll know the bitter fruit!’
In the same way, chieftain, you seem like the gambler in the simile. Let go of this harmful misconception, chieftain, let go of it! Don’t create lasting harm and suffering for yourself!”
“Even though the worthy Kassapa says this, still I’m not able to let go of that harmful misconception. King Pasenadi of Kosala knows my views, and so do foreign kings. I shall carry on with this view out of anger, contempt, and spite!”
“Well then, chieftain, I shall give you a simile. For by means of a simile some sensible people understand the meaning of what is said.
Once upon a time, the inhabitants of a certain country emigrated. Then one friend said to another, ‘Come, my friend, let’s go to that country. Hopefully we’ll get some riches there!’
‘Yes, my friend,’ the other replied.
They went to that country, and to a certain deserted village. There they saw a pile of abandoned sunn hemp. Seeing it, one friend said to the other,1630 ‘This is a pile of abandoned sunn hemp. Well then, my friend, you make up a bundle of hemp, and I’ll make one too. Let’s both take a bundle of hemp and go on.’
‘Yes, my friend,’ he said. Carrying their bundles of hemp they went to another deserted village.
There they saw much sunn hemp thread abandoned. Seeing it, one friend said to the other, ‘This pile of abandoned sunn hemp thread is just what we wanted the hemp for! Well then, my friend, let’s abandon our bundles of hemp, and both take a bundle of hemp thread and go on.’
‘I’ve already carried this bundle of hemp a long way, and it’s well tied up. It’s good enough for me, you understand.’1631 So one friend abandoned their bundle of hemp and picked up a bundle of hemp thread.
They went to another deserted village. There they saw much sunn hemp cloth abandoned. Seeing it, one friend said to the other, ‘This pile of abandoned sunn hemp cloth is just what we wanted the hemp and hemp thread for! Well then, my friend, let’s abandon our bundles, and both take a bundle of hemp cloth and go on.’
‘I’ve already carried this bundle of hemp a long way, and it’s well tied up. It’s good enough for me, you understand.’ So one friend abandoned their bundle of hemp thread and picked up a bundle of hemp cloth.
They went to another deserted village. There they saw a pile of flax, and by turn, linen thread, linen cloth, cotton, cotton thread, cotton cloth, iron, copper, tin, lead, silver, and gold abandoned. Seeing it, one friend said to the other, ‘This pile of gold is just what we wanted all those other things for! Well then, my friend, let’s abandon our bundles, and both take a bundle of gold and go on.’
‘I’ve already carried this bundle of hemp a long way, and it’s well tied up. It’s good enough for me, you understand.’ So one friend abandoned their bundle of silver and picked up a bundle of gold.
Then they returned to their own village. When one friend returned with a bundle of sunn hemp, they didn’t please their parents, their partners and children, or their friends and colleagues. And they got no pleasure and happiness on that account. But when the other friend returned with a bundle of gold, they pleased their parents, their partners and children, and their friends and colleagues. And they got much pleasure and happiness on that account.
In the same way, chieftain, you seem like the hemp-carrier in the simile. Let go of this harmful misconception, chieftain, let go of it! Don’t create lasting harm and suffering for yourself!”
“I was delighted and satisfied with your very first simile, worthy Kassapa!1632 Nevertheless, I wanted to hear your various solutions to the problem, so I thought I’d oppose you in this way. Excellent, worthy Kassapa! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, the worthy Kassapa has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the worthy Gotama, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the worthy Kassapa remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.
Worthy Kassapa, I wish to perform a great sacrifice. Please instruct me so it will be for my lasting welfare and happiness.”1633
“Chieftain, take the kind of sacrifice where cattle, goats and sheep, chickens and pigs, and various kinds of creatures are slaughtered. And the recipients have wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong immersion. That kind of sacrifice is not very fruitful or beneficial or brilliant or bountiful.
Suppose a farmer was to enter a wood taking seed and plough. And on that barren field, that barren ground, with uncleared stumps he sowed seeds that were broken, spoiled, weather-damaged, infertile, and ill kept. And the heavens don’t provide enough rain when needed. Would those seeds grow, increase, and mature, and would the farmer get abundant fruit?”
“No, worthy Kassapa.”
“In the same way, chieftain, take the kind of sacrifice where cattle, goats and sheep, chickens and pigs, and various kinds of creatures are slaughtered. And the recipients have wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong immersion. That kind of sacrifice is not very fruitful or beneficial or brilliant or bountiful.
But take the kind of sacrifice where cattle, goats and sheep, chickens and pigs, and various kinds of creatures are not slaughtered. And the recipients have right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion. That kind of sacrifice is very fruitful and beneficial and brilliant and bountiful.
Suppose a farmer was to enter a wood taking seed and plough. And on that fertile field, that fertile ground, with well-cleared stumps he sowed seeds that were intact, unspoiled, not weather-damaged, fertile, and well kept. And the heavens provide plenty of rain when needed. Would those seeds grow, increase, and mature, and would the farmer get abundant fruit?”
“Yes, worthy Kassapa.”
“In the same way, chieftain, take the kind of sacrifice where cattle, goats and sheep, chickens and pigs, and various kinds of creatures are not slaughtered. And the recipients have right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion. That kind of sacrifice is very fruitful and beneficial and brilliant and bountiful.”
Then the chieftain Pāyāsi set up an offering for ascetics and brahmins, for paupers, vagrants, supplicants, and beggars. At that offering such food as rough gruel with false black pepper was given, and rough clothes with knotted fringes.1634 Now, it was a student named Uttara who organized that offering.
When the offering was over he referred to it like this, “Through this offering may I be together with the chieftain Pāyāsi in this world, but not in the next.”
Pāyāsi heard of this, so he summoned Uttara and said, “Is it really true, dear Uttara, that you referred to the offering in this way?”
“Yes, sir.”
“But why? Don’t we who seek merit expect some result from the offering?”
“At your offering such food as rough gruel with false black pepper was given, which you wouldn’t even want to touch with your foot, much less eat. And also rough clothes with knotted fringes, which you also wouldn’t want to touch with your foot, much less wear. Sir, you’re dear and beloved to me. But how can I reconcile one so dear with something so disagreeable?”
“Well then, dear Uttara, set up an offering with the same kind of food that I eat, and the same kind of clothes that I wear.”
“Yes, worthy sir,” replied Uttara, and did so.
So the chieftain Pāyāsi gave gifts carelessly, thoughtlessly, not with his own hands, giving the dregs. When his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in company with the gods of the four great kings, in an empty palace of sirisa wood.1635 But the student Uttara who organized the offering gave gifts carefully, thoughtfully, with his own hands, not giving the dregs. When his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in company with the gods of the thirty-three.
Now at that time Venerable Gavampati would often go to that empty sirisa palace for the day’s meditation.1636 Then the godling Pāyāsi went up to him, bowed, and stood to one side. Gavampati said to him, “Who are you, reverend?”
“Sir, I am the chieftain Pāyāsi.”
“Didn’t you have the view that there is no afterlife, no beings are reborn spontaneously, and there’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds?”
“It’s true, sir, I did have such a view. But Master Kassapa the Prince dissuaded me from that harmful misconception.”
“But the student named Uttara who organized that offering for you—where has he been reborn?”
“Sir, Uttara gave gifts carefully, thoughtfully, with his own hands, not giving the dregs. When his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in company with the gods of the thirty-three. But I gave gifts carelessly, thoughtlessly, not with my own hands, giving the dregs. When my body broke up, after death, I was reborn in company with the gods of the four great kings, in an empty sirisa palace.
So, sir, when you’ve returned to the human realm, please announce this: ‘Give gifts carefully, thoughtfully, with your own hands, not giving the dregs. The chieftain Pāyāsi gave gifts carelessly, thoughtlessly, not with his own hands, giving the dregs. When his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in company with the gods of the four great kings, in an empty palace of sirisa. But the student Uttara who organized the offering gave gifts carefully, thoughtfully, with his own hands, not giving the dregs. When his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in company with the gods of the Thirty-Three.’”
So when Venerable Gavampati returned to the human realm he made that announcement.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying in the land of the Mallas, near the Mallian town named Anupiya.1637 Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Anupiya for alms. Then it occurred to him, “It’s too early to wander for alms in Anupiya. Why don’t I go to visit the wanderer of the Bhaggava clan in his monastery?”1638
So that’s what he did. Then the wanderer of the Bhaggava clan said to the Buddha, “Let the Blessed One come, sir! Welcome to the Blessed One, sir! It’s been a long time since you took the opportunity to come here. Please, sir, sit down, this seat is ready.”
The Buddha sat on the seat spread out, while the wanderer of the Bhaggava clan took a low seat, sat to one side, and said to the Buddha, “Sir, a few days ago Sunakkhatta the Licchavi came to me and said:1639 ‘Now, Bhaggava, I have rejected the Buddha. Now I no longer live dedicated to him.’ Sir, is what Sunakkhatta said true?”
“Indeed it is, Bhaggava.
A few days ago Sunakkhatta the Licchavi came to me, bowed, sat down to one side, and said: ‘Now I reject the Buddha! Now I shall no longer live dedicated to you.’
When Sunakkhatta said this, I said to him, ‘But Sunakkhatta, did I ever say to you: “Come, live dedicated to me”?’1640
‘No, sir.’
‘Or did you ever say to me: “Sir, I shall live dedicated to the Buddha”?’
‘No, sir.’
‘So it seems that I did not ask you to live dedicated to me, nor did you say you would live dedicated to me. In that case, you futile man, who are you and what are you rejecting? See how far you have strayed!’
‘But sir, the Buddha never performs any superhuman demonstrations of psychic power for me.’1641
‘But Sunakkhatta, did I ever say to you: “Come, live dedicated to me and I will perform a superhuman demonstration of psychic power for you”?’
‘No, sir.’
‘Or did you ever say to me: “Sir, I shall live dedicated to the Buddha, and the Buddha will perform a superhuman demonstration of psychic power for me”?’
‘No, sir.’
‘So it seems that I did not ask this of you, and you did not require it of me. In that case, you futile man, who are you and what are you rejecting? What do you think, Sunakkhatta? Whether or not there is a demonstration of psychic power, does my teaching lead someone who practices it to the goal of the complete ending of suffering?’
‘It does, sir.’
‘So it seems that whether or not there is a demonstration of psychic power, my teaching leads someone who practices it to the goal of the complete ending of suffering. In that case, what is the point of superhuman demonstrations of psychic power? See how far you have strayed, you silly man!’
‘But sir, the Buddha never describes the origin of the world to me.’
‘But Sunakkhatta, did I ever say to you: “Come, live dedicated to me and I will describe the origin of the world to you”?’
‘No, sir.’
‘Or did you ever say to me: “Sir, I shall live dedicated to the Buddha, and the Buddha will describe the origin of the world to me”?’
‘No, sir.’
‘So it seems that I did not ask this of you, and you did not require it of me. In that case, you futile man, who are you and what are you rejecting? What do you think, Sunakkhatta? Whether or not the origin of the world is described, does my teaching lead someone who practices it to the goal of the complete ending of suffering?’
‘It does, sir.’
‘So it seems that whether or not the origin of the world is described, my teaching leads someone who practices it to the goal of the complete ending of suffering. In that case, what is the point of describing the origin of the world? See how far you have strayed, you silly man!
In many ways, Sunakkhatta, you have praised me like this in the Vajjian capital: “That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.”
In many ways you have praised the teaching like this in the Vajjian capital: “The teaching is well explained by the Buddha—apparent in the present life, immediately effective, inviting inspection, relevant, so that sensible people can know it for themselves.”
In many ways you have praised the Saṅgha like this in the Vajjian capital: “The Saṅgha of the Buddha’s disciples is practicing the way that’s good, direct, systematic, and proper. It consists of the four pairs, the eight individuals. This is the Saṅgha of the Buddha’s disciples that is worthy of offerings dedicated to the gods, worthy of hospitality, worthy of a religious donation, worthy of greeting with joined palms, and is the supreme field of merit for the world.”
I declare this to you, Sunakkhatta, I announce this to you! There will be those who say that Sunakkhatta was unable to lead the spiritual life under the ascetic Gotama. That’s why he resigned the training and returned to a lesser life. That’s what they’ll say.’
Though I spoke to Sunakkhatta like this, he still left this teaching and training, like someone on the highway to hell.
Bhaggava, this one time I was staying in the land of the Kurus where they have a town named Uttarakā.1642 Then I robed up in the morning and, taking my bowl and robe, entered Uttarakā for alms with Sunakkhatta the Licchavi as my second monk. Now at that time a naked ascetic who was an aristocrat of Kuru had taken a vow to behave like a dog. When food is tossed on the ground, he gets down on all fours, eating and devouring it just with his mouth.1643
Sunakkhatta saw him doing this and thought, ‘That ascetic is a holy man!’1644
Then, knowing Sunakkhatta’s train of thought, I said to him, ‘Don’t you claim to be an ascetic who follows the Sakyan, you silly man?’
‘But why does the Buddha say this to me?’
‘When you saw that naked ascetic of Kuru, didn’t you think, “That ascetic is a holy man!”?’
‘Yes, sir. But sir, are you jealous of the perfected ones?’
‘I’m not jealous of the perfected ones, you silly man. Rather, you should give up this harmful misconception that has arisen in you. Don’t create lasting harm and suffering for yourself!
That naked ascetic the aristocrat of Kuru, who you imagine to be a holy man, will die of flatulence in seven days.1645 And when he dies, he’ll be reborn in the very lowest rank of titans, named the Kālakañjas.1646 And they’ll throw him in the charnel ground on a clump of vetiver. If you wish, Sunakkhatta, go to the aristocrat of Kuru and ask him whether he knows his own destiny. It’s possible that he will answer: “Reverend Sunakkhatta, I know my own destiny. I’ve been reborn in the very lowest rank of titans, named the Kālakañjas.”’
So, Bhaggava, Sunakkhatta went to see the aristocrat of Kuru and said to him, ‘Reverend aristocrat of Kuru, the ascetic Gotama has declared that you will die of flatulence in seven days. And when you die, you’ll be reborn in the very lowest rank of titans, named the Kālakañjas. And when you die, they’ll throw you in the charnel ground on a clump of vetiver. But by eating just a little food and drinking just a little water, you’ll prove what the ascetic Gotama says to be false.’
Then Sunakkhatta counted up the days until the seventh day, as happens when you have no faith in the Realized One. But on the seventh day, the naked ascetic who was an aristocrat of Kuru died of flatulence. And when he passed away, he was reborn in the very lowest rank of titans, named the Kālakañjas. And when he passed away, they threw him in the charnel ground on a clump of vetiver.
Sunakkhatta the Licchavi heard about this. So he went to see the aristocrat of Kuru in the charnel ground on the clump of vetiver. There he struck him with his fist three times, ‘Reverend aristocrat of Kuru, do you know your destiny?’
Then the aristocrat of Kuru got up, rubbing his back with his hands, and said,1647 ‘Reverend Sunakkhatta, I know my own destiny. I’ve been reborn in the very lowest rank of titans, named the Kālakañjas.’ After speaking, he fell flat right there.
Then Sunakkhatta came to me, bowed, and sat down to one side. I said to him, ‘What do you think, Sunakkhatta? Did the prediction I made about the aristocrat of Kuru turn out to be correct, or not?’
‘It turned out to be correct.’
‘What do you think, Sunakkhatta? If that is so, has a superhuman demonstration of psychic power been performed or not?’
‘Clearly, sir, a superhuman demonstration of psychic power has been performed.’
‘Though I performed such a superhuman demonstration of psychic power you say this: “But sir, the Buddha never performs any superhuman demonstrations of psychic power for me.” See how far you have strayed!’ Though I spoke to Sunakkhatta like this, he still left this teaching and training, like someone on the highway to hell.
This one time, Bhaggava, I was staying near Vesālī, at the Great Wood, in the hall with the peaked roof. Now at that time the naked ascetic Kaḷāramaṭṭaka was residing in Vesālī. And in the Vajjian capital he had reached the peak of material things and fame.1648 He had undertaken these seven vows.1649 ‘As long as I live, I will be a naked ascetic, not wearing clothes. As long as I live, I will be chaste, not having sex. As long as I live, I will consume only meat and beer, not eating rice and porridge.1650 And I will not go past the following shrines near Vesālī: the Udena Shrine to the east, the Gotamaka to the south, the Seven Maidens to the west, and the Many Sons to the north.’1651 And it was due to undertaking these seven vows that he had reached the peak of material things and fame.
So, Bhaggava, Sunakkhatta went to see Kaḷāramaṭṭaka and asked him a question. But when it stumped him, he displayed annoyance, hate, and bitterness. So Sunakkhatta thought, ‘I’ve offended the holy man, the perfected one, the ascetic.1652 I mustn’t create lasting harm and suffering for myself!’
Then Sunakkhatta came to me, bowed, and sat down to one side. I said to him, ‘Don’t you claim to be an ascetic who follows the Sakyan, you silly man?’
‘But why does the Buddha say this to me?’
‘Didn’t you go to see the naked ascetic Kaḷāramaṭṭaka and ask him a question? But when it stumped him, he displayed annoyance, hate, and bitterness. Then you thought, “I’ve offended the holy man, the perfected one, the ascetic. I mustn’t create lasting harm and suffering for myself!”’
‘Yes, sir. But sir, are you jealous of perfected ones?’
‘I’m not jealous of the perfected ones, you silly man. Rather, you should give up this harmful misconception that has arisen in you. Don’t create lasting harm and suffering for yourself!
That naked ascetic Kaḷāramaṭṭaka, who you imagine to be a true holy man, will shortly be clothed, living with a partner, eating rice and porridge, having gone past all the shrines near Vesālī. And he will die after losing all his fame.’
And that’s exactly what happened.
Sunakkhatta heard about this. He came to me, bowed, and sat down to one side. I said to him, ‘What do you think, Sunakkhatta? Did the declaration I made about Kaḷāramaṭṭaka turn out to be correct, or not?’
‘It turned out to be correct.’
‘What do you think, Sunakkhatta? If that is so, has a superhuman demonstration of psychic power been performed or not?’
‘Clearly, sir, a superhuman demonstration of psychic power has been performed.’
‘Though I perform such a superhuman demonstration of psychic power you say this: “But sir, the Buddha never performs any superhuman demonstrations of psychic power for me.” See how far you have strayed!’ Though I spoke to Sunakkhatta like this, he still left this teaching and training, like someone on the highway to hell.
This one time, Bhaggava, I was staying right there near Vesālī, at the Great Wood, in the hall with the peaked roof. Now at that time the naked ascetic Pāṭikaputta was residing in Vesālī. And in the Vajjian capital he had reached the peak of material things and fame.1653 He was telling a crowd in Vesālī: ‘Both the ascetic Gotama and I speak from knowledge.1654 One who speaks from knowledge ought to display a superhuman demonstration of psychic power to another who speaks from knowledge. If the ascetic Gotama meets me half-way, there we should both perform a superhuman demonstration of psychic power. If he performs one demonstration of psychic power, I’ll perform two. If he performs two, I’ll perform four. If he performs four, I’ll perform eight. However many demonstrations of psychic power the ascetic Gotama performs, I’ll perform double.’
Then Sunakkhatta came to me, bowed, sat down to one side, and told me of all this.
I said to him, ‘Sunakkhatta, the naked ascetic Pāṭikaputta is not capable of meeting me face to face, unless he gives up that statement and that intention, and lets go of that view. If he thinks he can meet me face to face without giving up those things, his head may explode.’
‘Careful what you say, Blessed One! Careful what you say, Holy One!’
‘But why do you say this to me, Sunakkhatta?’
‘Sir, the Buddha has categorically asserted that Pāṭikaputta is not capable of meeting the Buddha face to face, otherwise his head may explode. But Pāṭikaputta might meet the Buddha face to face in disguise, proving the Buddha wrong.’
‘Sunakkhatta, would the Realized One make an ambiguous statement?’1655
‘But sir, did you make that statement after comprehending Pāṭikaputta’s mind with your mind? Or did deities tell you about it?’
‘Both, Sunakkhatta. For Ajita the Licchavi general has recently passed away and been reborn in the host of the thirty-three. He came and told me this, “The naked ascetic Pāṭikaputta is shameless, sir, he is a liar. For he has declared of me in the Vajjian capital: ‘Ajita the Licchavi general has been reborn in the Great Hell.’
But that is not true—I have been reborn in the host of the thirty-three. The naked ascetic Pāṭikaputta is shameless, sir, he is a liar. Pāṭikaputta is not capable of meeting the Buddha face to face, otherwise his head may explode.”
Thus I both made that statement after comprehending Pāṭikaputta’s mind with my mind, and deities told me about it.
So Sunakkhatta, I’ll wander for alms in Vesālī. After the meal, on my return from almsround, I’ll go to Pāṭikaputta’s monastery for the day’s meditation. Now you may tell him, if you so wish.’
Then, Bhaggava, I robed up in the morning and, taking my bowl and robe, entered Vesālī for alms. After the meal, on my return from almsround, I went to Pāṭikaputta’s monastery for the day’s meditation. Then Sunakkhatta rushed into Vesālī to see the very well-known Licchavis and said to them, ‘Good sirs, after his almsround, the Buddha has gone to Pāṭikaputta’s monastery for the day’s meditation. Come forth, good sirs, come forth! There will be a superhuman demonstration of psychic power by the holy ascetics!’ So the very well-known Licchavis thought, ‘It seems there will be a superhuman demonstration of psychic power by the holy ascetics! Let’s go!’
Then he went to see the very well-known well-to-do brahmins, rich householders, and ascetics and brahmins who follow various other religions, and said the same thing. They all said, ‘It seems there will be a superhuman demonstration of psychic power by the holy ascetics! Let’s go!’
Then all those very well-known people went to Pāṭikaputta’s monastery. That assembly was large, Bhaggava; there were many hundreds, many thousands of them.
Pāṭikaputta heard, ‘It seems that very well-known Licchavis, well-to-do brahmins, rich householders, and ascetics and brahmins who follow various other religions have come forth. And the ascetic Gotama is sitting in my monastery for the day’s meditation.’ When he heard that, he became frightened, scared, his hair standing on end. In fear he went to the Pale-Moon Ebony Trunk Monastery of the wanderers.
The assembly heard of this, and instructed a man, ‘Come, my man, go to see Pāṭikaputta at the Pale-Moon Ebony Trunk Monastery and say to him, “Come forth, Reverend Pāṭikaputta! All these very well-known people have come forth, and the ascetic Gotama is sitting in your monastery for the day’s meditation. For you stated this in the assembly at Vesālī: ‘Both the ascetic Gotama and I speak from knowledge. One who speaks from knowledge ought to display a superhuman demonstration of psychic power to another who speaks from knowledge. If the ascetic Gotama meets me half-way, there we should both perform a superhuman demonstration of psychic power. If he performs one demonstration of psychic power, I’ll perform two. If he performs two, I’ll perform four. If he performs four, I’ll perform eight. However many demonstrations of psychic power the ascetic Gotama performs, I’ll perform double.’ Come forth, Reverend Pāṭikaputta, half-way. The ascetic Gotama has come the first half, and is sitting in your monastery.”’
‘Yes, worthy sir,’ replied that man, and delivered the message.
When he had spoken, Pāṭikaputta said: ‘I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!’ But wriggle as he might, he couldn’t get up from his seat. Then that man said to Pāṭikaputta, ‘What’s up, Reverend Pāṭikaputta? Is your bottom stuck to the bench, or is the bench stuck to your bottom? You say “I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!” But wriggle as you might, you can’t get up from your seat.’ And as he was speaking, Pāṭikaputta said: ‘I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!’ But wriggle as he might, he couldn’t get up from his seat.
When that man knew that Pāṭikaputta had lost, he returned to the assembly and said, ‘Pāṭikaputta has lost, worthies. He says “I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!” But wriggle as he might, he can’t get up from his seat.’ When he said this, I said to the assembly, ‘The naked ascetic Pāṭikaputta is not capable of meeting me face to face, unless he gives up that statement and that intention, and lets go of that view. If he thinks he can meet me face to face without giving up those things, his head may explode.’
The first recitation section is finished.
Then, Bhaggava, a certain Licchavi minister stood up and said to the assembly, ‘Well then, worthies, wait an hour, I’ll go. Hopefully I’ll be able to lead Pāṭikaputta back to the assembly.’
So that minister went to see Pāṭikaputta and said, ‘Come forth, Reverend Pāṭikaputta! It’s best for you to come forth. All these very well-known people have come forth, and the ascetic Gotama is sitting in your monastery for the day’s meditation. You said you’d meet the ascetic Gotama half-way. The ascetic Gotama has come the first half, and is sitting in your monastery. The ascetic Gotama has told the assembly that you’re not capable of meeting him face to face. Come forth, Pāṭikaputta! When you come forth we’ll make you win and the ascetic Gotama lose.’
When he had spoken, Pāṭikaputta said: ‘I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!’ But wriggle as he might, he couldn’t get up from his seat. Then the minister said to Pāṭikaputta, ‘What’s up, Reverend Pāṭikaputta? Is your bottom stuck to the bench, or is the bench stuck to your bottom? You say “I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!” But wriggle as you might, you can’t get up from your seat.’ And as he was speaking, Pāṭikaputta said: ‘I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!’ But wriggle as he might, he couldn’t get up from his seat.
When the Licchavi minister knew that Pāṭikaputta had lost, he returned to the assembly and said, ‘Pāṭikaputta has lost, worthies.’ When he said this, I said to the assembly, ‘Pāṭikaputta is not capable of meeting me face to face, otherwise his head may explode. Even if the good Licchavis were to think, “Let’s bind Pāṭikaputta with straps and drag him with a pair of oxen!” But either the straps will break or Pāṭikaputta will.’
Then, Bhaggava, Jāliya, the pupil of the wood-bowl ascetic, stood up and said to the assembly, ‘Well then, worthies, wait an hour, I’ll go. Hopefully I’ll be able to lead Pāṭikaputta back to the assembly.’
So Jāliya went to see Pāṭikaputta and said, ‘Come forth, Reverend Pāṭikaputta! It’s best for you to come forth. All these very well-known people have come forth, and the ascetic Gotama is sitting in your monastery for the day’s meditation. You said you’d meet the ascetic Gotama half-way. The ascetic Gotama has come the first half, and is sitting in your monastery. The ascetic Gotama has told the assembly that you’re not capable of meeting him face to face. And he said that even if the Licchavis try to bind you with straps and drag you with a pair of oxen, either the straps will break or you will. Come forth, Pāṭikaputta! When you come forth we’ll make you win and the ascetic Gotama lose.’
When he had spoken, Pāṭikaputta said: ‘I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!’ But wriggle as he might, he couldn’t get up from his seat. Then Jāliya said to Pāṭikaputta, ‘What’s up, Reverend Pāṭikaputta? Is your bottom stuck to the bench, or is the bench stuck to your bottom? You say “I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!” But wriggle as you might, you can’t get up from your seat.’ And as he was speaking, Pāṭikaputta said: ‘I’m coming, good sir, I’m coming!’ But wriggle as he might, he couldn’t get up from his seat.
When Jāliya knew that Pāṭikaputta had lost, he said to him,
‘Once upon a time, Reverend Pāṭikaputta, it occurred to a lion, king of beasts, “Why don’t I make my lair near a certain forest? Towards evening I can emerge from my den, yawn, survey the four quarters, roar my lion’s roar three times, and set out on the hunt. Having slain the very best of the deer herd, and eaten the most tender flesh, I could return to my den.”
And so that’s what he did.
Now, there was an old jackal who had grown fat on the lion’s leavings, becoming arrogant and strong. He thought, “What does the lion, king of beasts, have that I don’t? Why don’t I also make my lair near a certain forest? Towards evening I can emerge from my den, yawn, survey the four quarters, roar my lion’s roar three times, and set out on the hunt. Having slain the very best of the deer herd, and eaten the most tender flesh, I could return to my den.”
And so that’s what he did. But when he tried to roar a lion’s roar, he only managed to squeal and yelp like a jackal. And what is a pathetic jackal’s squeal next to the roar of a lion?
In the same way, reverend, while living off the leavings of the Holy One, enjoying the leftovers of the Holy One, you presume to attack the Realized One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha!1656 Who are the pathetic Pāṭikaputtas to attack the Realized Ones, the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas?’
When Jāliya couldn’t get Pāṭikaputta to shift from his seat even with this simile, he said to him:
‘Seeing himself as equal to the lion,
the jackal presumed “I’m the king of the beasts!”
But he actually only managed to yelp,
and what’s a sad jackal’s squeal to the roar of a lion?
In the same way, reverend, while living off the leavings of the Holy One, you presume to attack him!’
When Jāliya couldn’t get Pāṭikaputta to shift from his seat even with this simile, he said to him:
‘Following in the steps of another,
seeing himself grown fat on scraps,
until he doesn’t even see himself,
the jackal presumes he’s a tiger.But he actually only managed to yelp,
and what’s a sad jackal’s squeal to the roar of a lion?
In the same way, reverend, while living off the leavings of the Holy One, you presume to attack him!’
When Jāliya couldn’t get Pāṭikaputta to shift from his seat even with this simile, he said to him:
‘Gorged on frogs, and mice from the barn,
and carcasses tossed in the cemetery,
thriving in the great, empty wood,
the jackal presumed “I’m the king of the beasts!”
But he actually only managed to yelp,
and what’s a sad jackal’s squeal to the roar of a lion?
In the same way, reverend, while living off the leavings of the Holy One, enjoying the leftovers of the Holy One, you presume to attack the Realized One, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha! Who are the pathetic Pāṭikaputtas to attack the Realized Ones, the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas?’
When Jāliya couldn’t get Pāṭikaputta to shift from his seat even with this simile, he returned to the assembly and said, ‘Pāṭikaputta has lost, worthies. He says “I’m coming, good sirs, I’m coming!” But wriggle as he might, he can’t get up from his seat.’
When he said this, I said to the assembly, ‘The naked ascetic Pāṭikaputta is not capable of meeting me face to face, unless he gives up that statement and that intention, and lets go of that view. If he thinks he can meet me face to face without giving up those things, his head may explode. The good Licchavis might even think, “Let’s bind Pāṭikaputta with straps and drag him with a pair of oxen!” But either the straps will break or Pāṭikaputta will. Pāṭikaputta is not capable of meeting me face to face, otherwise his head may explode.’
Then, Bhaggava, I educated, encouraged, fired up, and inspired that assembly with a Dhamma talk. I released that assembly from the great bondage, and lifted 84,000 beings from the great swamp. Next I entered upon the fire element, rose into the air to the height of seven palm trees, and created a flame another seven palm trees high, blazing and smoking. Finally I landed at the Great Wood, in the hall with the peaked roof.1657
Then Sunakkhatta came to me, bowed, and sat down to one side. I said to him, ‘What do you think, Sunakkhatta? Did the declaration I made about Pāṭikaputta turn out to be correct, or not?’
‘It turned out to be correct.’
‘What do you think, Sunakkhatta? If that is so, has a superhuman demonstration of psychic power been performed or not?’
‘Clearly, sir, a superhuman demonstration of psychic power has been performed.’
‘Though I perform such a superhuman demonstration of psychic power you say this: “But sir, the Buddha never performs any superhuman demonstrations of psychic power for me.” See how far you have strayed!’
Though I spoke to Sunakkhatta like this, he still left this teaching and training, like someone on the highway to hell.
Bhaggava, I understand the origin of the world. I understand this, and what goes beyond it. Yet since I do not misapprehend that understanding, I have realized quenching within myself. Directly knowing this, the Realized One does not come to ruin.1658
There are some ascetics and brahmins who describe the origin of the world in their tradition as created by the God Almighty, by the Divinity. I go up to them and say, ‘Is it really true that this is the venerables’ view?’ And they answer, ‘Yes’. I say to them, ‘But how do you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about as created by the God Almighty, by the Divinity?’ But they are stumped by my question, and they even question me in return. So I answer them,
‘There comes a time when, reverends, after a very long period has passed, this cosmos contracts. As the cosmos contracts, sentient beings are mostly headed for the realm of streaming radiance. There they are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.
There comes a time when, after a very long period has passed, this cosmos expands. As it expands an empty mansion of divinity appears. Then a certain sentient being—due to the running out of their lifespan or merit—passes away from that host of radiant deities and is reborn in that empty mansion of divinity. There they are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.
But after staying there all alone for a long time, they become dissatisfied and anxious, “Oh, if only other beings would come to this place.”
Then other sentient beings—due to the running out of their lifespan or merit—pass away from that host of radiant deities and are reborn in that mansion of divinity in company with that being.1659 There they too are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.
Now, the being who was reborn there first thinks, “I am the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. And these beings were created by me. Why is that? Because first I thought, ‘Oh, if only other beings would come to this place.’ Such was my heart’s wish, and then these creatures came to this place.”
And the beings who were reborn there later also think, “This must be the Divinity, the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born. And we were created by him. Why is that? Because we see that he was reborn here first, and we arrived later.”
And the being who was reborn first is more long-lived, beautiful, and illustrious than those who arrived later.
It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect that past life, but no further.
They say: “He who is the Divinity—the Great Divinity, the Vanquisher, the Unvanquished, the Universal Seer, the Wielder of Power, God Almighty, the Maker, the Creator, the First, the Begetter, the Controller, the Father of those who have been born and those yet to be born—by he we were created. He is permanent, everlasting, eternal, imperishable, remaining the same for all eternity. We who were created by that Divinity are impermanent, not lasting, short-lived, liable to pass away, and have come to this place.” Is this how you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about as created by the God Almighty, by the Divinity?’1660
They say, ‘That is what we have heard, Reverend Gotama, just as you say.’1661
Bhaggava, I understand the origin of the world. I understand this, and what goes beyond it. Yet since I do not misapprehend that understanding, I have realized quenching within myself. Directly knowing this, the Realized One does not come to ruin.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who describe the origin of the world in their tradition as due to those depraved by play. I go up to them and say, ‘Is it really true that this is the venerables’ view?’ And they answer, ‘Yes’. I say to them, ‘But how do you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about due to those depraved by play?’ But they are stumped by my question, and they even question me in return. So I answer them,
‘Reverends, there are gods named “depraved by play”. They spend too much time laughing, playing, and making merry. And in doing so, they lose their mindfulness, and they pass away from that host of gods.1662
It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect that past life, but no further.
They say, “The gods not depraved by play don’t spend too much time laughing, playing, and making merry. So they don’t lose their mindfulness, and don’t pass away from that host of gods. They are permanent, everlasting, eternal, imperishable, remaining the same for all eternity. But we who were depraved by play spent too much time laughing, playing, and making merry. In doing so, we lost our mindfulness, and passed away from that host of gods. We are impermanent, not lasting, short-lived, liable to pass away, and have come to this place.” Is this how you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about due to those depraved by play?’
They say, ‘That is what we have heard, Reverend Gotama, just as you say.’
Bhaggava, I understand the origin of the world. Directly knowing this, the Realized One does not come to ruin.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who describe the origin of the world in their tradition as due to those who are malevolent.1663 I go up to them and say, ‘Is it really true that this is the venerables’ view?’ And they answer, ‘Yes’. I say to them, ‘But how do you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about due to those who are malevolent?’ But they are stumped by my question, and they even question me in return. So I answer them,
‘Reverends, there are gods named “malevolent”. They spend too much time gazing at each other, so they grow angry with each other, and their bodies and minds get tired. They pass away from that host of gods.
It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect that past life, but no further.
They say, “The gods who are not malevolent don’t spend too much time gazing at each other, so they don’t grow angry with each other, their bodies and minds don’t get tired, and they don’t pass away from that host of gods. They are permanent, everlasting, eternal, imperishable, remaining the same for all eternity. But we who were malevolent spent too much time gazing at each other, so our minds grew angry with each other, our bodies and minds got tired, and we passed away from that host of gods. We are impermanent, not lasting, short-lived, liable to pass away, and have come to this place.” Is this how you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about due to those who are malevolent?’
They say, ‘That is what we have heard, Reverend Gotama, just as you say.’
Bhaggava, I understand the origin of the world. Directly knowing this, the Realized One does not come to ruin.
There are some ascetics and brahmins who describe the origin of the world in their tradition as having arisen as an anomaly. I go up to them and say, ‘Is it really true that this is the venerables’ view?’ And they answer, ‘Yes’. I say to them, ‘But how do you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about anomalously?’ But they are stumped by my question, and they even question me in return. So I answer them,
‘Reverends, there are gods named “non-percipient beings”.1664 When perception arises they pass away from that host of gods.
It’s possible that one of those beings passes away from that host and is reborn in this place. Having done so, they go forth from the lay life to homelessness. By dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind, they experience an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect the arising of perception, but no further.
They say, “The self and the cosmos arose anomalously. Why is that? Because formerly I didn’t exist, whereas now, having not existed, I’ve transformed into the state of existing.” Is this how you describe in your tradition that the origin of the world came about anomalously?’
They say, ‘That is what we have heard, Reverend Gotama, just as you say.’
I understand this, and what goes beyond it. Yet since I do not misapprehend that understanding, I have realized quenching within myself. Directly knowing this, the Realized One does not come to ruin.
Though I state and assert this, certain ascetics and brahmins misrepresent me with the incorrect, hollow, false, untruthful claim: ‘The ascetic Gotama has a distorted perspective, and so have his monks.
He says, “When one enters and remains in the liberation of the beautiful, at that time one only perceives what is ugly.”’
But I don’t say that. I say this: ‘When one enters and remains in the liberation of the beautiful, at that time one only perceives what is beautiful.’”
“They are the ones with a distorted perspective, sir, who regard the Buddha and the mendicants in this way. Sir, I am quite confident that the Buddha is capable of teaching me so that I can enter and remain in the liberation on the beautiful.”
“It’s hard for you to enter and remain in the liberation on the beautiful, since you have a different view, creed, and belief, unless you dedicate yourself to practice with the guidance of tradition. Come now, Bhaggava, carefully preserve the confidence that you have in me.”
“If it’s hard for me to enter and remain in the liberation on the beautiful, since I have a different view, creed, and belief, unless I dedicate myself to practice with the guidance of tradition, I shall carefully preserve the confidence that I have in the Buddha.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the wanderer of the Bhaggava clan approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Rājagaha, on the Vulture’s Peak Mountain.
Now at that time the wanderer Nigrodha was residing in the lady Udumbarikā’s monastery for wanderers, together with a large assembly of three thousand wanderers.1665 Then the householder Sandhāna left Rājagaha in the middle of the day to see the Buddha.1666
Then it occurred to him, “It’s the wrong time to see the Buddha, as he’s in retreat. And it’s the wrong time to see the esteemed mendicants, as they’re in retreat. Why don’t I visit the wanderer Nigrodha at the lady Udumbarikā’s monastery for wanderers?” So he went to the monastery of the wanderers.
Now at that time, Nigrodha was sitting together with a large assembly of wanderers making an uproar, a dreadful racket. They engaged in all kinds of low talk, such as talk about kings, bandits, and chief ministers; talk about armies, threats, and wars; talk about food, drink, clothes, and beds; talk about garlands and fragrances; talk about family, vehicles, villages, towns, cities, and countries; talk about women and heroes; street talk and well talk; talk about the departed; motley talk; tales of land and sea; and talk about being reborn in this or that state of existence.
Nigrodha saw Sandhāna coming off in the distance, and hushed his own assembly: “Be quiet, good fellows, don’t make a sound. The householder Sandhāna, a disciple of the ascetic Gotama, is coming. He is included among the white-clothed lay disciples of the ascetic Gotama, who is residing near Rājagaha. Such venerables like the quiet, are educated to be quiet, and praise the quiet. Hopefully if he sees that our assembly is quiet he’ll see fit to approach.” Then those wanderers fell silent.
Then Sandhāna went up to the wanderer Nigrodha, and exchanged greetings with him. When the greetings and polite conversation were over, he sat down to one side and said to Nigrodha, “The way the wanderers make an uproar as they sit together and talk about all kinds of low topics is one thing. It’s quite different to the way the Buddha frequents remote lodgings in the wilderness and the forest that are quiet and still, far from the madding crowd, remote from human settlements, and fit for retreat.”
When Sandhāna said this, Nigrodha said to him, “Surely, householder, you should know better! With whom does the ascetic Gotama converse? With whom does he engage in discussion? With whom does he achieve lucidity of wisdom? Staying in empty huts has destroyed the ascetic Gotama’s wisdom. Not frequenting assemblies, he is unable to hold a discussion. He just lurks on the periphery. He’s just like a one-eyed cow, circling around and lurking on the periphery.1667 Go on, householder! Were the ascetic Gotama to come to this assembly, I’d sink him with just one question! I’d tie him up like a hollow pot!”1668
With clairaudience that is purified and superhuman, the Buddha heard this discussion between the householder Sandhāna and the wanderer Nigrodha. Then the Buddha descended from Vulture’s Peak Mountain and went to the peacocks’ feeding ground on the bank of the Sumāgadhā, where he walked mindfully in the open air.
Nigrodha saw him, and hushed his own assembly: “Be quiet, good fellows, don’t make a sound. The ascetic Gotama is walking mindfully on the bank of the Sumāgadhā. The venerable likes quiet and praises quiet. Hopefully if he sees that our assembly is quiet he’ll see fit to approach. If he comes, I’ll ask him this question: ‘Sir, what teaching do you use to guide your disciples, through which they claim solace in the fundamental purpose of the spiritual life?’” Then those wanderers fell silent.
Then the Buddha went up to the wanderer Nigrodha, who said to him, “Let the Blessed One come, sir! Welcome to the Blessed One, sir! It’s been a long time since you took the opportunity to come here. Please, sir, sit down, this seat is ready.” The Buddha sat on the seat spread out, while Nigrodha took a low seat and sat to one side. The Buddha said to him, “Nigrodha, what were you sitting talking about just now? What conversation was left unfinished?”1669
Nigrodha said, “Well, sir, I saw you walking mindfully and said: ‘If the ascetic Gotama comes, I’ll ask him this question: “Sir, what teaching do you use to guide your disciples, through which they claim solace in the fundamental purpose of the spiritual life?”’ This is the conversation that was unfinished when the Buddha arrived.”
“It’s hard for you to understand this, Nigrodha, since you have a different view, creed, and belief, unless you dedicate yourself to practice with the guidance of tradition. Please ask me a question about the higher disgust of sin in your own tradition:1670 ‘How are the conditions for the fervent mortification in disgust of sin completed, and how are they incomplete?’”1671
When he said this, those wanderers made an uproar, “Oh lord, how incredible, how amazing! The ascetic Gotama has such power and might! For he sets aside his own doctrine and invites discussion on the doctrine of others!”
Then Nigrodha, having quieted those wanderers, said to the Buddha, “Sir, we teach fervent mortification in disgust of sin, regarding it as essential and sticking to it. How are the conditions for the fervent mortification in disgust of sin completed, and how are they incomplete?”
“Nigrodha, it’s when a mortifier goes naked, ignoring conventions. They lick their hands, and don’t come or wait when called. They don’t consent to food brought to them, or food prepared on their behalf, or an invitation for a meal.1672 They don’t receive anything from a pot or bowl; or from someone who keeps sheep, or who has a weapon or a shovel in their home; or where a couple is eating; or where there is a woman who is pregnant, breast-feeding, or who lives with a man; or where there’s a dog waiting or flies buzzing. They accept no fish or meat or beer or wine, and drink no fermented gruel. They go to just one house for alms, taking just one mouthful, or two houses and two mouthfuls, up to seven houses and seven mouthfuls. They feed on one saucer a day, two saucers a day, up to seven saucers a day. They eat once a day, once every second day, up to once a week, and so on, even up to once a fortnight. They live committed to the practice of eating food at set intervals. They eat herbs, millet, wild rice, poor rice, water lettuce, rice bran, scum from boiling rice, sesame flour, grass, or cow dung. They survive on forest roots and fruits, or eating fallen fruit. They wear robes of sunn hemp, mixed hemp, corpse-wrapping cloth, rags, lodh tree bark, antelope hide (whole or in strips), kusa grass, bark, wood-chips, human hair, horse-tail hair, or owls’ wings. They tear out their hair and beard, committed to this practice. They constantly stand, refusing seats. They squat, committed to the endeavor of squatting. They lie on a mat of thorns, making a mat of thorns their bed. They make their bed on a plank, or the bare ground. They lie only on one side. They wear dust and dirt. They stay in the open air. They sleep wherever they lay their mat. They eat unnatural things, committed to the practice of eating unnatural foods. They don’t drink, committed to the practice of not drinking liquids. They’re devoted to ritual bathing three times a day, including the evening.
What do you think, Nigrodha? If this is so, is the fervent mortification in disgust of sin complete, or incomplete?”
“Clearly, sir, if that is so the fervent mortification in disgust of sin is complete, not incomplete.”
“But even such a completed mortification has many defects, I say.”
“But how does the Buddha say that even such a completed mortification has many defects?”
“Firstly, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They’re happy with that, as they’ve got all they wished for.1673 This is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They glorify themselves and put others down on account of that. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They become indulgent and infatuated and fall into negligence on account of that. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They generate possessions, honor, and popularity through that mortification. They’re happy with that, as they’ve got all they wished for. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They generate possessions, honor, and popularity through that mortification. They glorify themselves and put others down on account of that. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They generate possessions, honor, and popularity through that mortification. They become indulgent and infatuated and fall into negligence on account of that. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier becomes fussy about food, saying, ‘This is acceptable to me, this is not acceptable to me.’ What is not acceptable they give up in expectation.1674 But what is acceptable they eat tied, infatuated, attached, blind to the drawbacks, and not understanding the escape. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification out of longing for possessions, honor, and popularity, thinking, ‘Kings, royal ministers, aristocrats, brahmins, householders, and sectarians will honor me!’ This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier rebukes a certain ascetic or brahmin, ‘But what is this one doing, living in abundance! According to this ascetic’s doctrine, everything—plants propagated from roots, stems, cuttings, or joints; and those from regular seeds as the fifth—is crunched together like the thunder of a tooth-hammer!’ This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier sees a certain ascetic or brahmin being honored, respected, esteemed, and venerated among good families. They think, ‘This one, who lives in abundance, is honored, respected, esteemed, and venerated among good families. But I, a fervent mortifier who lives rough, am not honored, respected, esteemed, and venerated among good families.’ Thus they give rise to jealousy and stinginess regarding families. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier sits meditation only when people can see them. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier sneaks about among families, thinking,1675 ‘This is part of my mortification; this is part of my mortification.’ This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier sometimes behaves in an underhand manner. When asked whether something is acceptable to them, they say it is, even though it isn’t. Or they say it isn’t, even though it is. Thus they tell a deliberate lie. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier disagrees with the way that the Realized One or their disciple teaches Dhamma, even when they make a valid point. This too is a defect in that mortifier.
Furthermore, a mortifier is irritable and acrimonious … offensive and contemptuous … jealous and stingy … devious and deceitful … obstinate and arrogant … they have corrupt wishes, falling under the sway of corrupt wishes … they have wrong view, being attached to an extremist view … they’re attached to their own views, holding them tight, and refusing to let go.1676 This too is a defect in that mortifier.
What do you think, Nigrodha? Are such mortifications defective or not?”
“Clearly, sir, they’re defective. It’s possible that a mortifier might have all of these defects, let alone one or other of them.”
“Firstly, Nigrodha, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. But they’re not happy with that, as they still haven’t got all they wished for. So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They don’t glorify themselves or put others down on account of that. So they’re pure on that point.
They don’t become indulgent …
Furthermore, a mortifier undertakes a practice of mortification. They generate possessions, honor, and popularity through that mortification. They’re not happy with that, as they still haven’t got all they wished for …
They don’t glorify themselves and put others down on account of possessions, honor, and popularity …
They don’t become indulgent because of it … So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier doesn’t become fussy about food, saying, ‘This is acceptable to me, this is not acceptable to me.’ What is not acceptable they give up without expectation. But what is acceptable they eat without being tied, infatuated, attached, seeing the drawbacks, and understanding the escape. So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier doesn’t undertake a practice of mortification out of longing for possessions, honor, and popularity … ‘Kings, royal ministers, aristocrats, brahmins, householders, and sectarians will honor me!’ So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier doesn’t rebuke a certain ascetic or brahmin, ‘But what is this one doing, living in abundance! According to this ascetic’s doctrine, everything—plants propagated from roots, stems, cuttings, or joints; and those from regular seeds as the fifth—is crunched together like the thunder of a tooth-hammer!’ So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier sees a certain ascetic or brahmin being honored, respected, esteemed, and venerated among good families. It never occurs to them, ‘This one, who lives in abundance, is honored, respected, esteemed, and venerated among good families. But I, a fervent mortifier who lives rough, am not honored, respected, esteemed, and venerated among good families.’ Thus they don’t give rise to jealousy and stinginess regarding families. So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier doesn’t sit meditation only when people can see them. So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier doesn’t sneak about among families, thinking, ‘This is part of my mortification; this is part of my mortification.’ So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier never behaves in an underhand manner. When asked whether something is acceptable to them, they say it isn’t when it isn’t. Or they say it is when it is. Thus they don’t tell a deliberate lie. So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier agrees with the way that the Realized One or their disciple teaches Dhamma when they make a valid point. So they’re pure on that point.
Furthermore, a mortifier is not irritable and acrimonious … offensive and contemptuous … jealous and stingy … devious and deceitful … obstinate and arrogant … they don’t have corrupt wishes … and wrong view … they’re not attached to their own views, holding them tight, and refusing to let go. So they’re pure on that point.
What do you think, Nigrodha? If this is so, is the fervent mortification in disgust of sin purified or not?”
“Clearly, sir, it is purified. It has reached the peak and the pith.”
“No, Nigrodha, at this point the fervent mortification in disgust of sin has not yet reached the peak and the pith. Rather, it has only reached the shoots.”
“But at what point, sir, does the fervent mortification in disgust of sin reach the peak and the pith? Please help me reach the peak and the pith!”
“Nigrodha, take a mortifier who is restrained in the fourfold constraint.1677 And how is a mortifier restrained in the fourfold constraint? It’s when a mortifier doesn’t kill living creatures, doesn’t get others to kill, and doesn’t approve of killing.1678 They don’t steal, get others to steal, or approve of stealing. They don’t lie, get others to lie, or approve of lying. They don’t expect rewards from their practice, they don’t lead others to expect rewards, and they don’t approve of expecting rewards.1679 That’s how a mortifier is restrained in the fourfold constraint.
When a mortifier is restrained in the fourfold constraint, that is their mortification. They step forward, not falling back. They frequent a secluded lodging—a wilderness, the root of a tree, a hill, a ravine, a mountain cave, a charnel ground, a forest, the open air, a heap of straw. After the meal, they return from almsround, sit down cross-legged, set their body straight, and establish mindfulness in their presence. Giving up covetousness for the world, they meditate with a heart rid of covetousness, cleansing the mind of covetousness. Giving up ill will and malevolence, they meditate with a mind rid of ill will, full of sympathy for all living beings, cleansing the mind of ill will. Giving up dullness and drowsiness, they meditate with a mind rid of dullness and drowsiness, perceiving light, mindful and aware, cleansing the mind of dullness and drowsiness. Giving up restlessness and remorse, they meditate without restlessness, their mind peaceful inside, cleansing the mind of restlessness and remorse. Giving up doubt, they meditate having gone beyond doubt, not undecided about skillful qualities, cleansing the mind of doubt.
They give up these five hindrances, corruptions of the heart that weaken wisdom. Then they meditate spreading a heart full of love to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of love to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. They meditate spreading a heart full of compassion … They meditate spreading a heart full of rejoicing … They meditate spreading a heart full of equanimity to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of equanimity to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will.
What do you think, Nigrodha? If this is so, is the fervent mortification in disgust of sin purified or not?”
“Clearly, sir, it is purified. It has reached the peak and the pith.”
“No, Nigrodha, at this point the fervent mortification in disgust of sin has not yet reached the peak and the pith. Rather, it has only reached the bark.”
“But at what point, sir, does the fervent mortification in disgust of sin reach the peak and the pith? Please help me reach the peak and the pith!”
“Nigrodha, take a mortifier who is restrained in the fourfold constraint. They give up these five hindrances, corruptions of the heart that weaken wisdom. Then they meditate spreading a heart full of love … compassion … rejoicing … equanimity.
They recollect many kinds of past lives, that is, one, two, three, four, five, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand rebirths; many eons of the world contracting, many eons of the world expanding, many eons of the world contracting and expanding. They remember: ‘There, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn somewhere else. There, too, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn here.’ And so they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
What do you think, Nigrodha? If this is so, is the fervent mortification in disgust of sin purified or not?”
“Clearly, sir, it is purified. It has reached the peak and the pith.”
“No, Nigrodha, at this point the fervent mortification in disgust of sin has not yet reached the peak and the pith. Rather, it has only reached the softwood.”
“But at what point, sir, does the fervent mortification in disgust of sin reach the peak and the pith? Please help me reach the peak and the pith!”
“Nigrodha, take a mortifier who is restrained in the fourfold constraint. They give up these five hindrances, corruptions of the heart that weaken wisdom. Then they meditate spreading a heart full of love … equanimity … They recollect many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds: ‘These dear beings did bad things by way of body, speech, and mind. They denounced the noble ones; they had wrong view; and they chose to act out of that wrong view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. These dear beings, however, did good things by way of body, speech, and mind. They never denounced the noble ones; they had right view; and they chose to act out of that right view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.’ And so, with clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds.
What do you think, Nigrodha? If this is so, is the fervent mortification in disgust of sin purified or not?”
“Clearly, sir, it is purified. It has reached the peak and the pith.”
“Nigrodha, at this point the fervent mortification in disgust of sin has reached the peak and the pith. Nigrodha, remember you said this to me: ‘Sir, what teaching do you use to guide your disciples, through which they claim solace in the fundamental purpose of the spiritual life?’ Well, there is something better and finer than this. That’s what I use to guide my disciples, through which they claim solace in the fundamental purpose of the spiritual life.”
When he said this, those wanderers made an uproar, “In that case, we’re lost, and so is our tradition! We don’t know anything better or finer than that!”
Then the householder Sandhāna realized, “Obviously, now these wanderers want to listen to what the Buddha says. They’re actively listening and trying to understand!”
So he said to the wanderer Nigrodha, “Honorable Nigrodha, remember you said this to me: ‘Surely, householder, you should know better! With whom does the ascetic Gotama converse? With whom does he engage in discussion? With whom does he achieve lucidity of wisdom? Staying in empty huts has destroyed the ascetic Gotama’s wisdom. Not frequenting assemblies, he is unable to hold a discussion. He just lurks on the periphery. He’s just like a one-eyed cow, circling around and lurking on the periphery. Please, householder, let the ascetic Gotama come to this assembly. I’ll sink him with just one question! I’ll roll him over and wrap him up like a hollow pot!’ Now the Blessed One, perfected and fully awakened, has arrived here. Why don’t you send him out of the assembly to the periphery like a one-eyed cow? Why don’t you sink him with just one question? Why don’t you roll him over and wrap him up like a hollow pot?” When he said this, Nigrodha sat silent, dismayed, shoulders drooping, downcast, depressed, with nothing to say.
Knowing this, the Buddha said to him, “Is it really true, Nigrodha—are those your words?”
“It’s true, sir, those are my words. It was foolish, stupid, and unskillful of me.”
“What do you think, Nigrodha? Have you heard that wanderers of the past who were elderly and senior, the tutors of tutors, said that when the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas of the past came together, they made an uproar, a dreadful racket as they sat and talked about all kinds of low topics, like you do in your tradition these days? Or did they say that the Buddhas frequented remote lodgings in the wilderness and the forest that are quiet and still, far from the madding crowd, remote from human settlements, and fit for retreat, like I do these days?”
“I have heard that wanderers of the past who were elderly and senior, said that when the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas of the past came together, they didn’t make an uproar, like I do in my tradition these days. They said that the Buddhas of the past frequented remote lodgings in the wilderness, like the Buddha does these days.”
“Nigrodha, you are a sensible and mature man. Did it not occur to you: ‘The Blessed One is awakened, tamed, serene, crossed over, and quenched. And he teaches Dhamma for awakening, taming, serenity, crossing over, and extinguishment’?”
Nigrodha said, “I have made a mistake, sir. It was foolish, stupid, and unskillful of me to speak in that way. Please, sir, accept my mistake for what it is, so I will restrain myself in future.”
“Indeed, Nigrodha, you made a mistake. It was foolish, stupid, and unskillful of you to speak in that way. But since you have recognized your mistake for what it is, and have dealt with it properly, I accept it. For it is growth in the training of the Noble One to recognize a mistake for what it is, deal with it properly, and commit to restraint in the future. Nigrodha, this is what I say:
Let a sensible person come—neither devious nor deceitful, a person of integrity. I teach and instruct them. By practicing as instructed they will realize the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life, in seven years. They will live having achieved with their own insight the goal for which gentlemen rightly go forth from the lay life to homelessness. Let alone seven years. Let a sensible person come—neither devious nor deceitful, a person of integrity. I teach and instruct them. By practicing as instructed they will realize the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life, in six years … five years … four years … three years … two years … one year … seven months … six months … five months … four months … three months … two months … one month … a fortnight. Let alone a fortnight. Let a sensible person come—neither devious nor deceitful, a person of integrity. I teach and instruct them. By practicing as instructed they will realize the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life, in seven days.
Nigrodha, you might think, ‘The ascetic Gotama speaks like this because he wants pupils.’ But you should not see it like this. Let your tutor remain your tutor.1680
You might think, ‘The ascetic Gotama speaks like this because he wants us to give up our recitation.’ But you should not see it like this. Let your recitation remain as it is.
You might think, ‘The ascetic Gotama speaks like this because he wants us to give up our livelihood.’ But you should not see it like this. Let your livelihood remain as it is.
You might think, ‘The ascetic Gotama speaks like this because he wants us to start doing things that are unskillful and considered unskillful in our tradition.’ But you should not see it like this. Let those things that are unskillful and considered unskillful in your tradition remain as they are.
You might think, ‘The ascetic Gotama speaks like this because he wants us to stop doing things that are skillful and considered skillful in our tradition.’ But you should not see it like this. Let those things that are skillful and considered skillful in your tradition remain as they are.
I do not speak for any of these reasons. Nigrodha, there are things that are unskillful, corrupting, leading to future lives, hurtful, resulting in suffering and future rebirth, old age, and death. I teach Dhamma so that those things may be given up. When you practice accordingly, corrupting qualities will be given up in you and cleansing qualities will grow. You’ll enter and remain in the fullness and abundance of wisdom, having realized it with your own insight in this very life.”
When this was said, those wanderers sat silent, dismayed, shoulders drooping, downcast, depressed, with nothing to say, as if their minds were possessed by Māra. Then the Buddha thought,1681 “All these silly people have been touched by the Wicked One! For not even a single one thinks, ‘Come, let us lead the spiritual life under the ascetic Gotama for the sake of enlightenment—for what do seven days matter?’”
Then the Buddha, having roared his lion’s roar in the lady Udumbarikā’s monastery for wanderers, rose into the air and landed on Vulture’s Peak. Meanwhile, the householder Sandhāna went right back to Rājagaha.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying in the land of the Magadhans at Mātulā.1682 There the Buddha addressed the mendicants, “Mendicants!”
“Venerable sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“Mendicants, live as your own island, your own refuge, with no other refuge. Let the teaching be your island and your refuge, with no other refuge.1683 And how does a mendicant do this? They meditate observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. That’s how a mendicant lives as their own island, their own refuge, with no other refuge. That’s how they let the teaching be their island and their refuge, with no other refuge.
You should roam inside your own territory, the domain of your fathers.1684 If you roam inside your own territory, the domain of your fathers, Māra won’t catch you or get hold of you. It is due to undertaking skillful qualities that merit grows.1685
Once upon a time, mendicants, there was a king named Daḷhanemi who was a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king. His dominion extended to all four sides, he achieved stability in the country, and he possessed the seven treasures.1686 He had the following seven treasures: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the jewel, the woman, the householder, and the commander as the seventh treasure. He had over a thousand sons who were valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. After conquering this land girt by sea, he reigned by principle, without rod or sword.
Then, after many years, many hundred years, many thousand years had passed, King Daḷhanemi addressed one of his men, ‘My good man, when you see that the heavenly wheel-treasure has receded back from its place, please tell me.’1687
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied that man.
After many thousand years had passed, that man saw that the heavenly wheel-treasure had receded back from its place. So he went to King Daḷhanemi and said, ‘Please sire, you should know that your heavenly wheel-treasure has receded back from its place.’
So the king summoned the crown prince and said, ‘Dear prince, my heavenly wheel-treasure has receded back from its place. I’ve heard that when this happens to a wheel-turning monarch, he does not have long to live. I have enjoyed human pleasures. Now it is time for me to seek heavenly pleasures.1688 Come, dear prince, rule this land surrounded by ocean! I shall shave off my hair and beard, dress in ocher robes, and go forth from the lay life to homelessness.’
And so, after carefully instructing the crown prince in kingship, King Daḷhanemi shaved off his hair and beard, dressed in ocher robes, and went forth from the lay life to homelessness.1689 Seven days later the heavenly wheel-treasure vanished.
Then a certain man approached the newly anointed aristocrat king and said, ‘Please sire, you should know that the heavenly wheel-treasure has vanished.’ At that the king was unhappy and experienced unhappiness. He went to the royal seer and said,1690 ‘Please sire, you should know that the heavenly wheel-treasure has vanished.’
When he said this, the royal seer said to him, ‘Don’t be unhappy at the vanishing of the wheel-treasure. My dear, the wheel-treasure is not inherited from your father.1691 Come now, my dear, proceed in the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch.1692 If you do so, it’s possible that—on a fifteenth day sabbath, having bathed your head and gone upstairs in the royal longhouse to observe the sabbath—the heavenly wheel-treasure will appear to you, with a thousand spokes, with rim and hub, complete in every detail.’
‘But sire, what is the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch?’
‘Well then, my dear, relying only on principle—honoring, respecting, and venerating principle, having principle as your flag, banner, and authority—provide just protection and security for your court, troops, aristocrats, vassals, brahmins and householders, people of town and country, ascetics and brahmins, beasts and birds.1693 Do not let injustice prevail in the realm.1694 Provide money to the penniless in the realm.1695
And there are ascetics and brahmins in the realm who refrain from intoxication and negligence, are settled in patience and gentleness, and who tame, calm, and extinguish themselves. From time to time you should go up to them and ask and learn:1696 “Sirs, what is skillful? What is unskillful? What is blameworthy? What is blameless? What should be cultivated? What should not be cultivated? Doing what leads to my lasting harm and suffering? Doing what leads to my lasting welfare and happiness?” Having heard them, you should reject what is unskillful and undertake and follow what is skillful.
This is the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied the new king to the royal seer. And he proceeded in the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch.
While he was proceeding in that duty, on a fifteenth day sabbath, he had bathed his head and gone upstairs in the royal longhouse to observe the sabbath. And the heavenly wheel-treasure appeared to him, with a thousand spokes, with rim and hub, complete in every detail. Seeing this, the king thought, ‘I have heard that when the heavenly wheel-treasure appears to a king in this way, he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. Am I then a wheel-turning monarch?’
Then the anointed king, rising from his seat and arranging his robe over one shoulder, took a ceremonial vase in his left hand and besprinkled the wheel-treasure with his right hand, saying, ‘Roll forth, O wheel-treasure! Triumph, O wheel-treasure!’
Then the wheel-treasure rolled towards the east. And the king followed it together with his army of four divisions. In whatever place the wheel-treasure stood still, there the king came to stay together with his army. And any opposing rulers of the eastern quarter came to the wheel-turning monarch and said, ‘Come, great king! Welcome, great king! We are yours, great king, instruct us.’ The wheel-turning monarch said, ‘Do not kill living creatures. Do not steal. Do not commit sexual misconduct. Do not lie. Do not drink liquor. Maintain the current level of taxation.’ And so the opposing rulers of the eastern quarter became his vassals.
Then the wheel-treasure, having plunged into the eastern ocean and emerged again, rolled towards the south. … Having plunged into the southern ocean and emerged again, it rolled towards the west. …
Having plunged into the western ocean and emerged again, it rolled towards the north, followed by the king together with his army of four divisions. In whatever place the wheel-treasure stood still, there the king came to stay together with his army. And any opposing rulers of the northern quarter came to the wheel-turning monarch and said, ‘Come, great king! Welcome, great king! We are yours, great king, instruct us.’ The wheel-turning monarch said, ‘Do not kill living creatures. Do not steal. Do not commit sexual misconduct. Do not lie. Do not drink liquor. Maintain the current level of taxation.’ And so the rulers of the northern quarter became his vassals.
And then the wheel-treasure, having triumphed over this land surrounded by ocean, returned to the royal capital. There it stood still by the gate to the royal compound at the High Court as if fixed to an axle, illuminating the royal compound.
And for a second time, and a third, a fourth, a fifth, a sixth, and a seventh time, a wheel-turning monarch was established in exactly the same way. And after many years the seventh wheel-turning monarch went forth, handing the realm over to the crown prince.
Seven days later the heavenly wheel-treasure vanished.
Then a certain man approached the newly anointed aristocrat king and said, ‘Please sire, you should know that the heavenly wheel-treasure has vanished.’ At that the king was unhappy and experienced unhappiness. But he didn’t go to the royal seer and ask about the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch. He just governed the country according to his own ideas.1697 So governed, the country’s people did not prosper like before, as they had when former kings proceeded in the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch.1698
Then the ministers and councillors, the finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, and professional advisers gathered and said to the king,1699 ‘Sire, when governed according to your own ideas, the country’s people do not prosper like before, as they did when former kings proceeded in the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch. In your realm are found ministers and councillors, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, and professional advisers—both ourselves and others—who remember the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch. Please, Your Majesty, ask us about the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch. We will answer you.’
So the anointed king asked the assembled ministers and councillors, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, and professional advisers about the noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch. And they answered him. After listening to them, he provided just protection and security. But he did not provide money to the penniless in the realm.1700 And so poverty grew widespread.
When poverty was widespread, a certain person stole from others, with the intention to commit theft.1701 They arrested him and presented him to the king, saying, ‘Your Majesty, this person stole from others with the intention to commit theft.’
The king said to that person, ‘Is it really true, worthy man, that you stole from others with the intention to commit theft?’1702
‘It’s true, sire.’
‘What was the reason?’
‘Sire, I can’t survive.’
So the king provided some money to that person, saying, ‘With this money, worthy man, keep yourself alive, and provide for your mother and father, partners and children. Work for a living, and establish an uplifting religious donation for ascetics and brahmins that’s conducive to heaven, ripens in happiness, and leads to heaven.’1703
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied that man.
But then another man stole something from others. They arrested him and presented him to the king, saying, ‘Your Majesty, this person stole from others.’
The king said to that person, ‘Is it really true, worthy man, that you stole from others?’
‘It’s true, sire.’
‘What was the reason?’
‘Sire, I can’t survive.’
So the king provided some money to that person, saying, ‘With this money, worthy man, keep yourself alive, and provide for your mother and father, partners and children. Work for a living, and establish an uplifting religious donation for ascetics and brahmins that’s conducive to heaven, ripens in happiness, and leads to heaven.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ replied that man.
People heard about this: ‘It seems the king is providing money to anyone who steals from others!’1704 It occurred to them, ‘Why don’t we steal from others?’ So then another man stole something from others.
They arrested him and presented him to the king, saying, ‘Your Majesty, this person stole from others.’
The king said to that person, ‘Is it really true, worthy man, that you stole from others?’
‘It’s true, sire.’
‘What was the reason?’
‘Sire, I can’t survive.’
Then the king thought, ‘If I provide money to anyone who steals from others, it will only increase the stealing. I’d better make an end of this person, finish him off, and chop off his head.’1705
Then he ordered his men, ‘Well then, my men, tie this man’s arms tightly behind his back with a strong rope. Shave his head and march him from street to street and square to square to the beating of a harsh drum. Then take him out the south gate and make an end of him, finish him off, and chop off his head.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty,’ they replied, and did as he commanded.
People heard about this: ‘It seems the king is chopping the head off anyone who steals from others!’ It occurred to them, ‘We’d better have sharp swords made. Then when we steal from others, we’ll make an end of them, finish them off, and chop off their heads.’1706 They had sharp swords made. Then they started to make raids on villages, towns, and cities, and to infest the highways. And they chopped the heads off anyone they stole from.
And so, mendicants, from not providing money to the penniless, poverty became widespread. When poverty was widespread, theft became widespread. When theft was widespread, swords became widespread. When swords were widespread, killing living creatures became widespread. And for the sentient beings among whom killing was widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people lived for 80,000 years, but their children lived for 40,000 years.1707
Among the humans who lived for 40,000 years, a certain person stole something from others. They arrested him and presented him to the king, saying, ‘Your Majesty, this person stole from others.’
The king said to that person, ‘Is it really true, worthy man, that you stole from others?’
‘No, sire,’ he said, deliberately lying.
And so, mendicants, from not providing money to the penniless, poverty, theft, swords, and killing became widespread. When killing was widespread, lying became widespread. And for the sentient beings among whom lying was widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for 40,000 years had children who lived for 20,000 years.
Among the humans who lived for 20,000 years, a certain person stole something from others. Someone else reported this to the king, ‘Your Majesty, such-and-such person stole from others,’ he said, going behind his back.
And so, mendicants, from not providing money to the penniless, poverty, theft, swords, killing, and lying became widespread. When lying was widespread, backbiting became widespread. And for the sentient beings among whom backbiting was widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for 20,000 years had children who lived for 10,000 years.
Among the humans who lived for 10,000 years, some were beautiful, some were ugly. And the ugly beings, coveting the beautiful ones, committed adultery with the wives of others.1708
And so, mendicants, from not providing money to the penniless, poverty, theft, swords, killing, lying, and backbiting became widespread. When backbiting was widespread, sexual misconduct became widespread. And for the sentient beings among whom sexual misconduct was widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for 10,000 years had children who lived for 5,000 years.
Among the humans who lived for 5,000 years, two things became widespread: harsh speech and talking nonsense.1709 For the sentient beings among whom these two things were widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for 5,000 years had some children who lived for 2,500 years, while others lived for 2,000 years.
Among the humans who lived for 2,500 years, desire and ill will became widespread. For the sentient beings among whom desire and ill will were widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for 2,500 years had children who lived for 1,000 years.
Among the humans who lived for 1,000 years, wrong view became widespread.1710 For the sentient beings among whom wrong view was widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for 1,000 years had children who lived for five hundred years.
Among the humans who lived for five hundred years, three things became widespread: illicit desire, immoral greed, and wrong custom.1711 For the sentient beings among whom these three things were widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for five hundred years had some children who lived for two hundred and fifty years, while others lived for two hundred years.
Among the humans who lived for two hundred and fifty years, these things became widespread: lack of due respect for mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, and failure to honor the elders in the family.
And so, mendicants, from not providing money to the penniless, all these things became widespread—poverty, theft, swords, killing, lying, backbiting, sexual misconduct, harsh speech and talking nonsense, desire and ill will, wrong view, illicit desire, immoral greed, and wrong custom, and lack of due respect for mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, and failure to honor the elders in the family. For the sentient beings among whom these things were widespread, their lifespan and beauty declined. Those people who lived for two hundred and fifty years had children who lived for a hundred years.1712
There will come a time, mendicants, when these people will have children who live for ten years.1713 Among the humans who live for ten years, girls will be marriageable at five.1714 The following flavors will disappear: ghee, butter, oil, honey, molasses, and salt. The best kind of food will be finger millet,1715 just as fine rice with meat is the best kind of food today.1716
The ten ways of doing skillful deeds will totally disappear, and the ten ways of doing unskillful deeds will explode in popularity.1717 Those humans will not even have the word ‘skillful’, still less anyone who does what is skillful.1718 And anyone who disrespects mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, and fails to honor the elders in the family will be venerated and praised, just as the opposite is venerated and praised today.
There’ll be no recognition of the status of mother, aunts, or wives and partners of tutors and respected people.1719 The world will become dissolute, like goats and sheep, chickens and pigs, and dogs and jackals.1720
They’ll be full of hostility towards each other, with acute ill will, malevolence, and thoughts of murder. Even a mother will feel like this for her child, and the child for its mother, father for child, child for father, brother for sister, and sister for brother. They’ll be just like a deer hunter when he sees a deer—full of hostility, ill will, malevolence, and thoughts of killing.
Among the humans who live for ten years, there will be an interregnum of swords lasting seven days.1721 During that time they will see each other as beasts.1722 Sharp swords will appear in their hands, with which they’ll take each other’s life, crying, ‘It’s a beast! It’s a beast!’
But then some of those beings will think, ‘Let us neither kill nor be killed! Why don’t we hide in thick grass, thick jungle, thick trees, inaccessible riverlands, or rugged mountains and survive on forest roots and fruits?’1723 So that’s what they do.
When those seven days have passed, having emerged from their hiding places and embraced each other, they will come together and cry in one voice,1724 ‘Fantastic, dear foe, you live! Fantastic, dear foe, you live!’1725
Then those beings will think, ‘It’s because we undertook unskillful things that we suffered such an extensive loss of our relatives. We’d better do what’s skillful. What skillful thing should we do? Why don’t we refrain from killing living creatures? Having undertaken this skillful thing we’ll live by it.’1726 So that’s what they do. Because of undertaking this skillful thing, their lifespan and beauty will grow. Those people who live for ten years will have children who live for twenty years.
Then those beings will think, ‘Because of undertaking this skillful thing, our lifespan and beauty are growing. Why don’t we do even more skillful things? What skillful thing should we do? Why don’t we refrain from stealing … sexual misconduct … lying … backbiting … harsh speech … and talking nonsense. Why don’t we give up covetousness … ill will … wrong view … three things: illicit desire, immoral greed, and wrong custom. Why don’t we pay due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in our families? Having undertaken this skillful thing we’ll live by it.’ So that’s what they do.
Because of undertaking this skillful thing, their lifespan and beauty will grow. Those people who live for twenty years will have children who live for forty years. Those people who live for forty years will have children who live for eighty years, then a hundred and sixty years, three hundred and twenty years, six hundred and forty years, 2,000 years, 4,000 years, 8,000 years, 20,000 years, 40,000 years, and finally 80,000 years. Among the humans who live for 80,000 years, girls will be marriageable at five hundred.
Among the humans who live for 80,000 years, there will be just three afflictions: greed, starvation, and old age.1727 The Black Plum Tree Land will be successful and prosperous. The villages, towns, and capital cities will be no more than a chicken’s flight apart. And the land will be so full of humans you’d think they were squashed together, like a thicket of rushes or reeds. The royal capital will be Varanasi, renamed Ketumatī. And it will be successful, prosperous, populous, full of humans, with plenty of food.1728 There will be 84,000 cities in the Black Plum Tree Land, with the royal capital of Ketumatī foremost.
And in the royal capital of Ketumatī a king named Saṅkha will arise, a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king. His dominion will extend to all four sides, he will achieve stability in the country, and possess the seven treasures.1729 He will have the following seven treasures: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the jewel, the woman, the householder, and the commander as the seventh treasure. He will have over a thousand sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. After conquering this land girt by sea, he will reign by principle, without rod or sword.
And the Blessed One named Metteyya will arise in the world—perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed—1730 just as I have arisen today.1731 He will realize with his own insight this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—and make it known to others, just as I do today. He will teach the Dhamma that’s good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased. And he will reveal a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure, just as I do today. He will lead a Saṅgha of many thousand mendicants, just as I lead a Saṅgha of many hundreds today.1732
Then King Saṅkha will have the sacrificial post once built by King Mahāpanāda raised up.1733 Having reigned, he will abdicate, offering charity to ascetics and brahmins, paupers, vagrants, supplicants, and beggars. Then, having shaved off his hair and beard and dressed in ocher robes, he will go forth from the lay life to homelessness in the Buddha Metteyya’s presence.1734 Soon after going forth, living withdrawn, diligent, keen, and resolute, he will realize the supreme end of the spiritual path in this very life. He will live having achieved with his own insight the goal for which gentlemen rightly go forth from the lay life to homelessness.
Mendicants, live as your own island, your own refuge, with no other refuge. Let the teaching be your island and your refuge, with no other refuge. And how does a mendicant do this? It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. That’s how a mendicant lives as their own island, their own refuge, with no other refuge. That’s how they let the teaching be their island and their refuge, with no other refuge.
Mendicants, you should roam inside your own territory, the domain of your fathers. Doing so, you will grow in lifespan, beauty, happiness, wealth, and power.
And what is long life for a mendicant? It’s when a mendicant develops the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to enthusiasm, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to energy, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to mental development, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to inquiry, and active effort. Having developed and cultivated these four bases of psychic power they may, if they wish, live for the proper lifespan or what’s left of it. This is long life for a mendicant.
And what is beauty for a mendicant? It’s when a mendicant is ethical, restrained in the monastic code, conducting themselves well and resorting for alms in suitable places. Seeing danger in the slightest fault, they keep the rules they’ve undertaken. This is beauty for a mendicant.
And what is happiness for a mendicant? It’s when a mendicant, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. As the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, they enter and remain in the second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. This is happiness for a mendicant.
And what is wealth for a mendicant? It’s when a monk meditates spreading a heart full of love to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of love to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. They meditate spreading a heart full of compassion … rejoicing … equanimity to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of equanimity to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. This is wealth for a mendicant.
And what is power for a mendicant? It’s when a mendicant realizes the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life. And they live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements. This is power for a mendicant.
Mendicants, I do not see a single power so hard to defeat as the power of Māra. It is due to undertaking skillful qualities that merit grows.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard.1735 At one time the Buddha was staying near Sāvatthī in the stilt longhouse of Migāra’s mother in the Eastern Monastery.1736
Now at that time Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja were living on probation among the mendicants in hopes of being ordained.1737 Then in the late afternoon, the Buddha came downstairs from the longhouse and was walking mindfully in the open air, beneath the shade of the longhouse.
Vāseṭṭha saw him1738 and said to Bhāradvāja, “Reverend Bhāradvāja, the Buddha is walking mindfully in the open air, beneath the shade of the longhouse. Come, reverend, let’s go to the Buddha. Hopefully we’ll get to hear a Dhamma talk from him.”
“Yes, reverend,” replied Bhāradvāja.
So they went to the Buddha, bowed, and walked beside him.
Then the Buddha said to Vāseṭṭha, “Vāseṭṭha, you are both brahmins by birth and family, and have gone forth from the lay life to homelessness from a brahmin family. I hope you don’t have to suffer abuse and insults from the brahmins.”
“Actually, sir, the brahmins do insult and abuse us with their typical insults to the fullest extent.”
“But how do the brahmins insult you?”
“Sir, the brahmins say: ‘Only brahmins are the best class; other classes are inferior.1739 Only brahmins are the light class; other classes are dark.1740 Only brahmins are purified, not others.1741 Only brahmins are the Divinity’s true-born sons, born from his mouth, born of the Divinity, created by the Divinity, heirs of the Divinity. You’ve both abandoned the best class to join an inferior class, namely these shavelings, fake ascetics, primitives, black spawn from the feet of our kinsman.1742 This is not right, it’s not proper!’ That’s how the brahmins insult us.”
“Actually, Vāseṭṭha, the brahmins are forgetting their tradition when they say this to you. For brahmin women are seen menstruating, being pregnant, giving birth, and breast-feeding.1743 Yet even though they’re born from a brahmin womb they say: ‘Only brahmins are the best class; other classes are inferior. Only brahmins are the light class; other classes are dark. Only brahmins are purified, not others. Only brahmins are the Divinity’s true-born sons, born from his mouth, born of the Divinity, created by the Divinity, heirs of the Divinity.’ They misrepresent the brahmins, speak falsely, and brim with much wickedness.
Vāseṭṭha, there are these four classes: aristocrats, brahmins, peasants, and menials. Some aristocrats kill living creatures, steal, and commit sexual misconduct. They use speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, and nonsensical. And they’re covetous, malicious, with wrong view. These things are unskillful, blameworthy, not to be cultivated, unworthy of the noble ones—and are reckoned as such. They are dark deeds with dark results, criticized by sensible people. Such things are exhibited in some aristocrats.1744 And they are also seen among some brahmins, peasants, and menials.
But some aristocrats refrain from killing living creatures, stealing, and committing sexual misconduct. They refrain from speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, and nonsensical. And they’re content, kind-hearted, with right view. These things are skillful, blameless, to be cultivated, worthy of the noble ones—and are reckoned as such. They are bright deeds with bright results, praised by sensible people. Such things are exhibited in some aristocrats. And they are also seen among some brahmins, peasants, and menials.
Both these things occur like this, mixed up in these four classes—the dark and the bright, that which is praised and that which is criticized by sensible people. Yet of this the brahmins say: ‘Only brahmins are the best class; other classes are inferior. Only brahmins are the light class; other classes are dark. Only brahmins are purified, not others. Only brahmins are the Divinity’s true-born sons, born from his mouth, born of the Divinity, created by the Divinity, heirs of the Divinity.’
Sensible people don’t acknowledge this. Why is that? Because any mendicant from these four classes who is perfected—with defilements ended, who has completed the spiritual journey, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, achieved their heart’s goal, utterly ended the fetter of continued existence, and is rightly freed through enlightenment—is said to be foremost by virtue of principle, not against principle.1745 For principle, Vāseṭṭha, is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
And here’s a way to understand how this is so.
King Pasenadi of Kosala knows that the ascetic Gotama has gone forth from the neighboring clan of the Sakyans. And the Sakyans are his vassals.1746 The Sakyans show deference to King Pasenadi by bowing down, rising up, greeting him with joined palms, and observing proper etiquette for him. Now, King Pasenadi shows the same kind of deference to the Realized One. But he doesn’t think: ‘The ascetic Gotama is well-born, I am ill-born.1747 He is powerful, I am weak. He is handsome, I am ugly. He is illustrious, I am insignificant.’ Rather, in showing such deference to the Realized One he is only honoring, respecting, and venerating principle. And here’s another way to understand how principle is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
Vāseṭṭha, you have different births, names, clans, and families, yet have gone forth from the lay life to homelessness.1748 When they ask you what you are, you claim to be ascetics who follow the Sakyan. But only when someone has faith in the Realized One—settled, rooted, and planted deep, strong, not to be shifted by any ascetic or brahmin or god or Māra or divinity or by anyone in the world—is it appropriate for them to say: ‘I am the Buddha’s true-born son, born from his mouth, born of principle, created by principle, heir to principle.’1749 Why is that? For these are terms for the Realized One: ‘the embodiment of principle’, and ‘the embodiment of divinity’, and ‘the manifestation of principle’, and ‘the manifestation of divinity’.1750
There comes a time when, Vāseṭṭha, after a very long period has passed, this cosmos contracts.1751 As the cosmos contracts, sentient beings are mostly headed for the realm of streaming radiance. There they are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.
There comes a time when, after a very long period has passed, this cosmos expands. As the cosmos expands, sentient beings mostly pass away from that host of radiant deities and come back to this realm.1752 Here they are mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and they remain like that for a very long time.1753
But the single mass of water at that time was utterly dark.1754 The moon and sun were not found, nor were stars and constellations, day and night, months and fortnights, years and seasons, or male and female. Beings were simply known as ‘beings’.1755 After a very long period had passed, the earth’s nectar curdled in the water.1756 It appeared just like the curd on top of hot milk-rice as it cools. It was beautiful, fragrant, and delicious, like ghee or butter. And it was as sweet as pure dwarf-bee honey.1757 Now, one of those beings was reckless. Thinking, ‘Oh my, what might this be?’ they tasted the earth’s nectar with their finger.1758 They enjoyed it, and craving was born in them.1759 And other beings, following that being’s example, tasted the earth’s nectar with their fingers. They too enjoyed it, and craving was born in them.
Then those beings started to eat the earth’s nectar, breaking it into lumps. But when they did this their luminosity vanished. And with the vanishing of their luminosity the moon and sun appeared, stars and constellations appeared, days and nights were distinguished, and so were months and fortnights, and years and seasons. So far had the world evolved once more.
Then those beings eating the earth’s nectar, with that as their food and nourishment, remained for a very long time. But so long as they ate that earth’s nectar, their bodies became more solid and they diverged in appearance; some beautiful, some ugly. And the beautiful beings looked down on the ugly ones:1760 ‘We’re more beautiful, they’re the ugly ones!’ And the vanity of the beautiful ones made the earth’s nectar vanish. They gathered together and bemoaned, ‘Oh, what a taste! Oh, what a taste!’ And even today when people get something tasty they say: ‘Oh, what a taste! Oh, what a taste!’ They’re just remembering an ancient primordial saying, but they don’t understand what it means.1761
When the earth’s nectar had vanished, ground-fungus appeared to those beings.1762 It appeared just like a mushroom. It was beautiful, fragrant, and delicious, like ghee or butter. And it was as sweet as pure dwarf-bee honey.
Then those beings started to eat the ground-fungus. With that as their food and nourishment, they remained for a very long time. But so long as they ate that ground-fungus, their bodies became more solid and they diverged in appearance; some beautiful, some ugly. And the beautiful beings looked down on the ugly ones: ‘We’re more beautiful, they’re the ugly ones!’ And the vanity of the beautiful ones made the ground-fungus vanish.
When the ground-fungus had vanished, bursting pods appeared, like the fruit of the kadam tree.1763 They were beautiful, fragrant, and delicious, like ghee or butter. And they were as sweet as pure dwarf-bee honey.
Then those beings started to eat the bursting pods. With that as their food and nourishment, they remained for a very long time. But so long as they ate those bursting pods, their bodies became more solid and they diverged in appearance; some beautiful, some ugly. And the beautiful beings looked down on the ugly ones: ‘We’re more beautiful, they’re the ugly ones!’ And the vanity of the beautiful ones made the bursting pods vanish.
They gathered together and bemoaned, ‘Oh, what we’ve lost! Oh, what we’ve lost—those bursting pods!’ And even today when people experience suffering they say: ‘Oh, what we’ve lost! Oh, what we’ve lost!’ They’re just remembering an ancient primordial saying, but they don’t understand what it means.
When the bursting pods had vanished, ripe untilled rice appeared to those beings. It had no powder or husk, pure and fragrant, with only the rice-grain. What they took for supper in the evening, by the morning had grown back and ripened. And what they took for breakfast in the morning had grown back and ripened by the evening, leaving no trace showing. Then those beings eating the ripe untilled rice, with that as their food and nourishment, remained for a very long time.
But so long as they ate that ripe untilled rice, their bodies became more solid and they diverged in appearance. And female characteristics appeared on women, while male characteristics appeared on men.1764 Women spent too much time gazing at men, and men at women. They became lustful, and their bodies burned with fever. Due to this fever they had sex with each other.
Those who saw them having sex pelted them with dirt, clods, or cow-dung, saying,1765 ‘Get lost, filth! Get lost, filth!1766 How on earth can one being do that to another?’1767 And even today people in some countries, when carrying a bride off, pelt her with dirt, clods, or cow-dung.1768 They’re just remembering an ancient primordial saying, but they don’t understand what it means.
What was deemed as unprincipled at that time, these days is deemed as principled.1769 The beings who had sex together weren’t allowed to enter a village or town for one or two months. Ever since they excessively threw themselves into immorality, they started to make buildings to hide their immoral deeds.1770 Then one of those beings of idle disposition thought, ‘Hey now, why should I be bothered to gather rice in the evening for supper, and in the morning for breakfast? Why don’t I gather rice for supper and breakfast all at once?’1771
So that’s what he did. Then one of the other beings approached that being and said, ‘Come, good being, we shall go to gather rice.’ ‘There’s no need, good being! I gathered rice for supper and breakfast all at once.’ So that being, following their example, gathered rice for two days all at once, thinking: ‘This seems fine.’1772
Then one of the other beings approached that being and said, ‘Come, good being, we shall go to gather rice.’ ‘There’s no need, good being! I gathered rice for two days all at once.’ So that being, following their example, gathered rice for four days all at once, thinking: ‘This seems fine.’
Then one of the other beings approached that being and said, ‘Come, good being, we shall go to gather rice.’ ‘There’s no need, good being! I gathered rice for four days all at once.’ So that being, following their example, gathered rice for eight days all at once, thinking: ‘This seems fine.’
But when they started to store up rice to eat, the rice grains became wrapped in powder and husk, it didn’t grow back after reaping, leaving a trace showing, and the rice stood in clumps.1773
Then those beings gathered together and bemoaned, ‘Oh, how wicked things have appeared among beings!1774 For we used to be mind-made, feeding on rapture, self-luminous, wandering in midair, steadily glorious, and we remained like that for a very long time. After a very long period had passed, the earth’s nectar curdled in the water. But due to bad, unskillful things among us, the earth’s nectar vanished, then the ground-fungus vanished, the bursting pods vanished, and now the rice grains have become wrapped in powder and husk, it doesn’t grow back after reaping, traces are left showing, and the rice stands in clumps. We’d better divide up the rice and lay down boundaries.’1775 So that’s what they did.
Now, one of those beings was reckless. While guarding their own share they took another’s share without it being given, and ate it.1776
They grabbed the one who had done this and said, ‘You have done a bad thing, good being, in that while guarding your own share you took another’s share without it being given, and ate it. Do not do such a thing again.’
‘Yes, worthy sirs,’ replied that being. But for a second time, and a third time they did the same thing, and were told not to continue.1777 And then they struck that being, some with fists, others with stones, and still others with rods.1778 From that day on stealing was found, and blame, and lying, and the taking up of rods.1779
Then those beings gathered together and bemoaned, ‘Oh, how wicked things have appeared among beings, in that stealing is found, and blaming and lying and the taking up of rods! Why don’t we elect one being who would rightly accuse those who deserve it, blame those who deserve it, and expel those who deserve it?1780 We shall pay them with a share of rice.’1781
Then those beings approached the being among them who was most attractive, good-looking, lovely, and illustrious, and said,1782 ‘Come, good being, rightly accuse those who deserve it, blame those who deserve it, and banish those who deserve it.1783 We shall pay you with a share of rice.’ ‘Yes, worthy sirs,’ replied that being. They acted accordingly, and were paid with a share of rice.
‘Elected by the populace’, Vāseṭṭha, is the meaning of ‘popularly elected’, the first term applied to them.1784
‘Lord of the fields’ is the meaning of ‘aristocrat’, the second term applied to them.1785
‘They please others with principle’ is the meaning of ‘king’, the third term applied to them.1786
And that, Vāseṭṭha, is how the ancient primordial terms for the circle of aristocrats were created; for those very beings, not others; for those like them, not unlike; by virtue of principle, not against principle. For principle, Vāseṭṭha, is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
Then some of those same beings thought, ‘Oh, how wicked things have appeared among beings, in that stealing is found, and blaming and lying and the taking up of rods and banishment! Why don’t we set aside bad, unskillful things?’1787 So that’s what they did.
‘They set aside bad, unskillful things’ is the meaning of ‘brahmin’, the first term applied to them.1788
They built leaf huts in a wilderness region where they meditated pure and bright, without lighting cooking fires or digging the soil. They came down in the morning for breakfast and in the evening for supper to the village, town, or royal capital seeking a meal.1789 When they had obtained food they continued to meditate in the leaf huts.
When people noticed this they said, ‘These beings build leaf huts in a wilderness region where they meditate pure and bright, without lighting cooking fires or digging the soil. They come down in the morning for breakfast and in the evening for supper to the village, town, or royal capital seeking a meal. When they have obtained food they continue to meditate in the leaf huts.’
‘They meditate’ is the meaning of ‘meditator’, the second term applied to them.1790
But some of those beings were unable to keep up with their meditation in the leaf huts in the wilderness. They came down to the neighborhood of a village or town where they dwelt compiling texts.1791
When people noticed this they said, ‘These beings were unable to keep up with their meditation in the leaf huts in the wilderness. They came down to the neighborhood of a village or town where they dwelt compiling texts. Now they don’t meditate.’
‘Now they don’t meditate’ is the meaning of ‘reciter’, the third term applied to them.1792 What was deemed as worse at that time, these days is deemed as best.
And that, Vāseṭṭha, is how the ancient primordial terms for the circle of brahmins were created; for those very beings, not others; for those like them, not unlike; by virtue of principle, not against principle. For principle, Vāseṭṭha, is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
Some of those same beings, taking up an active sex life, applied themselves to various jobs.
‘Having taken up an active sex life, they apply themselves to various jobs’ is the meaning of ‘peasant’, the term applied to them.1793
And that, Vāseṭṭha, is how the ancient primordial term for the circle of peasants was created; for those very beings, not others; for those like them, not unlike; by virtue of principle, not against principle. For principle, Vāseṭṭha, is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
The remaining beings lived by venal hunting and minor tasks.
‘They live by venal hunting and minor tasks’ is the meaning of ‘menial’, the term applied to them.1794
And that, Vāseṭṭha, is how the ancient primordial term for the circle of menials was created; for those very beings, not others; for those like them, not unlike; by virtue of principle, not against principle. For principle, Vāseṭṭha, is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
There came a time when an aristocrat,1795 brahmin, peasant, or menial, deprecating their own vocation, went forth from the lay life to homelessness, thinking, ‘I will be an ascetic.’
From these four circles, Vāseṭṭha, the circle of ascetics was created; for those very beings, not others; for those like them, not unlike; by virtue of principle, not against principle. For principle, Vāseṭṭha, is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
An aristocrat, brahmin, peasant, menial, or ascetic may do bad things by way of body, speech, and mind. They have wrong view, and they act out of that wrong view. And because of that, when their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell.
An aristocrat, brahmin, peasant, menial, or ascetic may do good things by way of body, speech, and mind. They have right view, and they act out of that right view. And because of that, when their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.
An aristocrat, brahmin, peasant, menial, or ascetic may do mixed things by way of body, speech, and mind. They have mixed view, and they act out of that mixed view. And because of that, when their body breaks up, after death, they experience both pleasure and pain.
An aristocrat, brahmin, peasant, menial, or ascetic who is restrained in body, speech, and mind, and develops the seven qualities that lead to awakening, becomes extinguished in this very life.
Any mendicant from these four classes who is perfected—with defilements ended, who has completed the spiritual journey, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, achieved their heart’s goal, utterly ended the fetter of continued existence, and is rightly freed through enlightenment—is said to be the foremost by virtue of principle, not against principle. For principle, Vāseṭṭha, is the best thing for people in both this life and the next.
The divinity Sanaṅkumāra also spoke this verse:
‘The aristocrat is best among people
who take clan as the standard.
But one accomplished in knowledge and conduct
is first among gods and humans.’
That verse was well sung by the Divinity Sanaṅkumāra, not poorly sung; well spoken, not poorly spoken; beneficial, not harmful, and I agree with it.1796 I also say:
The aristocrat is best among people
who take clan as the standard.
But one accomplished in knowledge and conduct
is first among gods and humans.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Nāḷandā in Pāvārika’s mango grove.1797 Then Sāriputta went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him:
“Sir, I have such confidence in the Buddha that I believe there’s no other ascetic or brahmin—whether past, future, or present—whose direct knowledge is superior to the Buddha when it comes to awakening.”
“That’s a grand and dramatic statement, Sāriputta. You’ve roared a definitive, categorical lion’s roar, saying: ‘I have such confidence in the Buddha that I believe there’s no other ascetic or brahmin—whether past, future, or present—whose direct knowledge is superior to the Buddha when it comes to awakening.’
What about all the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas who lived in the past? Have you comprehended their minds to know that those Buddhas had such ethics, or such qualities, or such wisdom, or such meditation, or such freedom?”
“No, sir.”
“And what about all the perfected ones, the fully awakened Buddhas who will live in the future? Have you comprehended their minds to know that those Buddhas will have such ethics, or such qualities, or such wisdom, or such meditation, or such freedom?”
“No, sir.”
“And what about me, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha at present? Have you comprehended my mind to know that I have such ethics, or such qualities, or such wisdom, or such meditation, or such freedom?”
“No, sir.”
“Well then, Sāriputta, given that you don’t comprehend the minds of Buddhas past, future, or present, what exactly are you doing, making such a grand and dramatic statement, roaring such a definitive, categorical lion’s roar?”
“Sir, though I don’t comprehend the minds of Buddhas past, future, and present, still I understand this by inference from the teaching. Suppose there were a king’s frontier citadel with fortified embankments, ramparts, and arches, and a single gate. And it has a gatekeeper who is astute, competent, and clever. He keeps strangers out and lets known people in. As he walks around the patrol path, he doesn’t see a hole or cleft in the wall, not even one big enough for a cat to slip out. They’d think, ‘Whatever sizable creatures enter or leave the citadel, all of them do so via this gate.’
In the same way, I understand this by inference from the teaching: ‘All the perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas—whether past, future, or present—give up the five hindrances, corruptions of the heart that weaken wisdom. Their mind is firmly established in the four kinds of mindfulness meditation. They correctly develop the seven awakening factors. And they awaken to the supreme perfect awakening.’
Sir, once I approached the Buddha to listen to the teaching.1798 He explained Dhamma with its higher and higher stages, with its better and better stages, with its dark and bright sides. When I directly knew a certain principle of those teachings, in accordance with how I was taught, I came to a conclusion about the teachings. I had confidence in the Teacher:1799 ‘The Blessed One is a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained. The Saṅgha is practicing well.’
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches skillful qualities is unsurpassable. This consists of such skillful qualities as the four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.1800 By these a mendicant realizes the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life. And they live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements. This is unsurpassable when it comes to skillful qualities. The Buddha understands this without exception. There is nothing to be understood beyond this whereby another ascetic or brahmin might be superior in direct knowledge to the Buddha when it comes to skillful qualities.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the description of the sense fields is unsurpassable. There are these six interior and exterior sense fields.1801 The eye and sights, the ear and sounds, the nose and smells, the tongue and tastes, the body and touches, and the mind and ideas. This is unsurpassable when it comes to describing the sense fields. The Buddha understands this without exception. There is nothing to be understood beyond this whereby another ascetic or brahmin might be superior in direct knowledge to the Buddha when it comes to describing the sense fields.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the conception of the embryo is unsurpassable. There are these four kinds of conception.
Firstly, someone is unaware when conceived in their mother’s womb, unaware as they remain there, and unaware as they emerge. This is the first kind of conception.1802
Furthermore, someone is aware when conceived in their mother’s womb, but unaware as they remain there, and unaware as they emerge. This is the second kind of conception.
Furthermore, someone is aware when conceived in their mother’s womb, aware as they remain there, but unaware as they emerge. This is the third kind of conception.
Furthermore, someone is aware when conceived in their mother’s womb, aware as they remain there, and aware as they emerge. This is the fourth kind of conception.
This is unsurpassable when it comes to the conception of the embryo.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the different ways of revealing is unsurpassable. There are these four ways of revealing.1803
Firstly, someone reveals by means of a sign, ‘This is what you’re thinking, such is your thought, and thus is your state of mind.’ And even if they reveal this many times, it turns out exactly so, not otherwise. This is the first way of revealing.
Furthermore, someone reveals after hearing it from humans or non-humans or deities, ‘This is what you’re thinking, such is your thought, and thus is your state of mind.’ And even if they reveal this many times, it turns out exactly so, not otherwise. This is the second way of revealing.
Furthermore, someone reveals by hearing the sound of thought spreading as someone thinks and considers, ‘This is what you’re thinking, such is your thought, and thus is your state of mind.’ And even if they reveal this many times, it turns out exactly so, not otherwise. This is the third way of revealing.
Furthermore, someone comprehends the mind of a person who has attained the immersion that’s free of placing the mind and keeping it connected. They understand, ‘Judging by the way this person’s intentions are directed, immediately after this mind state, they’ll think this thought.’ And even if they reveal this many times, it turns out exactly so, not otherwise. This is the fourth way of revealing.
This is unsurpassable when it comes to the ways of revealing.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the attainments of vision is unsurpassable. There are these four attainments of vision.
Firstly, some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they examine their own body up from the soles of the feet and down from the tips of the hairs, wrapped in skin and full of many kinds of filth.1804 ‘In this body there is head hair, body hair, nails, teeth, skin, flesh, sinews, bones, bone marrow, kidneys, heart, liver, diaphragm, spleen, lungs, intestines, mesentery, undigested food, feces, bile, phlegm, pus, blood, sweat, fat, tears, grease, saliva, snot, synovial fluid, urine.’ This is the first attainment of vision.
Furthermore, some ascetic or brahmin experiences that immersion and examines their own body. ‘In this body there is head hair … urine.’ Going further, they examine a person’s bones with skin, flesh, and blood.1805 This is the second attainment of vision.
Furthermore, some ascetic or brahmin experiences that immersion and examines their own body. ‘In this body there is head hair … urine.’ Going further, they examine a person’s bones with skin, flesh, and blood. And they understand of a person that their stream of consciousness is consistent on both sides: established in both this world and the next.1806 This is the third attainment of vision.
Furthermore, some ascetic or brahmin experiences that immersion and examines their own body. ‘In this body there is head hair … urine.’ Going further, they examine a person’s bones with skin, flesh, and blood. They understand of a person that their stream of consciousness is consistent on both sides: not established in either this world or the next. This is the fourth attainment of vision.
This is unsurpassable when it comes to attainments of vision.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the description of persons is unsurpassable. There are these seven persons. One freed both ways, one freed by wisdom, a direct witness, one attained to view, one freed by faith, a follower of teachings, a follower by faith.1807 This is unsurpassable when it comes to the description of persons.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the kinds of striving is unsurpassable. There are these seven awakening factors: the awakening factors of mindfulness, investigation of principles, energy, rapture, tranquility, immersion, and equanimity.1808 This is unsurpassable when it comes to the kinds of striving.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the ways of practice is unsurpassable.1809
Of these, the painful practice with slow insight is said to be inferior both ways: because it’s painful and because it’s slow. The painful practice with swift insight is said to be inferior because it’s painful. The pleasant practice with slow insight is said to be inferior because it’s slow. But the pleasant practice with swift insight is said to be superior both ways: because it’s pleasant and because it’s swift.
This is unsurpassable when it comes to the ways of practice.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches behavior in speech is unsurpassable. It’s when someone doesn’t use speech that’s connected with lying, or divisive, or backbiting, or aggressively trying to win.1810 They speak only wise counsel, valuable and timely. This is unsurpassable when it comes to behavior in speech.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches a person’s ethical behavior is unsurpassable.1811 It’s when someone is honest and faithful. They don’t use deceit, flattery, hinting, or belittling, and they don’t use material things to chase after other material things. They guard the sense doors and eat in moderation. They’re fair, dedicated to wakefulness, tireless, energetic, and meditative. They have good memory, eloquence, range, retention, and thoughtfulness. They’re not greedy for sensual pleasures. They are mindful and alert.1812 This is unsurpassable when it comes to a person’s ethical behavior.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the different degrees of responsiveness to instruction is unsurpassable. There are these four degrees of responsiveness to instruction.1813
The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual:1814 ‘By practicing as instructed this individual will, with the ending of three fetters, become a stream-enterer, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.’ The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual: ‘By practicing as instructed this individual will, with the ending of three fetters, and the weakening of greed, hate, and delusion, become a once-returner. They will come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering.’ The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual: ‘By practicing as instructed this individual will, with the ending of the five lower fetters, be reborn spontaneously. They will be extinguished there, and are not liable to return from that world.’ The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual: ‘By practicing as instructed this individual will realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements.’
This is unsurpassable when it comes to the different degrees of responsiveness to instruction.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the knowledge and freedom of other individuals is unsurpassable.1815 The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual: ‘With the ending of three fetters this individual will become a stream-enterer, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening.’ The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual: ‘With the ending of three fetters, and the weakening of greed, hate, and delusion, this individual will become a once-returner. They will come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering.’ The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual: ‘With the ending of the five lower fetters, this individual will be reborn spontaneously. They will be extinguished there, and are not liable to return from that world.’ The Buddha knows by rationally applying the mind to another individual: ‘This individual will realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements.’ This is unsurpassable when it comes to the knowledge and freedom of other individuals.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches eternalist doctrines is unsurpassable. There are these three eternalist doctrines.1816
Firstly, some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect many hundreds of thousands of past lives, with features and details. They say, ‘I know that in the past the cosmos expanded or contracted. I don’t know whether in the future the cosmos will expand or contract.1817 The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.’ This is the first eternalist doctrine.
Furthermore, some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect their past lives for as many as ten eons of the expansion and contraction of the cosmos,1818 with features and details. They say, ‘I know that in the past the cosmos expanded or contracted. I don’t know whether in the future the cosmos will expand or contract. The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.’ This is the second eternalist doctrine.
Furthermore, some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect their past lives for as many as forty eons of the expansion and contraction of the cosmos, with features and details. They say, ‘I know that in the past the cosmos expanded or contracted. I don’t know whether in the future the cosmos will expand or contract. The self and the cosmos are eternal, barren, steady as a mountain peak, standing firm like a pillar. They remain the same for all eternity, while these sentient beings wander and transmigrate and pass away and rearise.’ This is the third eternalist doctrine.
This is unsurpassable when it comes to eternalist doctrines.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the knowledge of recollecting past lives is unsurpassable. It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they recollect their many kinds of past lives. That is: one, two, three, four, five, ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, a hundred, a thousand, a hundred thousand rebirths; many eons of the world contracting, many eons of the world expanding, many eons of the world contracting and expanding. They remember: ‘There, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn somewhere else. There, too, I was named this, my clan was that, I looked like this, and that was my food. This was how I felt pleasure and pain, and that was how my life ended. When I passed away from that place I was reborn here.’ And so they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details. Sir, there are gods whose lifespan cannot be reckoned or calculated. Still, no matter what incarnation they have previously been reborn in—whether formed or formless or percipient or non-percipient or neither percipient nor non-percipient—they recollect their many kinds of past lives, with features and details. This is unsurpassable when it comes to the knowledge of recollecting past lives.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches the knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings is unsurpassable. It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that with clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn— inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds: ‘These dear beings did bad things by way of body, speech, and mind. They denounced the noble ones; they had wrong view; and they chose to act out of that wrong view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. These dear beings, however, did good things by way of body, speech, and mind. They never denounced the noble ones; they had right view; and they chose to act out of that right view. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.’ And so, with clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds. This is unsurpassable when it comes to the knowledge of death and rebirth.
And moreover, sir, how the Buddha teaches psychic power is unsurpassable. There are these two kinds of psychic power. There are psychic powers that are accompanied by defilements and attachments, and are said to be ignoble.1819 And there are psychic powers that are free of defilements and attachments, and are said to be noble. What are the psychic powers that are accompanied by defilements and attachments, and are said to be ignoble? It’s when some ascetic or brahmin—by dint of keen, resolute, committed, and diligent effort, and right application of mind—experiences an immersion of the heart of such a kind that they wield the many kinds of psychic power: multiplying themselves and becoming one again; materializing and dematerializing; going unobstructed through a wall, a rampart, or a mountain as if through space; diving in and out of the earth as if it were water; walking on water as if it were earth; flying cross-legged through the sky like a bird; touching and stroking with the hand the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful; controlling the body as far as the realm of divinity. These are the psychic powers that are accompanied by defilements and attachments, and are said to be ignoble.
But what are the psychic powers that are free of defilements and attachments, and are said to be noble? It’s when, if a mendicant wishes: ‘May I meditate perceiving the unrepulsive in the repulsive,’ that’s what they do.1820 If they wish: ‘May I meditate perceiving the repulsive in the unrepulsive,’ that’s what they do. If they wish: ‘May I meditate perceiving the unrepulsive in the repulsive and the unrepulsive,’ that’s what they do. If they wish: ‘May I meditate perceiving the repulsive in the unrepulsive and the repulsive,’ that’s what they do. If they wish: ‘May I meditate staying equanimous, mindful and aware, rejecting both the repulsive and the unrepulsive,’ that’s what they do. These are the psychic powers that are free of defilements and attachments, and are said to be noble. This is unsurpassable when it comes to psychic powers. The Buddha understands this without exception. There is nothing to be understood beyond this whereby another ascetic or brahmin might be superior in direct knowledge to the Buddha when it comes to psychic powers.
The Buddha has achieved what should be achieved by a faithful gentleman by being energetic and strong, by human strength, energy, vigor, and exertion. The Buddha doesn’t indulge in sensual pleasures, which are low, crude, ordinary, ignoble, and pointless. And he doesn’t indulge in self-mortification, which is painful, ignoble, and pointless.1821 He gets the four absorptions—blissful meditations in this life that belong to the higher mind—when he wants, without trouble or difficulty.1822
Sir, if they were to ask me, ‘Reverend Sāriputta, is there any other ascetic or brahmin—whether past, future, or present—whose direct knowledge is superior to the Buddha when it comes to awakening?’ I would tell them ‘No.’
But if they were to ask me, ‘Reverend Sāriputta, is there any other ascetic or brahmin—whether past or future—whose direct knowledge is equal to the Buddha when it comes to awakening?’ I would tell them ‘Yes.’ But if they were to ask: ‘Reverend Sāriputta, is there any other ascetic or brahmin at present whose direct knowledge is equal to the Buddha when it comes to awakening?’ I would tell them ‘No.’
But if they were to ask me, ‘But why does Venerable Sāriputta grant this in respect of some but not others?’ I would answer them like this,1823 ‘Reverends, I have heard and learned this in the presence of the Buddha: “The perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas of the past were equal in awakening to myself.”1824 And I have heard and learned this in the presence of the Buddha: “The perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas of the future will be equal in awakening to myself.” And I have also heard and learned this in the presence of the Buddha: “It’s impossible for two perfected ones, fully awakened Buddhas to arise in the same solar system at the same time.”’1825
Answering this way, I trust that I repeated what the Buddha has said, and didn’t misrepresent him with an untruth. I trust my explanation was in line with the teaching, and that there are no legitimate grounds for rebuttal or criticism.”
“Indeed, Sāriputta, in answering this way you repeat what I’ve said, and don’t misrepresent me with an untruth. Your explanation is in line with the teaching, and there are no legitimate grounds for rebuttal or criticism.”
When he had spoken, Venerable Udāyī said to the Buddha,1826 “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing! The Realized One has so few wishes, such contentment, such self-effacement! For even though the Realized One has such power and might, he will not make a display of himself. If the wanderers following other religions were to see even a single one of these qualities in themselves they’d carry around a banner to that effect. It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing! The Realized One has so few wishes, such contentment, such self-effacement! For even though the Realized One has such power and might, he will not make a display of himself.”
“See, Udāyī, how the Realized One has so few wishes, such contentment, such self-effacement. For even though the Realized One has such power and might, he will not make a display of himself. If the wanderers following other religions were to see even a single one of these qualities in themselves they’d carry around a banner to that effect. See, Udāyī, how the Realized One has so few wishes, such contentment, such self-effacement. For even though the Realized One has such power and might, he will not make a display of himself.”
Then the Buddha said to Venerable Sāriputta, “So Sāriputta, you should frequently speak this exposition of the teaching to the monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. Though there will be some silly people who have doubt or uncertainty regarding the Realized One, when they hear this exposition of the teaching they’ll give up that doubt or uncertainty.”
That’s how Venerable Sāriputta declared his confidence in the Buddha’s presence. And that’s why the name of this discussion is “Inspiring Confidence”.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying in the land of the Sakyans in a stilt longhouse in a mango grove belonging to those Sakyans named Vedhaññā.1827
Now at that time the Jain ascetic of the Ñātika clan had recently passed away at Pāvā.1828 With his passing the Jain ascetics split, dividing into two factions, arguing, quarreling, and disputing, continually wounding each other with barbed words:1829
“You don’t understand this teaching and training. I understand this teaching and training. What, you understand this teaching and training? You’re practicing wrong. I’m practicing right. I stay on topic, you don’t. You said last what you should have said first. You said first what you should have said last. What you’ve thought so much about has been disproved. Your doctrine is refuted. Go on, save your doctrine! You’re trapped; get yourself out of this—if you can!”
You’d think there was nothing but slaughter going on among the Jain ascetics.1830 And the Jain Ñātika’s white-clothed lay disciples were disillusioned, dismayed, and disappointed in the Jain ascetics. They were equally disappointed with a teaching and training so poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha, with broken monument and without a refuge.1831
And then, after completing the rainy season residence near Pāvā, the novice Cunda went to see Venerable Ānanda at Sāma village. He bowed, sat down to one side, and told him what had happened.1832
Ānanda said to him, “Reverend Cunda, we should see the Buddha about this matter. Come, let’s go to the Buddha and tell him about this.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Cunda.
Then Ānanda and Cunda went to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and told him what had happened.
“That’s what happens, Cunda, when a teaching and training is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha.1833
Take the case where a teacher is not awakened, and the teaching is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha. A disciple in that teaching does not practice in line with the teachings, does not practice following that procedure, does not live in line with the teaching. They proceed having turned away from that teaching.1834 You should say this to them, ‘You’re fortunate, reverend, you’re so very fortunate! For your teacher is not awakened, and their teaching is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha. But you don’t practice in line with that teaching, you don’t practice following that procedure, you don’t live in line with the teaching. You proceed having turned away from that teaching.’ In such a case the teacher and the teaching are to blame, but the disciple deserves praise.1835 Suppose someone was to say to such a disciple, ‘Come on, venerable, practice as taught and pointed out by your teacher.’ The one who encourages, the one who they encourage, and the one who practices accordingly all brim with much wickedness.1836 Why is that? It’s because that teaching and training is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha.
Take the case where a teacher is not awakened, and the teaching is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha. A disciple in that teaching practices in line with the teachings, practices following that procedure, lives in line with the teaching. They proceed having undertaken that teaching. You should say this to them, ‘It’s your loss, reverend, it’s your misfortune! For your teacher is not awakened, and their teaching is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha. And you practice in line with that teaching, you practice following that procedure, you live in line with the teaching. You proceed having undertaken that teaching.’ In such a case the teacher, the teaching, and the disciple are all to blame. Suppose someone was to say to such a disciple, ‘Clearly the venerable is practicing systematically and will succeed in that system.’ The one who praises, the one who they praise, and the one who, being praised, rouses up even more energy all brim with much wickedness. Why is that? It’s because that teaching and training is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha.
Take the case where a teacher is awakened, and the teaching is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is a fully awakened Buddha. A disciple in that teaching does not practice in line with the teachings, does not practice following that procedure, does not live in line with the teaching. They proceed having turned away from that teaching. You should say this to them, ‘It’s your loss, reverend, it’s your misfortune! For your teacher is awakened, and their teaching is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is a fully awakened Buddha. But you don’t practice in line with that teaching, you don’t practice following that procedure, you don’t live in line with the teaching. You proceed having turned away from that teaching.’ In such a case the teacher and the teaching deserve praise, but the disciple is to blame. Suppose someone was to say to such a disciple, ‘Come on, venerable, practice as taught and pointed out by your teacher.’ The one who encourages, the one who they encourage, and the one who practices accordingly all brim with much merit. Why is that? It’s because that teaching and training is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is a fully awakened Buddha.
Take the case where a teacher is awakened, and the teaching is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is a fully awakened Buddha. A disciple in that teaching practices in line with the teachings, practices following that procedure, lives in line with the teaching. They proceed having undertaken that teaching. You should say this to them, ‘You’re fortunate, reverend, you’re so very fortunate! For your teacher is awakened, and their teaching is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is a fully awakened Buddha. And you practice in line with that teaching, you practice following that procedure, you live in line with the teaching. You proceed having undertaken that teaching.’ In such a case the teacher, the teaching, and the disciple all deserve praise. Suppose someone was to say to such a disciple, ‘Clearly the venerable is practicing systematically and will succeed in that system.’ The one who praises, the one who they praise, and the one who, being praised, rouses up even more energy all brim with much merit. Why is that? It’s because that teaching and training is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is a fully awakened Buddha.
Take the case where a teacher arises in the world who is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is fully awakened. But the disciples have not been educated in the meaning of that good teaching. And the spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure has not been disclosed and revealed to them; its sayings have not all been collected; and it has not been well proclaimed with its demonstrable basis wherever there are gods and humans.1837 And then their teacher passes away. When such a teacher has passed away the disciples are tormented by regrets. Why is that? They think: ‘Our teacher was perfected, a fully awakened Buddha. His teaching was well explained, but we were not educated in its meaning. And the spiritual practice was not fully disclosed and revealed to us; its sayings have not all been collected; and it has not been well proclaimed with its demonstrable basis wherever there are gods and humans. And then our teacher passed away.’ When such a teacher has passed away the disciples are tormented by regrets.
Take the case where a teacher arises in the world who is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha. The teaching is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is fully awakened. The disciples have been educated in the meaning of that good teaching. And the spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure has been disclosed and revealed to them; its sayings have all been collected; and it has been well proclaimed with its demonstrable basis wherever there are gods and humans. And then their teacher passes away. When such a teacher has passed away the disciples are free of regrets. Why is that? They think: ‘Our teacher was perfected, a fully awakened Buddha. His teaching was well explained, we were educated in its meaning, and the spiritual practice was fully disclosed to us. And then our teacher passed away.’ When such a teacher has passed away the disciples are free of regrets.
Now suppose, Cunda, that a spiritual path possesses those factors. But the teacher is not senior, long standing, long gone forth, advanced in years, and reached the final stage of life. Then that spiritual path is incomplete in that respect.
But when a spiritual path possesses those factors and the teacher is senior, then that spiritual path is complete in that respect.
Now suppose that a spiritual path possesses those factors and the teacher is senior. But there are no senior monk disciples who are competent, educated, assured, have attained sanctuary from the yoke,1838 who can rightly explain the true teaching, and who can legitimately and completely refute the doctrines of others that come up, and teach with a demonstrable basis. Then that spiritual path is incomplete in that respect.
But when a spiritual path possesses those factors and the teacher is senior and there are competent senior monks, then that spiritual path is complete in that respect.
Now suppose that a spiritual path possesses those factors and the teacher is senior and there are competent senior monks. But there are no competent middle monks, junior monks, senior nuns, middle nuns, junior nuns, chaste white-clothed laymen, white-clothed laymen enjoying sensual pleasures, chaste white-clothed laywomen, white-clothed laywomen enjoying sensual pleasures. … There are white-clothed laywomen enjoying sensual pleasures, but the spiritual path is not successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans … the spiritual path is successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans, but it has not reached the peak of material things and fame. Then that spiritual path is incomplete in that respect.
But when a spiritual path possesses those factors and the teacher is senior and there are competent senior monks, middle monks, junior monks, senior nuns, middle nuns, junior nuns, chaste laymen, laymen enjoying sensual pleasures, chaste laywomen, laywomen enjoying sensual pleasures, and the spiritual path is successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans, and it has reached the peak of material things and fame, then that spiritual path is complete in that respect.
I, Cunda, am a teacher who has arisen in the world today, perfected and fully awakened. The teaching is well explained and well propounded, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is fully awakened. My disciples have been educated in the meaning of that good teaching. And the spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure has been disclosed and revealed to them with all its collected sayings, with its demonstrable basis, well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans. I am a teacher today who is senior, long standing, long gone forth, advanced in years, and have reached the final stage of life.
I have today disciples who are competent senior monks, middle monks, junior monks, senior nuns, middle nuns, junior nuns, chaste laymen, laymen enjoying sensual pleasures, chaste laywomen, and laywomen enjoying sensual pleasures. Today my spiritual path is successful and prosperous, extensive, popular, widespread, and well proclaimed wherever there are gods and humans.
Of all the teachers in the world today, Cunda, I don’t see even a single one who has reached the peak of material things and fame like me. Of all the spiritual communities and groups in the world today, Cunda, I don’t see even a single one who has reached the pinnacle of material things and fame like the mendicant Saṅgha. And if there’s any spiritual path of which it may be rightly said that it’s endowed with all good qualities, complete in all good qualities, neither too little nor too much, well explained, whole, full, and well propounded, it’s of this spiritual path that this should be said.
Uddaka son of Rāma used to say:1839 ‘Seeing, one does not see.’ But seeing what does one not see? You can see the blade of a well-sharpened razor, but not the edge.1840 Thus it is said: ‘Seeing, one does not see.’1841 But that saying of Uddaka’s is low, crude, ordinary, ignoble, and pointless, as it’s only about a razor. If there’s anything of which it may be rightly said: ‘Seeing, one does not see,’ it’s of this that it should be said. Seeing what does one not see? One sees this: a spiritual path endowed with all good qualities, complete in all good qualities, neither too little nor too much, well explained, whole, full, and well propounded. One does not see this: anything that, were it to be removed, would make it purer. One does not see this: anything that, were it to be added, would make it more complete. Thus it is rightly said: ‘Seeing, one does not see.’
So, Cunda, you should all come together and recite in concert, without disputing, those things I have taught you from my direct knowledge, comparing meaning with meaning and phrasing with phrasing, so that this spiritual path may last for a long time. That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.1842 And what are those things I have taught from my direct knowledge? They are the four kinds of mindfulness meditation, the four right efforts, the four bases of psychic power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven awakening factors, and the noble eightfold path.1843 These are the things I have taught from my own direct knowledge.
Suppose one of those spiritual companions who is training in harmony and mutual appreciation, without disputing, were to recite the teaching in the Saṅgha. Now, you might think, ‘This venerable misconstrues the meaning and mistakes the phrasing.’ You should neither approve nor dismiss them, but say,1844 ‘Reverend, if this is the meaning, the phrasing may either be this or that: which is more fitting? And if this is the phrasing, the meaning may be either this or that: which is more fitting?’1845 Suppose they reply, ‘This phrasing fits the meaning better than that. And this meaning fits the phrasing better than that.’ Without flattering or rebuking them, you should carefully persuade them by examining that meaning and that phrasing.
Suppose another spiritual companion were to recite the teaching in the Saṅgha. Now, you might think, ‘This venerable misconstrues the meaning but gets the phrasing right.’ You should neither approve nor dismiss them, but say, ‘Reverend, if this is the phrasing, the meaning may be either this or that: which is more fitting?’ Suppose they reply, ‘This meaning fits the phrasing better than that.’ Without flattering or rebuking, you should carefully persuade them by examining that meaning.
Suppose another spiritual companion were to recite the teaching in the Saṅgha. Now, you might think, ‘This venerable construes the meaning correctly but mistakes the phrasing.’ You should neither approve nor dismiss them, but say, ‘Reverend, if this is the meaning, the phrasing may be either this or that: which is more fitting?’ Suppose they reply, ‘This phrasing fits the meaning better than that.’ Without flattering or rebuking, you should carefully persuade them by examining that phrasing.
Suppose another spiritual companion were to recite the teaching in the Saṅgha. Now, you might think, ‘This venerable construes the meaning correctly and gets the phrasing right.’ Saying ‘Good!’ you should express approval and appreciation of that mendicant’s statement, and then say to them, ‘We are fortunate, reverend, so very fortunate to see a venerable such as yourself, so well-versed in the meaning and the phrasing, as one of our spiritual companions!’
Cunda, I do not teach you solely for restraining defilements that affect this life. Nor do I teach solely for protecting against defilements that affect lives to come. I teach both for restraining defilements that affect this life and protecting against defilements that affect lives to come.
And that’s why I have allowed robes for you that suffice1846 only for the sake of warding off cold and heat; for warding off the touch of flies, mosquitoes, wind, sun, and reptiles; and for covering up the private parts. I have allowed almsfood for you that suffices only to sustain this body, avoid harm, and support spiritual practice; so that you will put an end to old discomfort and not give rise to new discomfort, and will keep on living blamelessly and at ease. I have allowed lodgings for you that suffice only for the sake of warding off cold and heat; for warding off the touch of flies, mosquitoes, wind, sun, and reptiles; to shelter from harsh weather and to enjoy retreat. I have allowed medicines and supplies for the sick for you that suffice only for the sake of warding off the pains of illness and to promote good health.
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘The ascetics who follow the Sakyan live indulging in pleasure.’1847 You should say to them, ‘What is that indulgence in pleasure? For there are many different kinds of indulgence in pleasure.’
These four kinds of indulgence in pleasure, Cunda, are low, crude, ordinary, ignoble, and pointless. They don’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. What four?
It’s when some fool makes themselves happy and pleased by killing living creatures. This is the first kind of indulgence in pleasure.
Furthermore, someone makes themselves happy and pleased by theft. This is the second kind of indulgence in pleasure.
Furthermore, someone makes themselves happy and pleased by lying. This is the third kind of indulgence in pleasure.
Furthermore, someone amuses themselves, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation. This is the fourth kind of indulgence in pleasure.
These are the four kinds of indulgence in pleasure that are low, crude, ordinary, ignoble, and pointless. They don’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment.
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘The ascetics who follow the Sakyan live indulging in pleasure in these four ways.’ They should be told, ‘Not so!’ It isn’t right to say that about you; it misrepresents you with an untruth.
Cunda, these four kinds of indulgence in pleasure lead solely to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment.1848 What four?
It’s when a mendicant, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. This is the first kind of indulgence in pleasure.
Furthermore, as the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, a mendicant enters and remains in the second absorption. It has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. This is the second kind of indulgence in pleasure.
Furthermore, with the fading away of rapture, a mendicant enters and remains in the third absorption. They meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ This is the third kind of indulgence in pleasure.
Furthermore, with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, a mendicant enters and remains in the fourth absorption. It is without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. This is the fourth kind of indulgence in pleasure.
These are the four kinds of indulgence in pleasure which lead solely to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment.
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘The ascetics who follow the Sakyan live indulging in pleasure in these four ways.’ They should be told, ‘Exactly so!’ It’s right to say that about you; it doesn’t misrepresent you with an untruth.
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘How many fruits and benefits may be expected by those who live indulging in pleasure in these four ways?’ You should say to them, ‘Four benefits may be expected by those who live indulging in pleasure in these four ways. What four?
Firstly, with the ending of three fetters a mendicant becomes a stream-enterer, not liable to be reborn in the underworld, bound for awakening. This is the first fruit and benefit.
Furthermore, a mendicant—with the ending of three fetters, and the weakening of greed, hate, and delusion—becomes a once-returner. They come back to this world once only, then make an end of suffering. This is the second fruit and benefit.
Furthermore, with the ending of the five lower fetters, a mendicant is reborn spontaneously and will become extinguished there, not liable to return from that world. This is the third fruit and benefit.
Furthermore, a mendicant realizes the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life, and lives having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements. This is the fourth fruit and benefit.
These four benefits may be expected by those who live indulging in pleasure in these four ways.’1849
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘The ascetics who follow the Sakyan are fickle.’1850 You should say to them, ‘Reverends, these things have been taught and pointed out for his disciples by the Blessed One, who knows and sees, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, not to be transgressed so long as life lasts. Suppose there was an Indra’s pillar or an iron pillar with deep foundations, firmly embedded, imperturbable and unshakable. In the same way, these things have been taught and pointed out for his disciples by the Blessed One, who knows and sees, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha, not to be transgressed so long as life lasts.
A mendicant who is perfected—with defilements ended, who has completed the spiritual journey, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, achieved their heart’s goal, utterly ended the fetter of continued existence, and is rightly freed through enlightenment—can’t transgress in nine respects.1851 A mendicant with defilements ended can’t deliberately take the life of a living creature, take something with the intention to steal, have sex, tell a deliberate lie, or store up goods for their own enjoyment like they used to as a lay person. And they can’t make decisions prejudiced by favoritism, hostility, stupidity, or cowardice. A mendicant who is perfected can’t transgress in these nine respects.’
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘The ascetic Gotama demonstrates boundless knowledge and vision of the past, but not of the future. What’s up with that?’ Those wanderers, like incompetent fools, seem to imagine that one kind of knowledge and vision can be demonstrated by means of another kind of knowledge and vision.1852
Regarding the past, the Realized One has knowledge stemming from memory. He recollects as far as he wants.
Regarding the future, the Realized One has the knowledge born of awakening:1853 ‘This is my last rebirth; now there’ll be no more future lives.’
If a question about the past is untrue, false, and pointless, the Realized One does not reply. If a question about the past is true and correct, but pointless, he does not reply. If a question about the past is true, correct, and beneficial, he knows the right time to reply. And the Realized One replies to questions about the future or the present in the same way.
And so the Realized One has speech that’s well-timed, true, meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. That’s why he’s called the ‘Realized One’.1854
In this world—with its gods, Māras, and Divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, its gods and humans—whatever is seen, heard, thought, known, attained, sought, and explored by the mind, all that has been understood by the Realized One. That’s why he’s called the ‘Realized One’.
From the night when the Realized One awakens to the supreme perfect awakening until the night he becomes fully extinguished—in the element of extinguishment with no residue—everything he speaks, says, and expresses is real, not otherwise. That’s why he’s called the ‘Realized One’.
The Realized One does as he says, and says as he does. Since this is so, that’s why he’s called the ‘Realized One’. In this world—with its gods, Māras, and divinities, this population with its ascetics and brahmins, gods and humans—the Realized One is the vanquisher, the unvanquished, the universal seer, the wielder of power.
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘Is this your view: “A Realized One exists after death. This is the only truth, anything else is futile”?’1855 You should say to them, ‘Reverend, this has not been declared by the Buddha.’
The wanderers might say, ‘Then is this your view: “A Realized One doesn’t exist after death. This is the only truth, anything else is futile”?’ You should say to them, ‘This too has not been declared by the Buddha.’
The wanderers might say, ‘Then is this your view: “A Realized One both exists and doesn’t exist after death. This is the only truth, anything else is futile”?’ You should say to them, ‘This too has not been declared by the Buddha.’
The wanderers might say, ‘Then is this your view: “A Realized One neither exists nor doesn’t exist after death. This is the only truth, anything else is futile”?’ You should say to them, ‘This too has not been declared by the Buddha.’
The wanderers might say, ‘But why has this not been declared by the ascetic Gotama?’ You should say to them, ‘Because it’s not beneficial or relevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life. It doesn’t lead to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. That’s why it hasn’t been declared by the Buddha.’
It’s possible that wanderers of other religions might say, ‘But what has been declared by the ascetic Gotama?’ You should say to them, ‘What has been declared by the Buddha is this: “This is suffering”—“This is the origin of suffering”—“This is the cessation of suffering”—“This is the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.”’
The wanderers might say, ‘But why has this been declared by the ascetic Gotama?’ You should say to them, ‘Because it’s beneficial and relevant to the fundamentals of the spiritual life. It leads to disillusionment, dispassion, cessation, peace, insight, awakening, and extinguishment. That’s why it has been declared by the Buddha.’
Cunda, I have explained to you as they should be explained the views that some rely on regarding the past.1856 Shall I explain them to you in the wrong way? I have explained to you as they should be explained the views that some rely on regarding the future. Shall I explain them to you in the wrong way?
What are the views that some rely on regarding the past? There are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: ‘The self and the cosmos are eternal. This is the only truth, anything else is futile.’ There are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: ‘The self and the cosmos are not eternal, or both eternal and not eternal, or neither eternal nor not eternal. The self and the cosmos are made by oneself,1857 or made by another, or made by both oneself and another, or they have arisen anomalously, not made by oneself or another. Pleasure and pain are eternal, or not eternal, or both eternal and not eternal, or neither eternal nor not eternal. Pleasure and pain are made by oneself, or made by another, or made by both oneself and another, or they have arisen anomalously, not made by oneself or another. This is the only truth, anything else is futile.’
Regarding this, I go up to the ascetics and brahmins whose view is that the self and the cosmos are eternal, and say, ‘Reverends, is this what you say, “The self and the cosmos are eternal”?’ But when they say, ‘Yes! This is the only truth, anything else is futile,’ I don’t acknowledge that. Why is that? Because there are beings who have different opinions on this topic. I don’t see any such expositions that are equal to my own, still less superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher exposition.
Regarding this, I go up to the ascetics and brahmins who assert all the other views as described above. And in each case, I don’t acknowledge that. Why is that? Because there are beings who have different opinions on this topic. I don’t see any such expositions that are equal to my own, still less superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher exposition.
These are the views that some rely on regarding the past.
What are the views that some rely on regarding the future? There are some ascetics and brahmins who have this doctrine and view: ‘The self is healthy after death, and formed … or formless … or both formed and formless … or neither formed nor formless … or percipient … or non-percipient … or neither percipient nor non-percipient … or the self is annihilated and destroyed when the body breaks up, and doesn’t exist after death. This is the only truth, anything else is futile.’
Regarding this, I go up to the ascetics and brahmins whose view is that, ‘The self is formed and healthy after death,’ and say, ‘Reverends, is this what you say, “The self is formed and healthy after death”?’ But when they say, ‘Yes! This is the only truth, anything else is futile,’ I don’t acknowledge that. Why is that? Because there are beings who have different opinions on this topic. I don’t see any such expositions that are equal to my own, still less superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher exposition.
Regarding this, I go up to the ascetics and brahmins who assert all the other views as described above. And in each case, I don’t acknowledge that. Why is that? Because there are beings who have different opinions on this topic. I don’t see any such expositions that are equal to my own, still less superior. Rather, I am the one who is superior when it comes to the higher exposition.
These are the views that some rely on regarding the future, which I have explained to you as they should be explained. Shall I explain them to you in the wrong way?
I have taught and pointed out the four kinds of mindfulness meditation for giving up and going beyond all these views of the past and the future.1858 What four? It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. These are the four kinds of mindfulness meditation that I have taught for giving up and going beyond all these views of the past and the future.”
Now at that time Venerable Upavāna was standing behind the Buddha fanning him. He said to the Buddha, “It’s incredible, sir, it’s amazing! This exposition of the teaching is impressive, sir, it is very impressive. Sir, what is the name of this exposition of the teaching?”
“Well then, Upavāna, you may remember this exposition of the teaching as ‘The Impressive Discourse’.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, Venerable Upavāna approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Sāvatthī in Jeta’s Grove, Anāthapiṇḍika’s monastery. There the Buddha addressed the mendicants, “Mendicants!”
“Venerable sir,” they replied. The Buddha said this:
“There are thirty-two marks of a great man. A great man who possesses these has only two possible destinies, no other.1859 If he stays at home he becomes a king, a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king. His dominion extends to all four sides, he achieves stability in the country, and he possesses the seven treasures. He has the following seven treasures: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the jewel, the woman, the householder, and the commander as the seventh treasure. He has over a thousand sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. After conquering this land girt by sea, he reigns by principle, without rod or sword. But if he goes forth from the lay life to homelessness, he becomes a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha, who draws back the veil from the world.
And what are the thirty-two marks?1860
He has well-planted feet.
On the soles of his feet there are thousand-spoked wheels, with rims and hubs, complete in every detail.
He has stretched heels.
He has long fingers.
His hands and feet are tender.
He has serried hands and feet.
The tops of his feet are arched.
His calves are like those of an antelope.
When standing upright and not bending over, the palms of both hands touch the knees.
His private parts are covered in a foreskin.
He is golden colored; his skin shines like lustrous gold.
He has delicate skin, so delicate that dust and dirt don’t stick to his body.
His hairs grow one per pore.
His hairs stand up; they’re blue-black and curl clockwise.
His body is tall and straight-limbed.
He has bulging muscles in seven places.
His chest is like that of a lion.
He is filled out between the shoulders.
He has the proportional circumference of a banyan tree: the span of his arms equals the height of his body.
His torso is cylindrical.
He has ridged taste buds.
His jaw is like that of a lion.
He has forty teeth.
His teeth are even.
His teeth have no gaps.
His teeth are perfectly white.
He has a large tongue.
He has the voice of the Divinity,
His eyes are indigo.
He has eyelashes like a cow’s.
Between his eyebrows there grows a tuft, soft and white like cotton-wool.
The crown of his head is like a turban.
These are the thirty-two marks of a great man. A great man who possesses these has only two possible destinies, no other.
Seers who are outsiders remember these marks, but they do not know the specific deeds performed in the past to obtain each mark.1861
In some past lives, past existences, past abodes the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He firmly and persistently undertook skillful behaviors such as good conduct by way of body, speech, and mind, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors.1862 Due to performing, accumulating, heaping up, and amassing those deeds, when his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. There he surpassed the other gods in ten respects: heavenly lifespan, beauty, happiness, glory, sovereignty, sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touches. When he passed away from there and came back to this place he obtained this mark of a great man: he has well-planted feet. He places his foot on the ground evenly, raises it evenly, and touches the ground evenly with the whole sole of his foot.
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. He has the following seven treasures: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the jewel, the woman, the householder, and the commander as the seventh treasure. He has over a thousand sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. After conquering this land girt by sea—free of harassment by bandits, successful and prosperous, safe, blessed, free of pests—he reigns by principle, without rod or sword.1863 And what does he obtain as king? He can’t be stopped by any human foe or enemy. That’s what he obtains as king. But if he goes forth from the lay life to homelessness, he becomes a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha, who draws back the veil from the world. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He can’t be stopped by any foe or enemy whether internal or external; nor by greed, hate, or delusion; nor by any ascetic or brahmin or god or Māra or divinity or by anyone in the world. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“Truth, principle, self-control, and restraint;1864
purity, precepts, and observing the sabbath;
giving, harmlessness, delighting in non-violence—
firmly undertaking these things, he lived accordingly.By means of these deeds he went to heaven,
where he enjoyed happiness and merriment.
After passing away from there to here,
he steps evenly on this rich earth.The gathered soothsayers predicted
that there is no stopping one of such even tread,
as householder or renunciate.
That’s the meaning shown by this mark.While living at home he cannot be stopped,
he defeats his foes, and cannot be beaten.
Due to the fruit of that deed,
he cannot be stopped by any human.But if he chooses the life gone forth,
seeing clearly, loving renunciation,
not even the best can ever stop him;1865
this is the nature of the supreme person.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He conveyed happiness to many people, eliminating threats, terror, and danger, providing just protection and security, and giving gifts with all the trimmings.1866 Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: on the soles of his feet there are thousand-spoked wheels, with rims and hubs, complete in every detail and well divided inside.
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He has a large following of brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes. That’s what he obtains as king. But if he goes forth from the lay life to homelessness, he becomes a fully awakened Buddha. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He has a large following of monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“In olden days, in past lives,
he brought happiness to many people,
ridding them of fear, terror, and danger,
eagerly guarding and protecting them.By means of these deeds he went to heaven,
where he enjoyed happiness and merriment.
After passing away from there to here,
wheels on his two feet are found,all rimmed around and thousand-spoked.
The gathered soothsayers predicted,
seeing the princewith the hundred-fold mark of merits,1867
that he’d have a following, subduing foes,which is why he has wheels all rimmed around.
If he doesn’t choose the life gone forth,
he’ll roll the wheel and rule the land.
The aristocrats will be his vassals,flocking to his glory.
But if he chooses the life gone forth,
seeing clearly, loving renunciation,
the gods, humans, titans, Sakka, and monsters;centaurs and dragons, birds and beasts,
will flock to his glory,
the supreme, honored by gods and humans.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He gave up killing living creatures, renouncing the rod and the sword. He was scrupulous and kind, living full of sympathy for all living beings. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these three marks: he has stretched heels, long fingers, and his body is tall and straight-limbed.1868
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He’s long-lived, preserving his life for a long time. No human foe or enemy is able to take his life before his time. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He’s long-lived, preserving his life for a long time. No foes or enemies—nor any ascetic or brahmin or god or Māra or divinity or anyone in the world—is able to take his life before his time. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“Realizing for himself the horrors of death,
he refrained from killing other creatures.
By that good conduct he went to heaven,
where he enjoyed the fruit of deeds well done.Passing away, on his return to here,
he obtained these three marks:
his stretched heels are abundant and long,
and like the Divinity, he’s straight and beautiful,with well-formed limbs.1869 Fair of arm, youthful, of good posture and breeding,
his fingers are soft and tender and long.
By these three marks of an excellent man,
they indicated that the prince’s life would be long:‘As a householder he will live long;1870
longer still if he goes forth, due to
mastery in the development of psychic power.
Thus this is the sign of long life.’”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He was a donor of delicious and tasty cooked and fresh foods, and drinks that were sweet and succulent.1871 Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: he has bulging muscles in seven places. Both hands, both feet, both shoulders, and his chest are all bulging.
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He gets delicious and tasty cooked and fresh foods, and drinks that are sweet and succulent. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He gets delicious and tasty cooked and fresh foods, and drinks that are sweet and succulent. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“He used to give the very best of flavors—
scrumptious foods of every kind.
Because of that good deed,
he rejoiced long in the Garden of Delight.1872On returning to here, he is rounded in seven places,
and tender hands and feet are found.
The soothsayers expert in signs declared:
‘He’ll get tasty foods of all sortsas a householder, that’s what that means.
But even if he goes forth he’ll get the same,
supreme in gaining tasty foods of all sorts,
cutting all bonds of the lay life.’”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He brought people together using the four ways of being inclusive: giving, kindly words, taking care, and equality. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: his hands and feet are tender, and they are serried.1873
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? His retinue is inclusive, cohesive, and well-managed. This includes brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes.1874 That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? His retinue is inclusive and well-managed. This includes monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“By giving and helping others,
kindly speech, and equal treatment,
such action and conduct as brought people together,
he went to heaven due to his esteemed virtue.Passing away, on his return to here,
the young baby prince obtained
hands and feet so tender and serried,
lovely, graceful, and good-looking.His retinue is loyal and manageable,
staying agreeably all over this broad land.1875
Speaking kindly, seeking happiness,
he implements agreeable qualities.But if he gives up all sensual enjoyments,
as victor he speaks Dhamma to the people.
Devoted, they respond to his words;
after listening, they practice in line with the teaching.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. His speech was meaningful and principled. He educated many people, bringing welfare and happiness, offering the teaching. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: the tops of his feet are arched and his hairs stand up.1876
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He is the foremost, best, chief, highest, and finest of those who enjoy sensual pleasures. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He is the foremost, best, chief, highest, and finest of all sentient beings. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“His word was meaningful and principled,
moving the people with his explanations.
He brought welfare and happiness to creatures,
unstintingly offering up teaching.Because of that good deed,
he advanced to heaven and there rejoiced.
On return to here two marks are found,
of excellence and supremacy.His hairs stand upright,
and his ankles stand out well.
Swollen with flesh and blood, encased in skin,
beautified above the feet.If such a one lives in the home, he becomes
the best of those who enjoy sensual pleasures.
There’ll be none better than him;
he’ll proceedhaving mastered all the Black Plum Tree Land. But going forth the peerless renunciate
turns into the best of all creatures.
There’ll be none better than him,
he’ll live having mastered the whole world.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He was a thorough teacher of a profession, a branch of knowledge, conduct, or action, thinking: ‘How might they quickly learn and practice, without getting exhausted?’ Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: his calves are like those of an antelope.1877
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He quickly obtains the things worthy of a king, the factors, supports, and things befitting a king. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He quickly obtains the things worthy of an ascetic, the factors, supports, and things befitting an ascetic. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“In professions, knowledge, conduct, and deeds,
he thought of how they might easily learn.
Quickly, without tiresome delays,
he taught them things that harm no-one at all.Having done that skillful deed
whose outcome is happiness,
he gains prominent and elegant calves.
Well-formed in graceful spirals,
he’s covered in delicate rising hairs.They say that person has antelope calves,
and that this is the mark of swift success.
If he desires the things fitting the household life,
not going forth, they’ll quickly be his.But if he chooses the life gone forth,
seeing clearly, loving renunciation,
the peerless renunciate will quickly find
what is fitting and suitable.”1878
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He approached an ascetic or brahmin and asked: ‘Sirs, what is skillful? What is unskillful? What is blameworthy? What is blameless? What should be cultivated? What should not be cultivated? Doing what leads to my lasting harm and suffering? Doing what leads to my lasting welfare and happiness?’ Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: he has delicate skin, so delicate that dust and dirt don’t stick to his body.1879
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He has great wisdom. Of those who enjoy sensual pleasures, none is his equal or better in wisdom. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He has great wisdom, widespread wisdom, laughing wisdom, swift wisdom, sharp wisdom, and penetrating wisdom. No sentient being is his equal or better in wisdom. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“In olden days, in past lives,
eager to understand, he asked questions.
Keen to learn, he waited on renunciates,
heeding their explanation with pure intent.Due to that deed of acquiring wisdom,
as a human being his skin is delicate.
At his birththe soothsayers expert in signs prophesied:
‘He’ll discern delicate matters.’If he doesn’t choose the life gone forth,
he’ll roll the wheel and rule the land.
Among those with material thingswho have been educated,
none equal or better than him is found.But if he chooses the life gone forth,
seeing clearly, loving renunciation,
gaining wisdom that’s supreme and distinguished,
the one of superb, vast intelligenceattains awakening.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He wasn’t irritable or bad-tempered. Even when heavily criticized he didn’t lose his temper, become annoyed, hostile, and hard-hearted, or display annoyance, hate, and bitterness. He donated soft and delicate mats and blankets, and delicate cloths of linen, cotton, silk, and wool. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: he is golden colored; his skin shines like lustrous gold.1880
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He obtains soft and delicate mats and blankets, and delicate cloths of linen, cotton, silk, and wool. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He obtains soft and delicate mats and blankets, and delicate cloths of linen, cotton, silk, and wool. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“Fixated on good will, he gave gifts.1881
In an earlier life he poured forth cloth
fine and soft to touch,
like a god pouring rain on this broad earth.1882So doing he passed from here to heaven,
where he enjoyed the fruits of deeds well done.
Here he wins a figure shining like honey-yellow gold,1883
like Indra, the finest of gods.If that man stays in the house, not wishing to go forth,
he conquers and rules this vast, broad earth.
He obtains abundant excellent cloth,
so delicate and soft to touch.He receives robes, cloth, and the finest garments1884
if he chooses the life gone forth.
For he still partakes of past deed’s fruit;
what’s been done is never lost.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He reunited long-lost and long-separated relatives, friends, loved ones, and comrades. He reunited mother with child and child with mother; father with child and child with father; brother with brother, brother with sister, sister with brother, and sister with sister, bringing them together with rejoicing. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: his private parts are covered in a foreskin.1885
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He has many sons, over a thousand sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He has many sons, many thousands of sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“In olden days, in past lives,
he reunited long-lost
and long-separated comrades and family,
bringing them together with joy.By means of these deeds he went to heaven,
where he enjoyed happiness and merriment.
After passing away from there to here,
his private parts are covered in a foreskin.Such a one has many sons,
over a thousand descendants,
valiant and heroic, devastating foes,
a layman’s joy, speaking kindly.But if he lives the renunciate life
he has even more sons following his word.
As householder or renunciate,
that’s the meaning shown by this mark.”
The first recitation section is finished.
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. Examining the gathered population, he knew what they had in common and what was their own; he knew each person, and he knew the distinctions between people. In each case, he made appropriate distinctions between people: ‘This one deserves that; that one deserves this.’ Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: he has the proportional circumference of a banyan tree; and when standing upright and not bending over, the palms of both hands touch the knees.1886
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He is rich, affluent, and wealthy, with lots of gold and silver, lots of property and assets, lots of money and grain, and a full treasury and storehouses. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He is rich, affluent, and wealthy. He has these kinds of wealth: the wealth of faith, ethics, conscience, prudence, learning, generosity, and wisdom. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“Examining the many people in a community,
he weighed, evaluated, and judged each case:
‘This one deserves that.’
That’s how he used to drawdistinctions between people. Now standing without bending
he can touch his knees with both hands.
With the remaining ripeningof the fruit of good deeds,
his circumference was that of a great tree.Learned experts in the many different
signs and marks prophesied:
‘The young prince will obtain
many different things that householders deserve.Here there are many suitable pleasures
for the ruler of the land to enjoy as householder.
But if he gives up all sensual enjoyments,
he will gain the supreme, highest peak of wealth.’”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He wanted what’s best, the welfare, the comfort, and sanctuary of the people, thinking: ‘How might they flourish in faith, ethics, learning, generosity, teachings, and wisdom; in wealth and grain, fields and land, birds and beasts, children and partners; in bondservants, workers, and staff; in family, friends, and kin?’ Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these three marks: his chest is like that of a lion; he is filled out between the shoulders.; and his torso is cylindrical.1887
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He’s not liable to decline. He doesn’t decline in wealth and grain, fields and land, birds and beasts, children and partners; in bondservants, workers, and staff; in family, friends, and kin. He doesn’t decline in any of his accomplishments. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He’s not liable to decline. He doesn’t decline in faith, ethics, learning, generosity, and wisdom. He doesn’t decline in any of his accomplishments.1888 That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“His wish was this: ‘How may others not decline
in faith, ethics, learning, and intelligence,
in generosity, teachings, and much good else,
in coin and grain, fields and lands,in children, partners, and livestock,
in family, friends, and kin,
in strength, and both beauty and happiness?’
And so he ever desired their success.His chest was prominent like that of a lion,
filled out between the shoulders,and torso cylindrical.
Due to the well-done deeds of the past,
he had that portent of non-decline.Even as layman he grows in coin and grain,
in wives, children, and livestock.
But once gone forth, owning nothing, he attains
the supreme awakening which may never decline.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He would never hurt any sentient being with fists, stones, rods, or swords. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: he has ridged taste buds. His raised taste receptors, originating in the throat, disperse evenly.
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He is rarely ill or unwell. His stomach digests well, being neither too hot nor too cold.1889 That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He is rarely ill or unwell. His stomach digests well, being neither too hot nor too cold, but just right, and fit for meditation. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“Not with fist or rod or stone,
or sword or beating to death,
or by bondage or threats
did he ever harm anyone.For that very reason he rejoiced in heaven
after passing away,
finding happiness as a fruit of happy deeds.
With taste receptors prominentand evenly spreading nutrition,
on his return here he has ridged taste buds.That’s why the clever prophets said:
‘This man will have much happiness
as householder or renunciate.
That’s the meaning shown by this mark.’”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. When looking at others he didn’t glare, look askance, or avert his eyes. Being straightforward, he reached out to others with straightforward intentions, looking at people with kindly eyes. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: his eyes are indigo, and he has eyelashes like a cow’s.1890
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? The people look on him with kindly eyes. He is dear and beloved to the brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? The people look on him with kindly eyes. He is dear and beloved to the monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“With not a glare or glance askance,
nor averting of the eyes;
straightforward, he reached out straightforwardly,
looking at people with kindly eyes.In good rebirths he enjoyed the fruit
and result, rejoicing there.
But here he has a cow’s eyelashes,
and indigo eyes so fair to see.Many soothsayers, men clever1891
and learned in prognostic texts,
expert in cow-like lashes, indicated
he’d be looked upon with kindly eyes.Even as a householder he’d be regarded kindly,
beloved of the people.
But if he becomes an ascetic, not lay,
as destroyer of sorrow he’ll be loved by many.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He was the leader and forerunner of people in skillful behaviors such as good conduct by way of body, speech, and mind, giving and sharing, taking precepts, observing the sabbath, paying due respect to mother and father, ascetics and brahmins, honoring the elders in the family, and various other things pertaining to skillful behaviors.1892 Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: the crown of his head is like a turban.
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He has a large following of brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He has a large following of monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“Among people of good conduct, he was the leader,
devoted to a life of principle among the principled.
The people followed him,
and he experienced the fruit of good deeds in heaven.Having experienced that fruit,
he gains a head crowned like a turban.
The experts in omens and signs prophesied:
‘He will be leader of the people.Among mankind then, as before,
they will bring presents for him.
If he becomes an aristocrat, ruler of the land,
he’ll gain the service of the people.But if that man goes forth,
he’ll be sophisticated, proficient in the teachings.
Devoted to the virtues of his instruction,
the people will become his followers.’”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He refrained from lying. He spoke the truth and stuck to the truth. He was honest and dependable, and didn’t trick the world with his words. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: his hairs grow one per pore, and between his eyebrows there grows a tuft, soft and white like cotton-wool.1893
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He has many close adherents among the brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He has many close adherents among the monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“In past lives he was true to his promise,
with no forked tongue, he shunned lies.
He never broke his word to anyone,
but spoke what was true, real, and factual.A tuft so very white like cotton-wool
grew prettily between his eyebrows.
And never two, but only one,
hair grew in each of his pores.Many soothsayers learned in marks
and expert in signs gathered and prophesied:
‘One like this, with tuft and hair so prominent,
will have many as his close adherents.Even as householder many people will follow him,
due to the power of deeds in the past.
But once gone forth, owning nothing,
as Buddha the people will follow him.’”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He refrained from divisive speech. He didn’t repeat in one place what he heard in another so as to divide people against each other. Instead, he reconciled those who were divided, supporting unity, delighting in harmony, loving harmony, speaking words that promote harmony. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: he has forty teeth, and his teeth have no gaps.1894
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? His retinue cannot be divided. This includes brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? His retinue cannot be divided. This includes monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“He spoke no words divisive causing friends to split,
creating disputes that foster division,
acting improperly by fostering quarrels,
creating division among friends.He spoke kind words to foster harmony,
uniting those who are divided.
He eliminated quarrels among the people,
rejoicing together with the united.In good rebirths he enjoyed the fruit
and result, rejoicing there.
Here his teeth are gapless, close together,
forty standing prominent in his mouth.If he becomes an aristocrat, ruler of the land,
his assembly will be indivisible.
And as an ascetic, stainless, immaculate,
his assembly will follow him, unshakable.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He refrained from harsh speech. He spoke in a way that’s mellow, pleasing to the ear, lovely, going to the heart, polite, likable and agreeable to the people. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: he has a large tongue, and the voice of the Divinity, like a cuckoo’s call.
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He has a compelling voice. His words are compelling to brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He has a compelling voice. His words are compelling to monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“He never spoke a loud harsh word,
insulting, quarrelsome,
causing harm, rude, crushing the people.
His speech was sweet, helpful, and courteous.He uttered words dear to the mind,
going to the heart, pleasing to the ear.
He enjoyed the fruit of his good verbal conduct,
experiencing the fruit of good deeds in heaven.Having experienced that fruit,
on his return to herehe acquired the voice of the Divinity.
His tongue was long and wide,
and his speech was compelling.Even as householder his speech brings prosperity.
But if that man goes forth,
speaking often to the people,
they’ll be compelled by his fair words.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He refrained from talking nonsense. His words were timely, true, and meaningful, in line with the teaching and training. He said things at the right time which were valuable, reasonable, succinct, and beneficial. Due to performing those deeds he was reborn in a heavenly realm. When he came back to this place he obtained this mark: his jaw is like that of a lion.1895
Possessing this mark, if he stays at home he becomes a wheel-turning monarch. And what does he obtain as king? He can’t be destroyed by any human foe or enemy. That’s what he obtains as king. And what does he obtain as Buddha? He can’t be destroyed by any foe or enemy whether internal or external; nor by greed, hate, or delusion; nor by any ascetic or brahmin or god or Māra or divinity or by anyone in the world. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“Neither nonsensical nor silly,
his way of speaking was never loose.
He eliminated what was unbeneficial,
and spoke for the welfareand happiness of the people. So doing he passed from here to be reborn in heaven,
where he enjoyed the fruit of deeds well done.
Passing away, on his return to here,
he gained a jaw like the finest of beasts.He became a king so very hard to defeat,
a mighty lord and ruler of mankind.
He was equal to the best in the city of the Third Heaven,
like Indra, the finest of gods.One such as that is not easily beaten by centaurs,
titans, spirits, monsters, or gods.
If he becomes of such a kind,
he illuminates the quarters and in-between.”
“Mendicants, in some past lives the Realized One was reborn as a human being. He gave up wrong livelihood and earned a living by right livelihood. He refrained from falsifying weights, metals, or measures; bribery, fraud, cheating, and duplicity; mutilation, murder, abduction, banditry, plunder, and violence. Due to performing, accumulating, heaping up, and amassing those deeds, when his body broke up, after death, he was reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. There he surpassed the other gods in ten respects: heavenly lifespan, beauty, happiness, glory, sovereignty, sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and touches. When he came back to this place he obtained these two marks: his teeth are even and perfectly white.1896
Possessing these marks, if he stays at home he becomes a king, a wheel-turning monarch, a just and principled king. His dominion extends to all four sides, he achieves stability in the country, and he possesses the seven treasures. He has the following seven treasures: the wheel, the elephant, the horse, the jewel, the woman, the householder, and the commander as the seventh treasure. He has over a thousand sons who are valiant and heroic, crushing the armies of his enemies. After conquering this land girt by sea—free of harassment by bandits, successful and prosperous, safe, blessed, and free of pests—he reigns by principle, without rod or sword. And what does he obtain as king? His retinue is pure. This includes brahmins and householders, people of town and country, finance ministers, military officers, guardsmen, ministers, councillors, rulers, tax beneficiaries, and princes. That’s what he obtains as king.
But if he goes forth from the lay life to homelessness, he becomes a perfected one, a fully awakened Buddha, who draws back the veil from the world. And what does he obtain as Buddha? His retinue is pure. This includes monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, gods, humans, titans, dragons, and centaurs. That’s what he obtains as Buddha.” The Buddha spoke this matter.
On this it is said:
“He abandoned wrong livelihood, and created
a way of life that’s fair, pure, and just.
He eliminated what was unbeneficial,
and lived for the welfare and happiness of the people.Having done what’s praised
by the clever, the wise, and the good,
that man experienced the fruit in heaven.
Equal to the best in the Third Heaven,
he enjoyed himself with pleasure and play.From there he passed back to a human life.
With the remaining ripeningof the fruit of good deeds,
he obtained teeth that are even,
gleaming, bright, and white.Many soothsayers regarded as wise men
gathered and predicted of him:
‘With twice-born teethso even, so white, so clean and bright
his retinue will be so pure.As king, his people will also be pure,
when he rules having conquered this earth so broad.
They won’t harm the country,
but will live for the welfareand happiness of the people. But if he goes forth he’ll be an ascetic free of ill,
his passions quelled, the veil drawn back.
Rid of stress and weariness,
he sees this world and the next.Those who do his bidding, both lay and renunciate,
shake off wickedness, impure and blameworthy.
He’s surrounded by pure people, who dispel
stains, callousness, sin, and corruptions.’”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Rājagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, the squirrels’ feeding ground. Now at that time the householder’s son Sigālaka rose early and left Rājagaha. With his clothes and hair all wet, he raised his joined palms to revere the various quarters—1897 east, south, west, north, below, and above.1898
Then the Buddha robed up in the morning and, taking his bowl and robe, entered Rājagaha for alms. He saw Sigālaka revering the various quarters and said to him, “Householder’s son, why are you revering the various quarters in this way?”
“Sir, on his deathbed my father said to me: ‘My dear, please revere the quarters.’1899 Honoring, respecting, and venerating my father’s words, I rose early and left Rājagaha and, with my clothes and hair all wet, raised my joined palms to revere the various quarters—east, south, west, north, below, and above.”
“Householder’s son, that’s not how the six directions should be revered in the training of the Noble One.”1900
“But sir, how should the six directions be revered in the training of the Noble One? Sir, please teach me this.”
“Well then, householder’s son, listen and apply your mind well, I will speak.”
“Yes, sir,” replied Sigālaka. The Buddha said this:
“Householder’s son, a noble disciple gives up four corrupt deeds, doesn’t do bad deeds on four grounds, and avoids six drains on wealth. When they’ve left these fourteen bad things behind they have the six directions covered.1901 They’re practicing to win in both worlds, and they succeed in this world and the next. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.
What four corrupt deeds have they given up?1902 Killing living creatures, stealing, sexual misconduct, and lying: these are corrupt deeds. These are the four corrupt deeds they’ve given up.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“Killing, stealing,
telling lies,
and committing adultery:
astute people don’t praise these things.”
“On what four grounds do they not do bad deeds?1903 One does bad deeds prejudiced by favoritism, hostility, stupidity, and cowardice. When a noble disciple is not prejudiced by favoritism, hostility, stupidity, and cowardice, they don’t do bad deeds on these four grounds.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“If you act against the teaching
out of favoritism, hostility, cowardice, or stupidity,
your fame shrinks,
like the moon in the waning fortnight.If you don’t act against the teaching
out of favoritism, hostility, cowardice, and stupidity,
your fame swells,
like the moon in the waxing fortnight.”
“What six drains on wealth do they avoid?1904 Habitually engaging in the following things is a drain on wealth: consuming beer, wine, and liquor intoxicants; roaming the streets at night; frequenting festivals; gambling; bad friends; laziness.1905
There are these six drawbacks of habitually consuming beer, wine, and liquor that cause intoxication.1906 Immediate loss of wealth, promotion of quarrels, susceptibility to illness, disrepute, indecent exposure; and weakened wisdom is the sixth thing. These are the six drawbacks of habitually consuming beer, wine, and liquor intoxicants.
There are these six drawbacks of roaming the streets at night. Yourself, your partners and children, and your property are all left unguarded. You’re suspected of bad deeds. Untrue rumors spread about you. You’re at the forefront of many things that entail suffering. These are the six drawbacks of roaming the streets at night.
There are these six drawbacks of frequenting festivals. You’re always thinking: ‘Where’s the dancing? Where’s the singing? Where’s the music? Where are the stories? Where’s the applause? Where are the kettledrums?’ These are the six drawbacks of frequenting festivals.
There are these six drawbacks of habitually gambling. Victory breeds enmity. The loser mourns their money. There is immediate loss of wealth. A gambler’s word carries no weight in public assembly. Friends and colleagues treat them with contempt. And no-one wants to marry a gambler, for they think: ‘This individual is a gambler—they’re not able to support a partner.’ These are the six drawbacks of habitually gambling.
There are these six drawbacks of bad friends. You become friends and companions with those who are addicts, carousers, drunkards, frauds, swindlers, and thugs. These are the six drawbacks of bad friends.
There are these six drawbacks of habitual laziness. You don’t get your work done because you think: ‘It’s too cold! It’s too hot. It’s too late! It’s too early! I’m too hungry! I’m too full!’ By dwelling on so many excuses for not working, you don’t make any more money, and the money you already have runs out. These are the six drawbacks of habitual laziness.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“Some are just drinking buddies,
some call you their dear, dear friend,
but a true friend is one
who stands by you in need.Sleeping late, adultery,
making enemies, harmfulness,
bad friends, and avarice:
these six grounds ruin a person.With bad friends, bad comrades,
bad behavior and alms-resort,
a man falls to ruin
in both this world and the next.Dice, women, toddy, song and dance;1907
sleeping by day and roaming at night;
bad friends, and avarice:
these six grounds ruin a person.They play dice and drink beer,
and consort with women loved by others.
Associating with the worse, not the better,
they diminish like the waning moon.One who is broke and destitute due to toddy,1908
thirsty, drinking in the bar,
drowning in debt,
will quickly lose their way.1909When you’re in the habit of sleeping late,
seeing night as time to rise,
and always getting drunk,
you can’t keep up the household life.‘Too cold, too hot,
too late,’ they say.
When the young neglect their work like this,
riches pass them by.1910But one who considers heat and cold
as no more than blades of grass—
he does his duties as a man,
and happiness never fails.”
“Householder’s son, you should recognize these four enemies disguised as friends: the taker, the talker, the flatterer, the spender.
You can recognize a fake friend who’s all take on four grounds.
Your possessions end up theirs.
Giving little, they expect a lot.
They do their duty out of fear.
They associate for their own advantage.
You can recognize a fake friend who’s all take on these four grounds.
You can recognize a fake friend who’s all talk on four grounds. They’re hospitable in the past. They’re hospitable in the future. They’re full of meaningless pleasantries. When something needs doing in the present they point to their own misfortune. You can recognize a fake friend who’s all talk on these four grounds.
You can recognize a fake friend who’s a flatterer on four grounds. They support you equally in doing bad and doing good. They praise you to your face, and put you down behind your back. You can recognize a fake friend who’s a flatterer on these four grounds.
You can recognize a fake friend who’s a spender on four grounds. They accompany you when drinking, roaming the streets at night, frequenting festivals, and gambling. You can recognize a fake friend who’s a spender on these four grounds.”
That is what the Buddha said. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“One friend is all take,
another all talk;
one’s just a flatterer,
and one’s a comrade who spends.An astute person understands
these four enemies for what they are
and keeps them at a distance,
as they’d shun a risky road.”
“Householder’s son, you should recognize these four good-hearted friends: the helper, the friend in good times and bad, the counselor, and the one who’s sympathetic.
You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s a helper on four grounds. They guard you when you’re negligent. They guard your property when you’re negligent. They keep you safe in times of danger. When something needs doing, they provide you with twice the money you need. You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s a helper on these four grounds.
You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s the same in good times and bad on four grounds. They tell you secrets. They keep your secrets. They don’t abandon you in times of trouble. They’d even give their life for your welfare. You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s the same in good times and bad on these four grounds.
You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s a counselor on four grounds. They keep you from doing bad. They support you in doing good. They teach you what you do not know. They explain the path to heaven. You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s a counselor on these four grounds.
You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s sympathetic on four grounds. They don’t delight in your misfortune. They delight in your good fortune. They keep others from criticizing you. They encourage praise of you. You can recognize a good-hearted friend who’s sympathetic on these four grounds.”
The Buddha spoke this matter. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“A friend who’s a helper,
one the same in both pleasure and pain,
a friend of good counsel,
and one of sympathy;an astute person understands
these four friends for what they are
and carefully looks after them,
like a mother the child at her breast.
The astute and virtuous
shine like a burning flame.They pick up riches as bees
roaming round pick up pollen.
And their riches proceed to grow,
like a termite mound piling up.In gathering wealth like this,
a householder does enough for their family.
And they’d hold on to friends
by dividing their wealth in four.One portion is to enjoy.
Two parts invest in work.
And the fourth should be kept
for times of trouble.”
“And how, householder’s son, does a noble disciple cover the six directions?1911 These six directions should be recognized: parents as the east, tutors as the south, partner and children as the west, friends and colleagues as the north, bondservants and workers as beneath, and ascetics and brahmins as above.1912
A child should serve their parents as the eastern quarter in five ways, thinking: ‘I will support those who supported me. I’ll do my duty for them. I’ll maintain the family lineage. I’ll take care of the inheritance. When they have passed away, I’ll make an offering on their behalf.’ Parents served by the children in these five ways show sympathy to them in five ways. They keep them from doing bad. They support them in doing good. They train them in a profession. They connect them with a suitable partner. They transfer the inheritance in due time. Parents served by their children in these five ways show sympathy to them in these five ways. And that’s how the eastern quarter is covered, kept safe and free of peril.
A pupil should serve their tutor as the southern quarter in five ways: by rising for them, by serving them, by listening well, by looking after them, and by carefully learning their profession. Tutors served by their pupils in these five ways show sympathy to them in five ways. They make sure they’re well educated and well drilled in memorization. They clearly explain all the knowledge of the profession. They introduce them to their friends and colleagues. They provide protection in every region.1913 Tutors served by their pupils in these five ways show sympathy to them in these five ways. And that’s how the southern quarter is covered, kept safe and free of peril.
A husband should serve his wife as the western quarter in five ways: by treating her with honor, by not looking down on her, by not being unfaithful, by relinquishing authority to her, and by presenting her with adornments.1914 A wife served by her husband in these five ways shows sympathy to him in five ways. She’s well-organized in her work. She manages the domestic help. She’s not unfaithful. She preserves his earnings. She’s deft and tireless in all her duties. A wife served by her husband in these five ways shows sympathy to him in these five ways. And that’s how the western quarter is covered, kept safe and free of peril.
A gentleman should serve his friends and colleagues as the northern quarter in five ways: giving, kindly words, taking care, equality, and not using tricky words. Friends and colleagues served by a gentleman in these five ways show sympathy to him in five ways. They guard him when they’re negligent. They guard his property when they’re negligent. They keep him safe in times of danger. They don’t abandon him in times of trouble. They honor his descendants. Friends and colleagues served by a gentleman in these five ways show sympathy to him in these five ways. And that’s how the northern quarter is covered, kept safe and free of peril.
A master should serve their bondservants and workers as the lower quarter in five ways: by organizing work according to ability, by paying food and wages, by nursing them when sick, by sharing special treats, and by giving time off work. Bondservants and workers served by a master in these five ways show sympathy to him in five ways. They get up first, and go to bed last. They don’t steal. They do their work well. And they promote a good reputation. Bondservants and workers served by a master in these five ways show sympathy to him in these five ways. And that’s how the lower quarter is covered, kept safe and free of peril.
A gentleman should serve ascetics and brahmins as the upper quarter in five ways: by loving deeds of body, speech, and mind, by not turning them away at the gate, and by providing them with material needs. Ascetics and brahmins served by a gentleman in these five ways show sympathy to him in six ways. They keep him from doing bad. They support him in doing good. They think of him with kindly thoughts. They teach him what he does not know. They clarify what he’s already learned. They explain the path to heaven. Ascetics and brahmins served by a gentleman in these five ways show sympathy to him in these six ways. And that’s how the upper quarter is covered, kept safe and free of peril.”
The Buddha spoke this matter. Then the Holy One, the Teacher, went on to say:
“Parents are the east,
tutors the south,
wives and child the west,
friends and colleagues the north,servants and workers below,
and ascetics and brahmins above.
By honoring these quarters
a householder does enough for their family.The astute and the virtuous,
the gentle and the articulate,
the humble and the kind:
they’re the kind who win glory.The diligent, not lazy,
those not disturbed by troubles,
those consistent in conduct, the intelligent:
they’re the kind who win glory.The inclusive, the makers of friends,
the bountiful, those rid of stinginess,
those who lead, train, and persuade:
they’re the kind who win glory.Giving and kindly words,
taking care here,
and treating equally in worldly conditions,
as they deserve in each case;
these ways of being inclusive in the world
are like a moving chariot’s linchpin.If there were no such ways of being inclusive,
neither mother nor father
would be respected and honored
for what they’ve done for their children.But since these ways of being inclusive do exist,
the astute do regard them well,
so they achieve greatness
and are praised.”
When this was said, Sigālaka the householder’s son said to the Buddha, “Excellent, sir! Excellent! As if he were righting the overturned, or revealing the hidden, or pointing out the path to the lost, or lighting a lamp in the dark so people with clear eyes can see what’s there, the Buddha has made the teaching clear in many ways. I go for refuge to the Buddha, to the teaching, and to the mendicant Saṅgha. From this day forth, may the Buddha remember me as a lay follower who has gone for refuge for life.”
So I have heard.1915 At one time the Buddha was staying near Rājagaha, on the Vulture’s Peak Mountain. Then, late at night, the four great kings—with large armies of spirits, centaurs, gnomes, and dragons—set guards, troops, and wards at the four quarters and then, lighting up the entire Vulture’s Peak with their beauty, went up to the Buddha, bowed, and sat down to one side. Before sitting down to one side, some spirits bowed, some exchanged greetings and polite conversation, some held up their joined palms toward the Buddha, some announced their name and clan, while some kept silent.
Seated to one side, the Great King Vessavaṇa said to the Buddha,1916 “Sir, some high spirits have confidence in the Buddha, some do not. Some middling spirits have confidence in the Buddha, some do not. Some low spirits have confidence in the Buddha, some do not. But mostly the spirits don’t have confidence in the Buddha. Why is that? Because the Buddha teaches them to refrain from killing living creatures, stealing, lying, sexual misconduct, and consuming beer, wine, and liquor intoxicants. But mostly they don’t refrain from such things. They don’t like that or approve of it.
Sir, there are disciples of the Buddha who frequent remote lodgings in the wilderness and the forest that are quiet and still, far from the madding crowd, remote from human settlements, and fit for retreat. There dwell high spirits who have no confidence in the Buddha’s dispensation. To give them confidence, may the Buddha please learn the Āṭānāṭiya protection for the guarding, protection, safety, and comfort of the monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.” The Buddha consented with silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, on that occasion Great King Vessavaṇa recited the Āṭānāṭiya protection.1917
“Hail Vipassī,1918
the glorious Clear-eyed One!
Hail Sikhī,
sympathetic for all beings!Hail Vessabhū,
cleansed and austere!
Hail Kakusandha,
crusher of Māra’s army!Hail Koṇāgamana,
the brahmin who has lived the life!
Hail Kassapa,
everywhere free!Hail Aṅgīrasa,1919
the glorious Sakyan!
He taught this Dhamma
that dispels all suffering.Those in the world who are quenched,
truly discerning,
not backbiters; such people
being great of heart and intrepid,revere that Gotama;
he who is helpful to gods and humans,
accomplished in knowledge and conduct,
great of heart and intrepid.Where rises the sun—1920
Aditi’s child, the great orb,
who in his rising
dispels the night,
and of whom, when sun has risen,
it is said to be the day—there is a deep lake,
an ocean of flowing waters.
That’s how they understand that lake there,1921
as an ocean of flowing waters.From here that is the eastern quarter,
so the people say.
That quarter is warded
by a great king, glorious,the lord of the centaurs;
his name is Dhataraṭṭha.
He delights in song and dance,
honored by the centaurs.And he has many mighty sons
all of one name, so I’ve heard.
Eighty, and ten, and one—
all of them named Indra.After seeing the Awakened One,
the Buddha, Kinsman of the Sun,
they revere him from afar,
the one great of heart and intrepid.Homage to you, O thoroughbred!
Homage to you, supreme among men!
You examine us skillfully;1922
the non-humans bow to you.
We’ve been asked many a time,
‘Do you bow to Gotama the victor?’And so we ought to declare:
‘We bow to Gotama the victor,
accomplished in knowledge and conduct!
We bow to Gotama the awakened!’It’s where the departed go, they say,1923
who are dividers and backbiters,
killers and hunters,
bandits and frauds.From here that is the southern quarter,
so the people say.
That quarter is warded
by a great king, glorious,the lord of the gnomes;
his name is Virūḷha.
He delights in song and dance,
honored by the gnomes.And he has many mighty sons
all of one name, so I’ve heard.
Eighty, and ten, and one—
all of them named Indra.After seeing the Awakened One,
the Buddha, Kinsman of the Sun,
they revere him from afar,
the one great of heart and intrepid.Homage to you, O thoroughbred!
Homage to you, supreme among men!
You examine us skillfully;
the non-humans bow to you.
We’ve been asked many a time,
‘Do you bow to Gotama the victor?’And so we ought to declare:
‘We bow to Gotama the victor,
accomplished in knowledge and conduct!
We bow to Gotama the awakened!’Where sets the sun—1924
Aditi’s child, the great orb,
who in his setting
ends the day,
and of whom, when sun has set,
it is said to be the night—there is a deep lake in that place,
an ocean of flowing waters.
That’s how they understand that lake there,
as an ocean of flowing waters.From here that is the western quarter,
so the people say.
That quarter is warded
by a great king, glorious,the lord of the dragons;
his name is Virūpakkha.
He delights in song and dance,
honored by the dragons.And he has many mighty sons
all of one name, so I’ve heard.
Eighty, and ten, and one—
all of them named Indra.After seeing the Awakened One,
the Buddha, Kinsman of the Sun,
they revere him from afar,
the one great of heart and intrepid.Homage to you, O thoroughbred!
Homage to you, supreme among men!
You examine us skillfully;
the non-humans bow to you.
We’ve been asked many a time,
‘Do you bow to Gotama the victor?’And so we ought to declare:
‘We bow to Gotama the victor,
accomplished in knowledge and conduct!
We bow to Gotama the awakened!’Where the lovely land north of Kuru is,1925
and the beautiful Mount Meru,1926
humans born there
are unselfish, without possessions.1927They do not sow the seed,
nor do they draw the plough.
The rice eaten by people1928
ripens in untilled soil,free of powder or husk, pure,
fragrant, with only the rice-grain.
After cooking in a tandoor oven,1929
they enjoy eating that food.Having prepared a cow with hooves uncloven,1930
they’re drawn about from place to place.
Having prepared a beast with hooves uncloven,
they’re drawn about from place to place.Having prepared a woman-drawn carriage,1931
they’re drawn about from place to place.
Having prepared a man-drawn carriage,
they’re drawn about from place to place.Having prepared a girl-drawn carriage,
they’re drawn about from place to place.
Having prepared a boy-drawn carriage,
they’re drawn about from place to place.Having ascended their vehicle,
that king’s servants
tour about in every quarter,provided with heavenly vehicles
of elephant and of horse.
And there are mansions and palanquins
for that great and glorious king.And he has cities, too,
well-built in the sky:
Āṭānāṭā, Kusināṭā, Parakusināṭā,1932
Nāṭapuriyā, and Parakusiṭanāṭā.1933To the north is Kapīvanta,1934
and Janogha lies beyond.1935
And there’s Navanavutiya, Ambara-ambaravatiya,1936
and the royal capital named Āḷakamandā.1937The Great King Kuvera, dear sir,
has a capital named Visāṇā,1938
which is why the great king
is called ‘Vessavaṇa’.These each individually inform the King:
Tatolā, Tattalā, Tatotalā,1939
Ojasi, Tejasi, Tatojasi,1940
Sūra, Rājā, Ariṭṭha, and Nemi.1941There is a lake there too named Dharaṇī,1942
whence the clouds rain forth,
and the rains disperse.
There is a hall there too named Sālavatī,1943where the spirits frequent.
There the trees are ever in fruit,
with many different flocks of birds.
Peacocks and herons call out there,
and the sweet cuckoos too.One bird cries out ‘Live, live!’,
another ‘Lift up your heart!’
There are cocks and kookaburras,1944
and in the wood the woodpeckers.1945The parrots and mynah cry out there,
and the ‘little stick-boy’ birds.
Kuvera’s pond of rushes
is lovely all the time.From here that is the northern quarter,
so the people say.
That quarter is warded
by a great king, glorious,the lord of spirits;
his name is Kuvera.
He delights in song and dance,
honored by the spirits.And he has many mighty sons
all of one name, so I’ve heard.
Eighty, and ten, and one—
all of them named Indra.After seeing the Awakened One,
the Buddha, Kinsman of the Sun,
they revere him from afar,
the one great of heart and intrepid.Homage to you, O thoroughbred!
Homage to you, supreme among men!
You examine us skillfully;
the non-humans bow to you.
We’ve been asked many a time,
‘Do you bow to Gotama the victor?’And so we ought to declare:
‘We bow to Gotama the victor,
accomplished in knowledge and conduct!
We bow to Gotama the awakened!’
This, good fellow, is the Āṭānāṭiya protection for the guarding, protection, safety, and comfort of the monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.
The monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen should learn this Āṭānāṭiya protection well and completely memorize it. If anyone who does so is approached while walking, standing, sitting, or lying down by any non-human being with malicious intent—including males, females, boys, girls, chief ministers, councillors, and servants among the spirits, centaurs, gnomes, and dragons—that non-human will receive no homage or respect in any village or town. And they will receive no ground or dwelling in my capital of Ālakamandā. Nor will they get to go to the conference of the spirits. In addition, the non-humans would not give or take them in marriage. They’d heap personal abuse on them, drop an empty bowl on their head, and even split their head into seven pieces!
For there are, good fellow, non-humans who are fierce, cruel, and violent. They don’t obey the Great Kings or their men or their men’s men. They’re said to be rebelling against the Great Kings. They’re just like the bandits in the king of Magadha’s realm who don’t obey the king, his men, or his men’s men, and are said to be rebelling against the king.
If any non-human being with malicious intent—including males, females, boys, girls, ministers, councillors, and servants among the spirits, centaurs, gnomes, and dragons—approaches a monk, nun, layman, or laywoman while walking, standing, sitting, or lying down, one ought to yell, cry, and scream to the spirits, great spirits, generals, great generals: ‘This spirit’s got me! This spirit’s entered me! This spirit’s annoying me! This spirit’s harassing me! This spirit’s hurting me! This spirit’s harming me! This spirit won’t let me go!’
To what spirits, great spirits, generals, great generals?
‘Indra, Soma, and Varuṇa,1946
Bhāradvāja, the Progenitor,1947
Candana and Kāmaseṭṭha,
Kinnughaṇḍu and Nighaṇḍu,Panāda and Opamañña,
and Mātali, the god’s charioteer.
Cittasena the centaur,
and the kings Nala and Janesabha,Sātāgira, Hemavata,
Puṇṇaka, Karatiya, and Guḷa;1948
Sivaka and Mucalinda,1949
Vessāmitta, Yugandhara,1950Gopāla, Suppagedha,1951
Hiri, Netti, and Mandiya;1952
Pañcālacaṇḍa, Āḷavaka,1953
Pajjunna, Sumana, Sumukha,1954
Dadhimukha, Maṇi, Māṇivara, Dīgha,1955
together with Serīsaka.’1956
This, good fellow, is the Āṭānāṭiya protection for the guarding, protection, safety, and comfort of the monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. Well, now, good fellow, I must go. I have many duties, and much to do.”
“Please, Great Kings, go at your convenience.”
Then the four great kings got up from their seats, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on their right side, before vanishing right there. And before the other spirits present vanished, some bowed and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on their right side, some exchanged greetings and polite conversation, some held up their joined palms toward the Buddha, some announced their name and clan, while some kept silent.
The first recitation section is finished.
Then, when the night had passed, the Buddha told the mendicants all that had happened, repeating all the verses spoken. Then he added:
“Mendicants, learn the Āṭānāṭiya protection! Memorize the Āṭānāṭiya protection! Remember the Āṭānāṭiya protection! The Āṭānāṭiya protection is beneficial, and is for the guarding, protection, safety, and comfort of the monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen.”
That is what the Buddha said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what the Buddha said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was wandering in the land of the Mallas together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants when he arrived at a Mallian town named Pāvā.1957 There he stayed in Cunda the smith’s mango grove.1958
Now at that time a new town hall named Ubbhaṭaka had recently been constructed for the Mallas of Pāvā. It had not yet been occupied by an ascetic or brahmin or any person at all.1959 The Mallas of Pāvā also heard that the Buddha had arrived and was staying in Cunda’s mango grove. Then they went up to the Buddha, bowed, sat down to one side, and said to him, “Sir, a new town hall named Ubbhaṭaka has recently been constructed for the Mallas of Pāvā. It has not yet been occupied by an ascetic or brahmin or any person at all. May the Buddha be the first to use it, and only then will the Mallas of Pāvā use it. That would be for the lasting welfare and happiness of the Mallas of Pāvā.” The Buddha consented in silence.
Then, knowing that the Buddha had consented, the Mallas got up from their seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on their right. Then they went to the new town hall, where they spread carpets all over, prepared seats, set up a water jar, and placed an oil lamp. Then they went back to the Buddha, bowed, stood to one side, and told him of their preparations, saying, “Please, sir, come at your convenience.”
Then the Buddha robed up and, taking his bowl and robe, went to the new town hall together with the Saṅgha of mendicants. Having washed his feet he entered the town hall and sat against the central column facing east. The Saṅgha of mendicants also washed their feet, entered the town hall, and sat against the west wall facing east, with the Buddha right in front of them. The Mallas of Pāvā also washed their feet, entered the town hall, and sat against the east wall facing west, with the Buddha right in front of them.
The Buddha spent much of the night educating, encouraging, firing up, and inspiring the Mallas with a Dhamma talk. Then he dismissed them, “The night is getting late, Vāseṭṭhas.1960 Please go at your convenience.”
“Yes, sir,” replied the Mallas. They got up from their seat, bowed, and respectfully circled the Buddha, keeping him on their right, before leaving.
Soon after they left, the Buddha looked around the Saṅgha of mendicants, who were so very silent. He addressed Venerable Sāriputta, “Sāriputta, the Saṅgha of mendicants is rid of dullness and drowsiness. Give them some Dhamma talk as you feel inspired. My back is sore, I’ll stretch it.”1961
“Yes, sir,” Sāriputta replied.
And then the Buddha spread out his outer robe folded in four and laid down in the lion’s posture—on the right side, placing one foot on top of the other—mindful and aware, and focused on the time of getting up.
Now at that time the Jain ascetic of the Ñātika clan had recently passed away at Pāvā.1962 With his passing the Jain ascetics split, dividing into two factions, arguing, quarreling, and disputing, continually wounding each other with barbed words: “You don’t understand this teaching and training. I understand this teaching and training. What, you understand this teaching and training? You’re practicing wrong. I’m practicing right. I stay on topic, you don’t. You said last what you should have said first. You said first what you should have said last. What you’ve thought so much about has been disproved. Your doctrine is refuted. Go on, save your doctrine! You’re trapped; get yourself out of this—if you can!”
You’d think there was nothing but slaughter going on among the Jain ascetics. And the Jain Ñātika’s white-clothed lay disciples were disillusioned, dismayed, and disappointed in the Jain ascetics. They were equally disappointed with a teaching and training so poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha, with broken monument and without a refuge.
Then Sāriputta told the mendicants about these things. He went on to say, “That’s what happens, reverends, when a teaching and training is poorly explained and poorly propounded, not emancipating, not leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is not a fully awakened Buddha. But this teaching is well explained and well propounded to us by the Blessed One, emancipating, leading to peace, proclaimed by someone who is a fully awakened Buddha. You should all recite this in concert, without disputing, so that this spiritual path may last for a long time. That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.
And what is that teaching?
There are teachings grouped by one that have been rightly explained by the Blessed One, who knows and sees, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha.1963 You should all recite these in concert, without disputing, so that this spiritual path may last for a long time. That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans. What are the teachings grouped by one?
All sentient beings are sustained by food.1964
All sentient beings are sustained by conditions.1965
These are the teachings grouped by one that have been rightly explained by the Blessed One, who knows and sees, the perfected one, the fully awakened Buddha.1966 You should all recite these in concert, without disputing, so that this spiritual path may last for a long time. That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.
There are teachings grouped by two that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by two?
Name and form.
Ignorance and craving for continued existence.1967
Views favoring continued existence and views favoring ending existence.1968
Lack of conscience and prudence.
Conscience and prudence.
Being hard to admonish and having bad friends.
Being easy to admonish and having good friends.
Skill in offenses and skill in resolving offenses.1969
Skill in meditative attainments and skill in emerging from those attainments.1970
Skill in the elements and skill in application of mind.1971
Skill in the sense fields and skill in dependent origination.1972
Skill in what is possible and skill in what is impossible.1973
Integrity and scrupulousness.
Patience and gentleness.
Camaraderie and hospitality.
Harmlessness and purity.
Lack of mindfulness and lack of situational awareness.
Mindfulness and situational awareness.
Not guarding the sense doors and eating too much.
Guarding the sense doors and moderation in eating.
The power of reflection and the power of development.1974
The power of mindfulness and the power of immersion.
Serenity and discernment.
The basis of serenity and the basis of exertion.1975
Exertion, and not being scattered.
Failure in ethics and failure in view.
Accomplishment in ethics and accomplishment in view.
Purification of ethics and purification of view.
Purification of view and making an effort in line with that view.
Inspiration, and making a suitable effort when inspired by inspiring places.
To never be content with skillful qualities, and to never stop trying.
Knowledge and freedom.
Knowledge of ending and knowledge of non-arising.1976
These are the teachings grouped by two that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
There are teachings grouped by three that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by three?
Three unskillful roots: greed, hate, and delusion.
Three skillful roots: contentment, love, and understanding.
Three ways of performing bad conduct: by body, speech, and mind.
Three ways of performing good conduct: by body, speech, and mind.
Three unskillful thoughts: sensuality, malice, and cruelty.
Three skillful thoughts: renunciation, good will, and harmlessness.
Three unskillful intentions: sensuality, malice, and cruelty.
Three skillful intentions: renunciation, good will, and harmlessness.
Three unskillful perceptions: sensuality, malice, and cruelty.
Three skillful perceptions: renunciation, good will, and harmlessness.
Three unskillful elements: sensuality, malice, and cruelty.
Three skillful elements: renunciation, good will, and harmlessness.
Another three elements: sensuality, form, and formlessness.
Another three elements: form, formlessness, and cessation.
Another three elements: lower, middle, and higher.1977
Three cravings: for sensual pleasures, to continue existence, and to end existence.
Another three cravings: sensuality, form, and formlessness.
Another three cravings: form, formlessness, and cessation.
Three fetters: substantialist view, doubt, and misapprehension of precepts and observances.
Three defilements: sensuality, desire for continued existence, and ignorance.
Three realms of existence: sensual, form, and formless.
Three searches: for sensual pleasures, for continued existence, and for a spiritual path.
Three kinds of discrimination: ‘I’m better’, ‘I’m equal’, and ‘I’m worse’.
Three periods: past, future, and present.
Three extremes: substantial reality, the origin of substantial reality, and the cessation of substantial reality.1978
Three feelings: pleasure, pain, and neutral.
Three forms of suffering: the suffering inherent in painful feeling, the suffering inherent in conditions, and the suffering inherent in perishing.1979
Three heaps: the heap of surety in the wrong way, the heap of surety in the right way, and the heap of lack of surety.1980
Three darknesses: one is doubtful, uncertain, undecided, and lacking confidence about the past, future, and present.1981
Three things a Realized One need not hide: The Realized One’s behavior by way of body, speech, and mind is pure. He has no misconduct in these three ways that need be hidden, thinking: ‘Don’t let others find this out about me!’1982
Three possessions: greed, hate, and delusion.
Three fires: greed, hate, and delusion.
Another three fires: a fire for those worthy of offerings dedicated to the gods, a fire for householders, and a fire for those worthy of a religious donation.1983
Threefold classification of the physical: visible and resistant, invisible and resistant, and invisible and non-resistant.1984
Three choices: good choices, bad choices, and imperturbable choices.
Three individuals: a trainee, an adept, and one who is neither a trainee nor an adept.1985
Three seniors: a senior by birth, a senior in the teaching, and a senior by convention.1986
Three grounds for making merit: giving, ethical conduct, and meditation.
Three grounds for accusations: what is seen, heard, and suspected.
Three kinds of sensual rebirth: There are sentient beings who desire what is present. They fall under the sway of presently arisen sensual pleasures. Namely, humans, some gods, and some beings in the underworld. This is the first kind of sensual rebirth. There are sentient beings who desire to create. Having repeatedly created, they fall under the sway of sensual pleasures. Namely, the gods who love to imagine. This is the second kind of sensual rebirth. There are sentient beings who desire what is created by others. They fall under the sway of sensual pleasures created by others. Namely, the gods who control what is imagined by others. This is the third kind of sensual rebirth.1987
Three kinds of pleasant rebirth: There are sentient beings who, having repeatedly given rise to it, dwell in pleasure. Namely, the gods of the Divinity’s host. This is the first pleasant rebirth. There are sentient beings who are drenched, steeped, filled, and soaked with pleasure. Every so often they feel inspired to exclaim: ‘Oh, what bliss! Oh, what bliss!’ Namely, the gods of streaming radiance. This is the second pleasant rebirth. There are sentient beings who are drenched, steeped, filled, and soaked with pleasure. Since they’re truly content, they experience pleasure. Namely, the gods of universal beauty. This is the third pleasant rebirth.1988
Three kinds of wisdom: the wisdom of a trainee, the wisdom of an adept, and the wisdom of one who is neither a trainee nor an adept.1989
Another three kinds of wisdom: wisdom produced by thought, learning, and meditation.1990
Three weapons: learning, seclusion, and wisdom.1991
Three faculties: the faculty of understanding that one’s enlightenment is imminent, the faculty of enlightenment, and the faculty of one who is enlightened.1992
Three eyes: the eye of the flesh, the eye of clairvoyance, and the eye of wisdom.
Three trainings: in higher ethics, higher mind, and higher wisdom.
Three kinds of development: the development of physical endurance, the development of the mind, and the development of wisdom.1993
Three unsurpassable qualities: unsurpassable seeing, practice, and freedom.1994
Three kinds of immersion: Immersion with placing the mind and keeping it connected. Immersion without placing the mind, merely keeping it connected. Immersion without placing the mind or keeping it connected.1995
Another three kinds of immersion: emptiness, signless, and undirected.1996
Three purities: purity of body, speech, and mind.1997
Three kinds of sagacity: sagacity of body, speech, and mind.1998
Three skills: skill in progress, skill in regress, and skill in means.1999
Three vanities: the vanity of health, the vanity of youth, and the vanity of life.2000
Three ways of putting something in charge: putting oneself, the world, or the teaching in charge.2001
Three topics of discussion: You might discuss the past: ‘That is how it was in the past.’ You might discuss the future: ‘That is how it will be in the future.’ Or you might discuss the present: ‘This is how it is at present.’2002
Three knowledges: recollection of past lives, knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings, and knowledge of the ending of defilements.
Three meditative abidings: the heavenly meditation, the divine meditation, and the noble meditation.2003
Three demonstrations: The demonstration of psychic power, the demonstration of revealing, and the demonstration of instruction.2004
These are the teachings grouped by three that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
There are teachings grouped by four that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by four?
Four kinds of mindfulness meditation: It’s when a mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.
Four right efforts: A mendicant generates enthusiasm, tries, makes an effort, exerts the mind, and strives so that bad, unskillful qualities don’t arise. They generate enthusiasm, try, make an effort, exert the mind, and strive so that bad, unskillful qualities that have arisen are given up. They generate enthusiasm, try, make an effort, exert the mind, and strive so that skillful qualities arise. They generate enthusiasm, try, make an effort, exert the mind, and strive so that skillful qualities that have arisen remain, are not lost, but increase, mature, and are completed by development.
Four bases of psychic power: A mendicant develops the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to enthusiasm, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to mental development, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to energy, and active effort. They develop the basis of psychic power that has immersion due to inquiry, and active effort.
Four absorptions: A mendicant, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. As the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, they enter and remain in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. And with the fading away of rapture, they enter and remain in the third absorption, where they meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ With the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, they enter and remain in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness.
Four ways of developing immersion further: There is a way of developing immersion further that leads to blissful meditation in this life. There is a way of developing immersion further that leads to gaining knowledge and vision. There is a way of developing immersion further that leads to mindfulness and awareness. There is a way of developing immersion further that leads to the ending of defilements.
And what is the way of developing immersion further that leads to blissful meditation in this life? It’s when a mendicant, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption … second absorption … fourth absorption. This is the way of developing immersion further that leads to blissful meditation in this life.
And what is the way of developing immersion further that leads to gaining knowledge and vision? A mendicant applies their mind to the perception of light, focusing on the perception of day regardless of whether it’s night or day. And so, with an open and unenveloped heart, they develop a mind that’s full of radiance. This is the way of developing immersion further that leads to gaining knowledge and vision.
And what is the way of developing immersion further that leads to mindfulness and awareness? A mendicant knows feelings as they arise, as they remain, and as they go away. They know perceptions as they arise, as they remain, and as they go away. They know thoughts as they arise, as they remain, and as they go away. This is the way of developing immersion further that leads to mindfulness and awareness.
And what is the way of developing immersion further that leads to the ending of defilements? A mendicant meditates observing rise and fall in the five grasping aggregates. ‘Such is form, such is the origin of form, such is the ending of form. Such are feelings … perceptions … choices … consciousness, such is the origin of consciousness, such is the ending of consciousness.’ This is the way of developing immersion further that leads to the ending of defilements.2005
Four limitless states: A mendicant meditates spreading a heart full of love to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of love to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will. They meditate spreading a heart full of compassion … rejoicing … equanimity to one direction, and to the second, and to the third, and to the fourth. In the same way above, below, across, everywhere, all around, they spread a heart full of equanimity to the whole world—abundant, expansive, limitless, free of enmity and ill will.2006
Four formless states: A mendicant, going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, enters and remains in the dimension of infinite space. Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite consciousness. Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they enter and remain in the dimension of nothingness. Going totally beyond the dimension of nothingness, they enter and remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.2007
Four supports: After appraisal, a mendicant uses some things, endures some things, avoids some things, and gets rid of some things.2008
Four noble traditions: A mendicant is content with any kind of robe, and praises such contentment. They don’t try to get hold of a robe in an improper way. They don’t get upset if they don’t get a robe. And if they do get a robe, they use it untied, uninfatuated, unattached, seeing the drawback, and understanding the escape. And on account of that they don’t glorify themselves or put others down. A mendicant who is deft, tireless, aware, and mindful in this is said to stand in the ancient, primordial noble tradition.
Furthermore, a mendicant is content with any kind of almsfood …
Furthermore, a mendicant is content with any kind of lodgings …
Furthermore, a mendicant enjoys giving up and loves to give up. They enjoy meditation and love to meditate. But they don’t glorify themselves or put down others on account of their love for giving up and meditation. A mendicant who is deft, tireless, aware, and mindful in this is said to stand in the ancient, primordial noble tradition.2009
Four efforts: The efforts to restrain, to give up, to develop, and to preserve.2010 And what is the effort to restrain? When a mendicant sees a sight with their eyes, they don’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of sight were left unrestrained, bad unskillful qualities of covetousness and displeasure would become overwhelming. For this reason, they practice restraint, protecting the faculty of sight, and achieving its restraint. When they hear a sound with their ears … When they smell an odor with their nose … When they taste a flavor with their tongue … When they feel a touch with their body … When they know an idea with their mind, they don’t get caught up in the features and details. If the faculty of mind were left unrestrained, bad unskillful qualities of covetousness and displeasure would become overwhelming. For this reason, they practice restraint, protecting the faculty of mind, and achieving its restraint. This is called the effort to restrain.
And what is the effort to give up? It’s when a mendicant doesn’t tolerate a sensual, malicious, or cruel thought that’s arisen, but gives it up, gets rid of it, eliminates it, and obliterates it. They don’t tolerate any bad, unskillful qualities that have arisen, but give them up, get rid of them, eliminate them, and obliterate them. This is called the effort to give up.
And what is the effort to develop? It’s when a mendicant develops the awakening factors of mindfulness, investigation of principles, energy, rapture, tranquility, immersion, and equanimity, which rely on seclusion, fading away, and cessation, and ripen as letting go. This is called the effort to develop.
And what is the effort to preserve? It’s when a mendicant preserves a meditation subject that’s a fine basis of immersion: the perception of a skeleton, a worm-infested corpse, a livid corpse, a split open corpse, or a bloated corpse. This is called the effort to preserve.
Four knowledges: knowledge of the teaching, inferential knowledge, knowledge of encompassing, and conventional knowledge.2011
Another four knowledges: knowing about suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.
Four factors of stream-entry: associating with true persons, listening to the true teaching, rational application of mind, and practicing in line with the teaching.2012
Four factors of a stream-enterer: A noble disciple has experiential confidence in the Buddha: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ They have experiential confidence in the teaching: ‘The teaching is well explained by the Buddha—apparent in the present life, immediately effective, inviting inspection, relevant, so that sensible people can know it for themselves.’ They have experiential confidence in the Saṅgha: ‘The Saṅgha of the Buddha’s disciples is practicing the way that’s good, direct, systematic, and proper. It consists of the four pairs, the eight individuals. This is the Saṅgha of the Buddha’s disciples that is worthy of offerings dedicated to the gods, worthy of hospitality, worthy of a religious donation, worthy of greeting with joined palms, and is the supreme field of merit for the world.’ And a noble disciple’s ethical conduct is loved by the noble ones, unbroken, impeccable, spotless, and unmarred, liberating, praised by sensible people, not mistaken, and leading to immersion.2013
Four fruits of the ascetic life: stream-entry, once-return, non-return, and perfection.2014
Four elements: earth, water, fire, and air.
Four foods: edible food, whether solid or subtle; contact is the second, mental intention the third, and consciousness the fourth.2015
Four grounds for consciousness: As long as consciousness remains, it gets involved with form, supported by form, grounded on form. And with a sprinkle of relishing, it grows, increases, and matures. Or consciousness gets involved with feeling … Or consciousness gets involved with perception … Or as long as consciousness remains, it gets involved with choices, supported by choices, grounded on choices. And with a sprinkle of relishing, it grows, increases, and matures.2016
Four prejudices: making decisions prejudiced by favoritism, hostility, stupidity, and cowardice.2017
Four things that give rise to craving: Craving arises in a mendicant for the sake of robes, almsfood, lodgings, or rebirth in this or that state.2018
Four ways of practice: painful practice with slow insight, painful practice with swift insight, pleasant practice with slow insight, and pleasant practice with swift insight.2019
Another four ways of practice: impatient practice, patient practice, taming practice, and calming practice.
Four footprints of the Dhamma: contentment, good will, right mindfulness, and right immersion.2020
Four ways of taking up practices: There is a way of taking up practices that is painful now and results in future pain. There is a way of taking up practices that is painful now but results in future pleasure. There is a way of taking up practices that is pleasant now but results in future pain. There is a way of taking up practices that is pleasant now and results in future pleasure.
Four spectrums of the teaching: ethics, immersion, wisdom, and freedom.
Four powers: energy, mindfulness, immersion, and wisdom.2021
Four foundations: the foundations of wisdom, truth, generosity, and peace.2022
Four ways of answering questions: There is a question that should be answered categorically. There is a question that should be answered analytically. There is a question that should be answered with a counter-question. There is a question that should be set aside.2023
Four deeds: There are deeds that are dark with dark result. There are deeds that are bright with bright result. There are deeds that are dark and bright with dark and bright result.2024 There are neither dark nor bright deeds with neither dark nor bright results, which lead to the ending of deeds.2025
Four things to be realized: Past lives are to be realized with recollection. The passing away and rebirth of sentient beings is to be realized with vision. The eight liberations are to be realized with direct meditative experience. The ending of defilements is to be realized with wisdom.2026
Four floods: the floods of sensuality, desire for rebirth, views, and ignorance.2027
Four yokes: the yokes of sensuality, desire for rebirth, views, and ignorance.2028
Four unyokings: unyoking from the yokes of sensuality, desire for rebirth, views, and ignorance.
Four ties: the personal ties to covetousness, ill will, misapprehension of precepts and observances, and the insistence that this is the only truth.2029
Four kinds of grasping: grasping at sensual pleasures, views, precepts and observances, and theories of a self.
Four kinds of reproduction: reproduction for creatures born from an egg, from a womb, from moisture, or spontaneously.2030
Four kinds of conception: Someone is unaware when conceived in their mother’s womb, unaware as they remain there, and unaware as they emerge. This is the first kind of conception. Furthermore, someone is aware when conceived in their mother’s womb, but unaware as they remain there, and unaware as they emerge. This is the second kind of conception. Furthermore, someone is aware when conceived in their mother’s womb, aware as they remain there, but unaware as they emerge. This is the third kind of conception. Furthermore, someone is aware when conceived in their mother’s womb, aware as they remain there, and aware as they emerge. This is the fourth kind of conception.2031
Four kinds of reincarnation in a life-form: There is a reincarnation in a life-form where only one’s own intention is effective, not that of others. There is a reincarnation in a life-form where only the intention of others is effective, not one’s own. There is a reincarnation in a life-form where both one’s own and others’ intentions are effective. There is a reincarnation in a life-form where neither one’s own nor others’ intentions are effective.2032
Four ways of purifying a religious donation: There’s a religious donation that’s purified by the giver, not the recipient. There’s a religious donation that’s purified by the recipient, not the giver. There’s a religious donation that’s purified by neither the giver nor the recipient. There’s a religious donation that’s purified by both the giver and the recipient.2033
Four ways of being inclusive: giving, kindly words, taking care, and equality.2034
Four ignoble expressions: speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical.2035
Four noble expressions: refraining from speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical.
Another four ignoble expressions: saying you’ve seen, heard, thought, or known something, but you haven’t.
Another four noble expressions: saying you haven’t seen, heard, thought, or known something, and you haven’t.
Another four ignoble expressions: saying you haven’t seen, heard, thought, or known something, and you have.
Another four noble expressions: saying you’ve seen, heard, thought, or known something, and you have.
Four persons: One person mortifies themselves, committed to the practice of mortifying themselves. One person mortifies others, committed to the practice of mortifying others. One person mortifies themselves and others, committed to the practice of mortifying themselves and others. One person doesn’t mortify either themselves or others, committed to the practice of not mortifying themselves or others. They live without wishes in this very life, quenched, cooled, experiencing bliss, with self become divine.2036
Another four persons: One person practices to benefit themselves, but not others. One person practices to benefit others, but not themselves. One person practices to benefit neither themselves nor others. One person practices to benefit both themselves and others.
Another four persons: the dark bound for darkness, the dark bound for light, the light bound for darkness, and the light bound for light.2037
Another four persons: the confirmed ascetic, the white lotus ascetic, the pink lotus ascetic, and the delicate ascetic of ascetics.2038
These are the teachings grouped by four that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
The first recitation section is finished.
There are teachings grouped by five that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by five?
Five aggregates: form, feeling, perception, choices, and consciousness.2039
Five grasping aggregates: form, feeling, perception, choices, and consciousness.
Five kinds of sensual stimulation: Sights known by the eye, which are likable, desirable, agreeable, pleasant, sensual, and arousing. Sounds known by the ear … Smells known by the nose … Tastes known by the tongue … Touches known by the body, which are likable, desirable, agreeable, pleasant, sensual, and arousing.
Five destinations: hell, the animal realm, the ghost realm, humanity, and the gods.2040
Five kinds of stinginess: stinginess with dwellings, families, material things, praise, and the teachings.2041
Five hindrances: sensual desire, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt.
Five lower fetters: substantialist view, doubt, misapprehension of precepts and observances, sensual desire, and ill will.
Five higher fetters: desire for rebirth in the realm of luminous form, desire for rebirth in the formless realm, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance.
Five precepts: refraining from killing living creatures, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and consuming beer, wine, and liquor intoxicants.
Five things that can’t be done: A mendicant with defilements ended can’t deliberately take the life of a living creature, take something with the intention to steal, have sex, tell a deliberate lie, or store up goods for their own enjoyment like they used to as a lay person.2042
Five losses: loss of relatives, wealth, health, ethics, and view. It is not because of loss of relatives, wealth, or health that sentient beings, when their body breaks up, after death, are reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. It is because of loss of ethics or view that sentient beings, when their body breaks up, after death, are reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell.2043
Five endowments: endowment with relatives, wealth, health, ethics, and view. It is not because of endowment with family, wealth, or health that sentient beings, when their body breaks up, after death, are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. It is because of endowment with ethics or view that sentient beings, when their body breaks up, after death, are reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm.
Five drawbacks for an unethical person because of their failure in ethics: Firstly, an unethical person loses great wealth on account of negligence. This is the first drawback. Furthermore, an unethical person gets a bad reputation. This is the second drawback. Furthermore, an unethical person enters any kind of assembly timid and embarrassed, whether it’s an assembly of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, or ascetics. This is the third drawback. Furthermore, an unethical person feels lost when they die. This is the fourth drawback. Furthermore, an unethical person, when their body breaks up, after death, is reborn in a place of loss, a bad place, the underworld, hell. This is the fifth drawback.2044
Five benefits for an ethical person because of their accomplishment in ethics: Firstly, an ethical person gains great wealth on account of diligence. This is the first benefit. Furthermore, an ethical person gets a good reputation. This is the second benefit. Furthermore, an ethical person enters any kind of assembly bold and self-assured, whether it’s an assembly of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, or ascetics. This is the third benefit. Furthermore, an ethical person dies not feeling lost. This is the fourth benefit. Furthermore, when an ethical person’s body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. This is the fifth benefit.
A mendicant who wants to accuse another should first establish five things in themselves: I will speak at the right time, not at the wrong time. I will speak truthfully, not falsely. I will speak gently, not harshly. I will speak beneficially, not harmfully. I will speak lovingly, not from secret hate. A mendicant who wants to accuse another should first establish these five things in themselves.2045
Five factors that support meditation: A mendicant has faith in the Realized One’s awakening: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ They are rarely ill or unwell. Their stomach digests well, being neither too hot nor too cold, but just right, and fit for meditation. They’re not devious or deceitful. They reveal themselves honestly to the Teacher or sensible spiritual companions. They live with energy roused up for giving up unskillful qualities and embracing skillful qualities. They’re strong, staunchly vigorous, not slacking off when it comes to developing skillful qualities. They’re wise. They have the wisdom of arising and passing away which is noble, penetrative, and leads to the complete ending of suffering.2046
Five pure abodes: Aviha, Atappa, the gods fair to see, the fair seeing gods, and Akaniṭṭha.2047
Five non-returners: one who is extinguished between one life and the next, one who is extinguished upon landing, one who is extinguished without extra effort, one who is extinguished with extra effort, and one who heads upstream, going to the Akaniṭṭha realm.2048
Five kinds of hard-heartedness: Firstly, a mendicant has doubts about the Teacher. They’re uncertain, undecided, and lacking confidence. This being so, their mind doesn’t incline toward keenness, commitment, persistence, and striving. This is the first kind of hard-heartedness. Furthermore, a mendicant has doubts about the teaching … the Saṅgha … the training … A mendicant is angry and upset with their spiritual companions, resentful and closed off. This being so, their mind doesn’t incline toward keenness, commitment, persistence, and striving. This is the fifth kind of hard-heartedness.2049
Five shackles of the heart: Firstly, a mendicant isn’t free of greed, desire, fondness, thirst, passion, and craving for sensual pleasures. This being so, their mind doesn’t incline toward keenness, commitment, persistence, and striving. This is the first shackle of the heart. Furthermore, a mendicant isn’t free of greed for the body … They’re not free of greed for form … They eat as much as they like until their bellies are full, then indulge in the pleasures of sleeping, lying down, and drowsing … They lead the spiritual life hoping to be reborn in one of the orders of gods, thinking: ‘By this precept or observance or fervent austerity or spiritual life, may I become one of the gods!’ This being so, their mind doesn’t incline toward keenness, commitment, persistence, and striving. This is the fifth shackle of the heart.2050
Five faculties: eye, ear, nose, tongue, and body.
Another five faculties: pleasure, pain, happiness, sadness, and equanimity.
Another five faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, immersion, and wisdom.
Five elements of escape: Take a case where a mendicant focuses on sensual pleasures, but on that their mind does not leap forth, gain confidence, settle down, and become decided. But when they focus on renunciation, on that their mind leaps forth, gains confidence, settles down, and becomes decided. Their mind is in a good state, well developed, well risen, well freed, and well detached from sensual pleasures. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of sensual pleasures, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from sensual pleasures is explained.
Take another case where a mendicant focuses on ill will, but their mind does not leap forth … But when they focus on good will, their mind leaps forth … Their mind is in a good state … well detached from ill will. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of ill will, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from ill will is explained.
Take another case where a mendicant focuses on harming, but their mind does not leap forth … But when they focus on compassion, their mind leaps forth … Their mind is in a good state … well detached from harming. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of harming, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from harming is explained.
Take another case where a mendicant focuses on form, but their mind does not leap forth … But when they focus on the formless, their mind leaps forth … Their mind is in a good state … well detached from forms. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of form, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from forms is explained.
Take a case where a mendicant focuses on substantial reality, but their mind does not leap forth, gain confidence, settle down, and become decided. But when they focus on the ending of substantial reality, their mind leaps forth, gains confidence, settles down, and becomes decided. Their mind is in a good state, well developed, well risen, well freed, and well detached from substantial reality. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of substantial reality, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from substantial reality is explained.2051
Five opportunities for freedom: Firstly, the Teacher or a respected spiritual companion teaches Dhamma to a mendicant. That mendicant feels inspired by the meaning and the teaching in that Dhamma, no matter how the Teacher or a respected spiritual companion teaches it. Feeling inspired, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, one feels bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed. This is the first opportunity for freedom.
Furthermore, it may be that neither the Teacher nor a respected spiritual companion teaches Dhamma to a mendicant. But the mendicant teaches Dhamma in detail to others as they learned and memorized it. … Or the mendicant recites the teaching in detail as they learned and memorized it. … Or the mendicant thinks about and considers the teaching in their heart, examining it with the mind as they learned and memorized it. … Or a meditation subject as a basis of immersion is properly grasped, focused on, borne in mind, and penetrated with wisdom. That mendicant feels inspired by the meaning and the teaching in that Dhamma, no matter how a meditation subject as a basis of immersion is properly grasped, focused on, borne in mind, and penetrated with wisdom. Feeling inspired, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, one feels bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed. This is the fifth opportunity for freedom.2052
Five perceptions that ripen in freedom: the perception of impermanence, the perception of suffering in impermanence, the perception of not-self in suffering, the perception of giving up, and the perception of fading away.2053
These are the teachings grouped by five that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
There are teachings grouped by six that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by six?
Six interior sense fields: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
Six exterior sense fields: sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas.
Six classes of consciousness: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind consciousness.
Six classes of contact: contact through the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
Six classes of feeling: feeling born of contact through the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
Six classes of perception: perceptions of sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas.
Six bodies of intention: intention regarding sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas.
Six classes of craving: craving for sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas.
Six kinds of disrespect: A mendicant lacks respect and reverence for the Teacher, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, the training, diligence, and hospitality.2054
Six kinds of respect: A mendicant has respect and reverence for the Teacher, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, the training, diligence, and hospitality.2055
Six preoccupations with happiness: Seeing a sight with the eye, one is preoccupied with a sight that’s a basis for happiness. Hearing a sound with the ear … Smelling an odor with the nose … Tasting a flavor with the tongue …
Feeling a touch with the body … Knowing an idea with the mind, one is preoccupied with an idea that’s a basis for happiness.2056
Six preoccupations with sadness: Seeing a sight with the eye, one is preoccupied with a sight that’s a basis for sadness. … Knowing an idea with the mind, one is preoccupied with an idea that’s a basis for sadness.
Six preoccupations with equanimity: Seeing a sight with the eye, one is preoccupied with a sight that’s a basis for equanimity. … Knowing an idea with the mind, one is preoccupied with an idea that’s a basis for equanimity.
Six warm-hearted qualities: Firstly, a mendicant consistently treats their spiritual companions with bodily kindness, both in public and in private. This warm-hearted quality makes for fondness and respect, conducing to inclusion, harmony, and unity, without quarreling.
Furthermore, a mendicant consistently treats their spiritual companions with verbal kindness, both in public and in private. This too is a warm-hearted quality.
Furthermore, a mendicant consistently treats their spiritual companions with mental kindness, both in public and in private. This too is a warm-hearted quality.
Furthermore, a mendicant shares without reservation any material things they have gained by legitimate means, even the food placed in the alms-bowl, using them in common with their ethical spiritual companions. This too is a warm-hearted quality.
Furthermore, a mendicant lives according to the precepts shared with their spiritual companions, both in public and in private. Those precepts are intact, impeccable, spotless, and unmarred, liberating, praised by sensible people, not mistaken, and leading to immersion. This too is a warm-hearted quality.
They live according to the view shared with their spiritual companions, both in public and in private. That view is noble and emancipating, and brings one who practices it to the complete ending of suffering. This warm-hearted quality too makes for fondness and respect, conducing to inclusion, harmony, and unity, without quarreling.2057
Six roots of arguments: Firstly, a mendicant is irritable and acrimonious. Such a mendicant lacks respect and reverence for the Teacher, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, and they don’t fulfill the training. They create a dispute in the Saṅgha, which is for the detriment and suffering of the people, for the harm, detriment, and suffering of gods and humans. If you see such a root of arguments in yourselves or others, you should try to give up this bad thing. If you don’t see it, you should practice so that it doesn’t come up in the future. That’s how to give up this bad root of arguments, so it doesn’t come up in the future.
Furthermore, a mendicant is offensive and contemptuous … They’re jealous and stingy … They’re devious and deceitful … They have corrupt wishes and wrong view … They’re attached to their own views, holding them tight, and refusing to let go. If you see such a root of arguments in yourselves or others, you should try to give up this bad thing. If you don’t see it, you should practice so that it doesn’t come up in the future. That’s how to give up this bad root of arguments, so it doesn’t come up in the future.
Six elements: earth, water, fire, air, space, and consciousness.
Six elements of escape: Take a mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by love. I’ve cultivated it, made it my vehicle and my basis, kept it up, consolidated it, and properly implemented it. Yet somehow ill will still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! Don’t say that. Don’t misrepresent the Buddha, for misrepresentation of the Buddha is not good. And the Buddha would not say that. It’s impossible, reverend, it cannot happen that the heart’s release by love has been developed and properly implemented, yet somehow ill will still occupies the mind. For it is the heart’s release by love that is the escape from ill will.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by compassion. I’ve cultivated it, made it my vehicle and my basis, kept it up, consolidated it, and properly implemented it. Yet somehow the thought of harming still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the heart’s release by compassion that is the escape from thoughts of harming.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by rejoicing. I’ve cultivated it, made it my vehicle and my basis, kept it up, consolidated it, and properly implemented it. Yet somehow discontent still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the heart’s release by rejoicing that is the escape from discontent.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by equanimity. I’ve cultivated it, made it my vehicle and my basis, kept it up, consolidated it, and properly implemented it. Yet somehow desire still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the heart’s release by equanimity that is the escape from desire.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the signless release of the heart. I’ve cultivated it, made it my vehicle and my basis, kept it up, consolidated it, and properly implemented it. Yet somehow my consciousness still follows after signs.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the signless release of the heart that is the escape from all signs.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’m rid of the conceit “I am”. And I don’t regard anything as “I am this”. Yet somehow the dart of doubt and indecision still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! Don’t say that. Don’t misrepresent the Buddha, for misrepresentation of the Buddha is not good. And the Buddha would not say that. It’s impossible, reverend, it cannot happen that the conceit “I am” has been done away with, and nothing is regarded as “I am this”, yet somehow the dart of doubt and indecision still occupy the mind. For it is the uprooting of the conceit “I am” that is the escape from the dart of doubt and indecision.’2058
Six unsurpassable things: the unsurpassable seeing, listening, acquisition, training, service, and recollection.2059
Six topics for recollection: the recollection of the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, ethics, generosity, and the deities.
Six consistent responses: A mendicant, seeing a sight with their eyes, is neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware. Hearing a sound with their ears … Smelling an odor with their nose … Tasting a flavor with their tongue … Feeling a touch with their body … Knowing an idea with their mind, they’re neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware.2060
Six classes of rebirth: Someone born into a dark class gives rise to a dark result. Someone born into a dark class gives rise to a bright result. Someone born into a dark class gives rise to extinguishment, which is neither dark nor bright. Someone born into a bright class gives rise to a bright result. Someone born into a bright class gives rise to a dark result. Someone born into a bright class gives rise to extinguishment, which is neither dark nor bright.2061
Six perceptions that help penetration: the perception of impermanence, the perception of suffering in impermanence, the perception of not-self in suffering, the perception of giving up, the perception of fading away, and the perception of cessation.2062
These are the teachings grouped by six that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
There are teachings grouped by seven that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by seven?
Seven riches of the noble ones: the riches of faith, ethics, conscience, prudence, learning, generosity, and wisdom.2063
Seven awakening factors: mindfulness, investigation of principles, energy, rapture, tranquility, immersion, and equanimity.
Seven prerequisites for immersion: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, and right mindfulness.2064
Seven bad qualities: a mendicant is faithless, shameless, imprudent, unlearned, lazy, unmindful, and witless.2065
Seven good qualities: a mendicant is faithful, conscientious, prudent, learned, energetic, mindful, and wise.2066
Seven aspects of the teachings of the true persons: a mendicant knows the teachings, knows the meaning, knows themselves, knows moderation, knows the right time, knows assemblies, and knows people.2067
Seven qualifications for graduation: A mendicant has a keen enthusiasm to undertake the training … to examine the teachings … to get rid of desires … for retreat … to rouse up energy … for mindfulness and alertness … to penetrate theoretically. And they don’t lose these desires in the future.2068
Seven perceptions: the perception of impermanence, the perception of not-self, the perception of ugliness, the perception of drawbacks, the perception of giving up, the perception of fading away, and the perception of cessation.2069
Seven powers: faith, energy, conscience, prudence, mindfulness, immersion, and wisdom.2070
Seven planes of consciousness: There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and diverse in perception, such as human beings, some gods, and some beings in the underworld. This is the first plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and unified in perception, such as the gods reborn in the Divinity’s host through the first absorption. This is the second plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and diverse in perception, such as the gods of streaming radiance. This is the third plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and unified in perception, such as the gods of universal beauty. This is the fourth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond perceptions of form. With the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite space. This is the fifth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite space. Aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the sixth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness. Aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they have been reborn in the dimension of nothingness. This is the seventh plane of consciousness.2071
Seven persons worthy of a religious donation: one freed both ways, one freed by wisdom, a direct witness, one attained to view, one freed by faith, a follower of teachings, and a follower by faith.
Seven underlying tendencies: sensual desire, repulsion, views, doubt, conceit, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.
Seven fetters: attraction, repulsion, views, doubt, conceit, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.
Seven principles for the settlement of any disciplinary issues that might arise: Resolution face-to-face to be applied. Resolution through recollection to be granted. Resolution because of past insanity to be granted. Acting according to what has been admitted. Majority decision. Further penalty. Covering over as if with grass.2072
These are the teachings grouped by seven that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
The second recitation section is finished.
There are teachings grouped by eight that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by eight?
Eight wrong ways: wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong immersion.
Eight right ways: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion.
Eight persons worthy of a religious donation: The stream-enterer and the one practicing to realize the fruit of stream-entry. The once-returner and the one practicing to realize the fruit of once-return. The non-returner and the one practicing to realize the fruit of non-return. The perfected one, and the one practicing for perfection.
Eight grounds for laziness: Firstly, a mendicant has some work to do. They think: ‘I have some work to do. But while doing it my body will get tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized. This is the first ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has done some work. They think: ‘I’ve done some work. But while working my body got tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the second ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has to go on a journey. They think: ‘I have to go on a journey. But while walking my body will get tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the third ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has gone on a journey. They think: ‘I’ve gone on a journey. But while walking my body got tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the fourth ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, but they didn’t get to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, but I didn’t get to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is tired and unfit for work. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the fifth ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, and they got to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, and I got to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is heavy and unfit for work, like I’ve just eaten a load of beans. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the sixth ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant feels a little sick. They think: ‘I feel a little sick. Lying down would be good for me. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the seventh ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has recently recovered from illness. They think: ‘I’ve recently recovered from illness. My body is weak and unfit for work. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized. This is the eighth ground for laziness.2073
Eight grounds for arousing energy: Firstly, a mendicant has some work to do. They think: ‘I have some work to do. While working it’s not easy to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized.’ They rouse energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized. This is the first ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has done some work. They think: ‘I’ve done some work. While I was working I wasn’t able to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’ They rouse up energy… This is the second ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has to go on a journey. They think: ‘I have to go on a journey. While walking it’s not easy to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’ They rouse up energy… This is the third ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has gone on a journey. They think: ‘I’ve gone on a journey. While I was walking I wasn’t able to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’ They rouse up energy… This is the fourth ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, but they didn’t get to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, but I didn’t get to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is light and fit for work. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’ They rouse up energy… This is the fifth ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, and they got to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, and I got to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is strong and fit for work. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’ They rouse up energy… This is the sixth ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant feels a little sick. They think: ‘I feel a little sick. It’s possible this illness will worsen. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’ They rouse up energy… This is the seventh ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has recently recovered from illness. They think: ‘I’ve recently recovered from illness. It’s possible the illness will come back. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized.’ They rouse energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized. This is the eighth ground for arousing energy.
Eight reasons to give: A person might give a gift after insulting the recipient. Or they give out of fear. Or they give thinking, ‘They gave to me.’ Or they give thinking, ‘They’ll give to me.’ Or they give thinking, ‘It’s good to give.’ Or they give thinking, ‘I cook, they don’t. It wouldn’t be right for me to not give to them.’ Or they give thinking, ‘By giving this gift I’ll get a good reputation.’ Or they give thinking, ‘This is an adornment and requisite for the mind.’2074
Eight rebirths by giving: First, someone gives to ascetics or brahmins such things as food, drink, clothing, vehicles; garlands, fragrance, and makeup; and bed, house, and lighting. Whatever they give they expect back. They see an affluent aristocrat or brahmin or householder amusing themselves, supplied and provided with the five kinds of sensual stimulation. They think: ‘If only, when my body breaks up, after death, I would be reborn in the company of well-to-do aristocrats or brahmins or householders!’2075 They settle on that thought, stabilize it, and develop it. As they’ve settled for less and not developed further, their thought leads to rebirth there.2076 But I say that this is only for those of ethical conduct, not for the unethical. The heart’s wish of an ethical person succeeds because of their purity.
Next, someone gives to ascetics or brahmins. Whatever they give they expect back. And they’ve heard:2077 ‘The gods of the four great kings are long-lived, beautiful, and very happy.’ They think: ‘If only, when my body breaks up, after death, I would be reborn in the company of the gods of the four great kings!’ They settle on that thought, stabilize it, and develop it. As they’ve settled for less and not developed further, their thought leads to rebirth there. But I say that this is only for those of ethical conduct, not for the unethical. The heart’s wish of an ethical person succeeds because of their purity.
Next, someone gives to ascetics or brahmins. Whatever they give they expect back. And they’ve heard: ‘The gods of the thirty-three … the gods of Yama … the joyful gods … the gods who love to imagine … the gods who control what is imagined by others are long-lived, beautiful, and very happy.’ They think: ‘If only, when my body breaks up, after death, I would be reborn in the company of the gods who control what is imagined by others!’ They settle on that thought, stabilize it, and develop it. As they’ve settled for less and not developed further, their thought leads to rebirth there. But I say that this is only for those of ethical conduct, not for the unethical. The heart’s wish of an ethical person succeeds because of their purity.
Next, someone gives to ascetics or brahmins such things as food, drink, clothing, vehicles; garlands, fragrance, and makeup; and bed, house, and lighting. Whatever they give they expect back. And they’ve heard: ‘The gods of the Divinity’s host are long-lived, beautiful, and very happy.’ They think: ‘If only, when my body breaks up, after death, I would be reborn in the company of the gods of the Divinity’s host!’ They settle on that thought, stabilize it, and develop it. As they’ve settled for less and not developed further, their thought leads to rebirth there. But I say that this is only for those of ethical conduct, not for the unethical. And for those free of desire, not those with desire.2078 The heart’s wish of an ethical person succeeds because of their freedom from desire.2079
Eight assemblies: the assemblies of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, and ascetics. An assembly of the gods of the four great kings. An assembly of the gods of the thirty-three. An assembly of Māras. An assembly of divinities.2080
Eight worldly conditions: gain and loss, fame and disgrace, blame and praise, pleasure and pain.2081
Eight dimensions of mastery: Perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limited, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the first dimension of mastery.
Perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limitless, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the second dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limited, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the third dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limitless, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the fourth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are blue, with blue color and blue appearance. They’re like a flax flower that’s blue, with blue color and blue appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, blue, with blue color and blue appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the fifth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. They’re like a champak flower that’s yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the sixth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are red, with red color and red appearance. They’re like a scarlet mallow flower that’s red, with red color and red appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, red, with red color and red appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the seventh dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are white, with white color and white appearance. They’re like the morning star that’s white, with white color and white appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, white, with white color and white appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the eighth dimension of mastery.2082
Eight liberations: Having physical form, they see forms. This is the first liberation.
Not perceiving physical form internally, they see forms externally. This is the second liberation.
They’re focused only on beauty. This is the third liberation.
Going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite space. This is the fourth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the fifth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they enter and remain in the dimension of nothingness. This is the sixth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of nothingness, they enter and remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the seventh liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, they enter and remain in the cessation of perception and feeling. This is the eighth liberation.2083
These are the teachings grouped by eight that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
There are teachings grouped by nine that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by nine?
Nine grounds for resentment: Thinking: ‘They did wrong to me,’ you harbor resentment. Thinking: ‘They are doing wrong to me’ … ‘They will do wrong to me’ … ‘They did wrong by someone I love’ … ‘They are doing wrong by someone I love’ … ‘They will do wrong by someone I love’ … ‘They helped someone I dislike’ … ‘They are helping someone I dislike’ … Thinking: ‘They will help someone I dislike,’ you harbor resentment.2084
Nine ways to get rid of resentment: Thinking: ‘They did wrong to me, but what can I possibly do?’ you get rid of resentment. Thinking: ‘They are doing wrong to me …’ … ‘They will do wrong to me …’ … ‘They did wrong by someone I love …’ … ‘They are doing wrong by someone I love …’ … ‘They will do wrong by someone I love …’ … ‘They helped someone I dislike …’ … ‘They are helping someone I dislike …’ … Thinking: ‘They will help someone I dislike, but what can I possibly do?’ you get rid of resentment.
Nine abodes of sentient beings: There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and diverse in perception, such as human beings, some gods, and some beings in the underworld. This is the first abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and unified in perception, such as the gods reborn in the Divinity’s host through the first absorption. This is the second abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and diverse in perception, such as the gods of streaming radiance. This is the third abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and unified in perception, such as the gods of universal beauty. This is the fourth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are non-percipient and do not experience anything, such as the gods who are non-percipient beings. This is the fifth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond perceptions of form. With the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite space. This is the sixth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite space. Aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the seventh abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness. Aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they have been reborn in the dimension of nothingness. This is the eighth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of nothingness. They have been reborn in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the ninth abode of sentient beings.2085
Nine lost opportunities for spiritual practice: Firstly, a Realized One has arisen in the world. He teaches the Dhamma leading to peace, extinguishment, awakening, as proclaimed by the Holy One. But a person has been reborn in hell. This is the first lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn in the animal realm. This is the second lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn in the ghost realm. This is the third lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn among the titans. This is the fourth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn in one of the long-lived orders of gods. This is the fifth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn in the borderlands, among uneducated foreigners, where monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen do not go.2086 This is the sixth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. And a person is reborn in a central country. But they have wrong view and distorted perspective: ‘There’s no meaning in giving, sacrifice, or offerings. There’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds. There’s no afterlife. There’s no such thing as mother and father, or beings that are reborn spontaneously. And there’s no ascetic or brahmin who is rightly comported and rightly practiced, and who describes the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.’ This is the seventh lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. And a person is reborn in a central country. But they’re witless, dull, idiotic, and unable to distinguish what is well said from what is poorly said. This is the eighth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, no Realized One has arisen in the world, so there is no teaching of the Dhamma leading to peace, extinguishment, awakening, as proclaimed by the Holy One. But a person is reborn in a central country. And they’re wise, bright, clever, and able to distinguish what is well said from what is poorly said. This is the ninth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.2087
Nine progressive meditations: A mendicant, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of seclusion, while placing the mind and keeping it connected. As the placing of the mind and keeping it connected are stilled, they enter and remain in the second absorption, which has the rapture and bliss born of immersion, with internal clarity and mind at one, without placing the mind and keeping it connected. And with the fading away of rapture, they enter and remain in the third absorption, where they meditate with equanimity, mindful and aware, personally experiencing the bliss of which the noble ones declare, ‘Equanimous and mindful, one meditates in bliss.’ With the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, they enter and remain in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. Going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite space. Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite consciousness. Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they enter and remain in the dimension of nothingness. Going totally beyond the dimension of nothingness, they enter and remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. Going totally beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, they enter and remain in the cessation of perception and feeling.2088
Nine progressive cessations: For someone who has attained the first absorption, sensual perceptions have ceased. For someone who has attained the second absorption, the placing of the mind and keeping it connected have ceased. For someone who has attained the third absorption, rapture has ceased. For someone who has attained the fourth absorption, breathing has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of infinite space, the perception of form has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of infinite consciousness, the perception of the dimension of infinite space has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of nothingness, the perception of the dimension of infinite consciousness has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, the perception of the dimension of nothingness has ceased. For someone who has attained the cessation of perception and feeling, perception and feeling have ceased.2089
These are the teachings grouped by nine that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert.
There are teachings grouped by ten that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert. What are the teachings grouped by ten?
Ten qualities that serve as protector: Firstly, a mendicant is ethical, restrained in the monastic code, conducting themselves well and resorting for alms in suitable places. Seeing danger in the slightest fault, they keep the rules they’ve undertaken. This is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is very learned, remembering and keeping what they’ve learned. These teachings are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased, describing a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. They are very learned in such teachings, remembering them, rehearsing them, mentally scrutinizing them, and penetrating them theoretically. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant has good friends, companions, and associates. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is easy to admonish, having qualities that make them easy to admonish. They’re patient, and take instruction respectfully. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is deft and tireless in a diverse spectrum of duties for their spiritual companions, understanding how to go about things in order to complete and organize the work. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant loves the teachings and is a delight to converse with, being full of joy in the teaching and training. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is content with any kind of robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicines and supplies for the sick. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant lives with energy roused up for giving up unskillful qualities and embracing skillful qualities. They are strong, staunchly vigorous, not slacking off when it comes to developing skillful qualities. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is mindful. They have utmost mindfulness and alertness, and can remember and recall what was said and done long ago.2090 This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is wise. They have the wisdom of arising and passing away which is noble, penetrative, and leads to the complete ending of suffering. This too is a quality that serves as protector.2091
Ten universal dimensions of meditation: Someone perceives the meditation on universal earth above, below, across, undivided and limitless. They perceive the meditation on universal water … the meditation on universal fire … the meditation on universal air … the meditation on universal blue … the meditation on universal yellow … the meditation on universal red … the meditation on universal white … the meditation on universal space … They perceive the meditation on universal consciousness above, below, across, undivided and limitless.2092
Ten ways of doing unskillful deeds: killing living creatures, stealing, and sexual misconduct; speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical; covetousness, ill will, and wrong view.
Ten ways of doing skillful deeds: refraining from killing living creatures, stealing, and sexual misconduct; refraining from speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical; contentment, good will, and right view.
Ten abodes of the noble ones: A mendicant has given up five factors, possesses six factors, has a single guard, has four supports, has eliminated idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth, has totally given up searching, has unsullied intentions, has stilled the physical process, and is well freed in mind and well freed by wisdom.
And how has a mendicant given up five factors? It’s when a mendicant has given up sensual desire, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt. That’s how a mendicant has given up five factors.
And how does a mendicant possess six factors? A mendicant, seeing a sight with their eyes, is neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware. Hearing a sound with their ears … Smelling an odor with their nose … Tasting a flavor with their tongue … Feeling a touch with their body … Knowing an idea with their mind, they’re neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware. That’s how a mendicant possesses six factors.
And how does a mendicant have a single guard? It’s when a mendicant’s heart is guarded by mindfulness. That’s how a mendicant has a single guard.
And how does a mendicant have four supports? After appraisal, a mendicant uses some things, endures some things, avoids some things, and gets rid of some things. That’s how a mendicant has four supports.
And how has a mendicant eliminated idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth? Different ascetics and brahmins have different idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth. A mendicant has dispelled, eliminated, thrown out, rejected, let go of, given up, and relinquished all these. That’s how a mendicant has eliminated idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth.
And how has a mendicant totally given up searching? It’s when they’ve given up searching for sensual pleasures, for continued existence, and for a spiritual path. That’s how a mendicant has totally given up searching.
And how does a mendicant have unsullied intentions? It’s when they’ve given up sensual, malicious, and cruel intentions. That’s how a mendicant has unsullied intentions.
And how has a mendicant stilled the physical process? It’s when, with the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, they enter and remain in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. That’s how a mendicant has stilled the physical process.
And how is a mendicant well freed in mind? It’s when a mendicant’s mind is freed from greed, hate, and delusion. That’s how a mendicant is well freed in mind.
And how is a mendicant well freed by wisdom? It’s when a mendicant understands: ‘I’ve given up greed, hate, and delusion, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm stump, obliterated them, so they’re unable to arise in the future.’ That’s how a mendicant’s mind is well freed by wisdom.2093
Ten qualities of an adept: an adept’s right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right immersion, right knowledge, and right freedom.2094
Reverends, these are the teachings grouped by ten that have been rightly explained by the Buddha. You should all recite these in concert, without disputing, so that this spiritual path may last for a long time. That would be for the welfare and happiness of the people, out of sympathy for the world, for the benefit, welfare, and happiness of gods and humans.”
Then the Buddha got up and said to Venerable Sāriputta, “Good, good, Sāriputta! It’s good that you’ve taught this exposition of the reciting in concert.”
That is what Venerable Sāriputta said, and the teacher approved. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what Sāriputta said.
So I have heard. At one time the Buddha was staying near Campā on the banks of the Gaggarā Lotus Pond together with a large Saṅgha of five hundred mendicants.2095 There Sāriputta addressed the mendicants:2096 “Reverends, mendicants!”
“Reverend,” they replied. Sāriputta said this:
“I will relate the teachings2097
up to ten for attaining extinguishment,
for making an end of suffering,
the release from all ties.2098
Reverends, one thing is helpful, one thing should be developed, one thing should be completely understood, one thing should be given up, one thing makes things worse, one thing leads to distinction, one thing is hard to comprehend, one thing should be produced, one thing should be directly known, one thing should be realized.2099
What one thing is helpful? Diligence in skillful qualities.2100
What one thing should be developed? Mindfulness of the body that is full of pleasure.2101
What one thing should be completely understood? Contact, which is accompanied by defilements and fuels grasping.2102
What one thing should be given up? The conceit ‘I am’.
What one thing makes things worse? Irrational application of mind.
What one thing leads to distinction? Rational application of mind.
What one thing is hard to comprehend? The heart’s immersion of immediate result.2103
What one thing should be produced? Unshakable knowledge.
What one thing should be directly known? All sentient beings are sustained by food.
What one thing should be realized? The unshakable release of the heart.
So these ten things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Two things are helpful, two things should be developed, two things should be completely understood, two things should be given up, two things make things worse, two things lead to distinction, two things are hard to comprehend, two things should be produced, two things should be directly known, two things should be realized.2104
What two things are helpful? Mindfulness and situational awareness.
What two things should be developed? Serenity and discernment.
What two things should be completely understood? Name and form.
What two things should be given up? Ignorance and craving for continued existence.
What two things make things worse? Being hard to admonish and having bad friends.
What two things lead to distinction? Being easy to admonish and having good friends.
What two things are hard to comprehend? What are the causes and reasons for the corruption of sentient beings, and what are the causes and reasons for the purification of sentient beings.
What two things should be produced? Two knowledges: knowledge of ending, and knowledge of non-arising.
What two things should be directly known? Two elements: the conditioned element and the unconditioned element.2105
What two things should be realized? Knowledge and freedom.
So these twenty things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Three things are helpful, etc.
What three things are helpful? Associating with true persons, listening to the true teaching, and practicing in line with the teaching.2106
What three things should be developed? Three kinds of immersion. Immersion with placing the mind and keeping it connected. Immersion without placing the mind, merely keeping it connected. Immersion without placing the mind or keeping it connected.
What three things should be completely understood? Three feelings: pleasant, painful, and neutral.
What three things should be given up? Three cravings: craving for sensual pleasures, craving for continued existence, and craving to end existence.
What three things make things worse? Three unskillful roots: greed, hate, and delusion.
What three things lead to distinction? Three skillful roots: contentment, love, and understanding.
What three things are hard to comprehend? Three elements of escape. Renunciation is the escape from sensual pleasures. The formless is the escape from form. Cessation is the escape from whatever is created, conditioned, and dependently originated.2107
What three things should be produced? Three knowledges: knowledge regarding the past portion, the future portion, and the present portion.2108
What three things should be directly known? Three elements: sensuality, form, and formlessness.
What three things should be realized? Three knowledges: recollection of past lives, knowledge of the death and rebirth of sentient beings, and knowledge of the ending of defilements.
So these thirty things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Four things are helpful, etc.
What four things are helpful? Four situations: living in a suitable region, relying on true persons, being rightly resolved in oneself, and past merit.2109
What four things should be developed? The four kinds of mindfulness meditation. A mendicant meditates by observing an aspect of the body—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world. They meditate observing an aspect of feelings … mind … principles—keen, aware, and mindful, rid of covetousness and displeasure for the world.
What four things should be completely understood? Four foods: edible food, whether solid or subtle; contact is the second, mental intention the third, and consciousness the fourth.
What four things should be given up? Four floods: sensuality, desire for rebirth, views, and ignorance.
What four things make things worse? Four yokes: the yokes of sensuality, desire for rebirth, views, and ignorance.
What four things lead to distinction? Four kinds of unyoking: unyoking from the yokes of sensuality, desire for rebirth, views, and ignorance.
What four things are hard to comprehend? Four kinds of immersion: immersion liable to decline, stable immersion, immersion that leads to distinction, and immersion that leads to penetration.2110
What four things should be produced? Four knowledges: knowledge of the teaching, inferential knowledge, knowledge of encompassing, and conventional knowledge.
What four things should be directly known? The four noble truths: suffering, the origin of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the practice that leads to the cessation of suffering.
What four things should be realized? Four fruits of the ascetic life: stream-entry, once-return, non-return, and perfection.
So these forty things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Five things are helpful, etc.
What five things are helpful? Five factors that support meditation. A mendicant has faith in the Realized One’s awakening: ‘That Blessed One is perfected, a fully awakened Buddha, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, holy, knower of the world, supreme guide for those who wish to train, teacher of gods and humans, awakened, blessed.’ They are rarely ill or unwell. Their stomach digests well, being neither too hot nor too cold, but just right, and fit for meditation. They’re not devious or deceitful. They reveal themselves honestly to the Teacher or sensible spiritual companions. They live with energy roused up for giving up unskillful qualities and embracing skillful qualities. They’re strong, staunchly vigorous, not slacking off when it comes to developing skillful qualities. They’re wise. They have the wisdom of arising and passing away which is noble, penetrative, and leads to the complete ending of suffering.
What five things should be developed? Right immersion with five factors: pervasion with rapture, pervasion with pleasure, pervasion with mind, pervasion with light, and the basis for reviewing.2111
What five things should be completely understood? Five grasping aggregates: form, feeling, perception, choices, and consciousness.
What five things should be given up? Five hindrances: sensual desire, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt.
What five things make things worse? Five kinds of hard-heartedness. Firstly, a mendicant has doubts about the Teacher. They’re uncertain, undecided, and lacking confidence. This being so, their mind doesn’t incline toward keenness, commitment, persistence, and striving. This is the first kind of hard-heartedness. Furthermore, a mendicant has doubts about the teaching … the Saṅgha … the training … A mendicant is angry and upset with their spiritual companions, resentful and closed off. This being so, their mind doesn’t incline toward keenness, commitment, persistence, and striving. This is the fifth kind of hard-heartedness.
What five things lead to distinction? Five faculties: faith, energy, mindfulness, immersion, and wisdom.
What five things are hard to comprehend? Five elements of escape. A mendicant focuses on sensual pleasures, but on that their mind does not leap forth, gain confidence, settle down, and become decided. But when they focus on renunciation, on that their mind leaps forth, gains confidence, settles down, and becomes decided. Their mind is in a good state, well developed, well risen, well freed, and well detached from sensual pleasures. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of sensual pleasures, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from sensual pleasures is explained.
Take another case where a mendicant focuses on ill will, but their mind does not leap forth … But when they focus on good will, their mind leaps forth … Their mind is in a good state … well detached from ill will. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of ill will, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from ill will is explained.
Take another case where a mendicant focuses on harming, but their mind does not leap forth … But when they focus on compassion, their mind leaps forth … Their mind is in a good state … well detached from harming. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of harming, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from harming is explained.
Take another case where a mendicant focuses on form, but their mind does not leap forth … But when they focus on the formless, their mind leaps forth … Their mind is in a good state … well detached from forms. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of form, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from forms is explained.
Take a case where a mendicant focuses on substantial reality, but their mind does not leap forth, gain confidence, settle down, and become decided. But when they focus on the ending of substantial reality, their mind leaps forth, gains confidence, settles down, and becomes decided. Their mind is in a good state, well developed, well risen, well freed, and well detached from substantial reality. They’re freed from the distressing and feverish defilements that arise because of substantial reality, so they don’t experience that kind of feeling. This is how the escape from substantial reality is explained.
What five things should be produced? Right immersion with five knowledges. The following knowledges arise for you personally: ‘This immersion is blissful now, and results in bliss in the future.’ ‘This immersion is noble and not of the flesh.’ ‘This immersion is not cultivated by reprobates.’ ‘This immersion is peaceful and sublime and tranquil and unified, not held in place by forceful suppression.’ ‘I mindfully enter into and emerge from this immersion.’
What five things should be directly known? Five opportunities for freedom. Firstly, the Teacher or a respected spiritual companion teaches Dhamma to a mendicant. That mendicant feels inspired by the meaning and the teaching in that Dhamma, no matter how the Teacher or a respected spiritual companion teaches it. Feeling inspired, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, one feels bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed. This is the first opportunity for freedom.
Furthermore, it may be that neither the Teacher nor a respected spiritual companion teaches Dhamma to a mendicant. But the mendicant teaches Dhamma in detail to others as they learned and memorized it. That mendicant feels inspired by the meaning and the teaching in that Dhamma, no matter how they teach it in detail to others as they learned and memorized it. Feeling inspired, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, one feels bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed. This is the second opportunity for freedom.
Furthermore, it may be that neither the Teacher nor … the mendicant teaches Dhamma. But the mendicant recites the teaching in detail as they learned and memorized it. That mendicant feels inspired by the meaning and the teaching in that Dhamma, no matter how they recite it in detail as they learned and memorized it. Feeling inspired, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, one feels bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed. This is the third opportunity for freedom.
Furthermore, it may be that neither the Teacher nor … the mendicant teaches Dhamma … nor does the mendicant recite the teaching. But the mendicant thinks about and considers the teaching in their heart, examining it with the mind as they learned and memorized it. That mendicant feels inspired by the meaning and the teaching in that Dhamma, no matter how they think about and consider it in their heart, examining it with the mind as they learned and memorized it. Feeling inspired, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, one feels bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed. This is the fourth opportunity for freedom.
Furthermore, it may be that neither the Teacher nor … the mendicant teaches Dhamma … nor does the mendicant recite the teaching … or think about it. But a meditation subject as a basis of immersion is properly grasped, focused on, borne in mind, and penetrated with wisdom. That mendicant feels inspired by the meaning and the teaching in that Dhamma, no matter how a meditation subject as a basis of immersion is properly grasped, focused on, borne in mind, and penetrated with wisdom. Feeling inspired, joy springs up. Being joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, one feels bliss. And when blissful, the mind becomes immersed. This is the fifth opportunity for freedom.
What five things should be realized? Five spectrums of the teaching: ethics, immersion, wisdom, freedom, and knowledge and vision of freedom.
So these fifty things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Six things are helpful, etc.
What six things are helpful? Six warm-hearted qualities. Firstly, a mendicant consistently treats their spiritual companions with bodily kindness, both in public and in private. This warm-hearted quality makes for fondness and respect, conducing to inclusion, harmony, and unity, without quarreling.
Furthermore, a mendicant consistently treats their spiritual companions with verbal kindness.
Furthermore, a mendicant consistently treats their spiritual companions with mental kindness.
Furthermore, a mendicant shares without reservation any material things they have gained by legitimate means, even the food placed in the alms-bowl, using them in common with their ethical spiritual companions.
Furthermore, a mendicant lives according to the precepts shared with their spiritual companions, both in public and in private. Those precepts are intact, impeccable, spotless, and unmarred, liberating, praised by sensible people, not mistaken, and leading to immersion.
Furthermore, a mendicant lives according to the view shared with their spiritual companions, both in public and in private. That view is noble and emancipating, and delivers one who practices it to the complete ending of suffering. This warm-hearted quality makes for fondness and respect, conducing to inclusion, harmony, and unity, without quarreling.
What six things should be developed? Six topics for recollection: the recollection of the Buddha, the teaching, the Saṅgha, ethics, generosity, and the deities.
What six things should be completely understood? Six interior sense fields: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.
What six things should be given up? Six classes of craving: craving for sights, sounds, smells, tastes, touches, and ideas.
What six things make things worse? Six kinds of disrespect. A mendicant lacks respect and reverence for the Teacher, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, the training, diligence, and hospitality.
What six things lead to distinction? Six kinds of respect. A mendicant has respect and reverence for the Teacher, the teaching, and the Saṅgha, the training, diligence, and hospitality.
What six things are hard to comprehend? Six elements of escape. Take a mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by love. I’ve cultivated it, made it my vehicle and my basis, kept it up, consolidated it, and properly implemented it. Yet somehow ill will still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! Don’t say that. Don’t misrepresent the Buddha, for misrepresentation of the Buddha is not good. And the Buddha would not say that. It’s impossible, reverend, it cannot happen that the heart’s release by love has been developed and properly implemented, yet somehow ill will still occupies the mind. For it is the heart’s release by love that is the escape from ill will.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by compassion. I’ve cultivated it, made it my vehicle and my basis, kept it up, consolidated it, and properly implemented it. Yet somehow the thought of harming still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the heart’s release by compassion that is the escape from thoughts of harming.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by rejoicing. … Yet somehow discontent still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the heart’s release by rejoicing that is the escape from discontent.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the heart’s release by equanimity. … Yet somehow desire still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the heart’s release by equanimity that is the escape from desire.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’ve developed the signless release of the heart. … Yet somehow my consciousness still follows after signs.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! … For it is the signless release of the heart that is the escape from all signs.’
Take another mendicant who says: ‘I’m rid of the conceit “I am”. And I don’t regard anything as “I am this”. Yet somehow the dart of doubt and indecision still occupies my mind.’ They should be told, ‘Not so, venerable! Don’t say that. Don’t misrepresent the Buddha, for misrepresentation of the Buddha is not good. And the Buddha would not say that. It’s impossible, reverend, it cannot happen that the conceit “I am” has been done away with, and nothing is regarded as “I am this”, yet somehow the dart of doubt and indecision still occupy the mind. For it is the uprooting of the conceit “I am” that is the escape from the dart of doubt and indecision.’
What six things should be produced? Six consistent responses. A mendicant, seeing a sight with their eyes, is neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware. Hearing a sound with their ears … Smelling an odor with their nose … Tasting a flavor with their tongue …
Feeling a touch with their body … Knowing an idea with their mind, they’re neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware.
What six things should be directly known? Six unsurpassable things: the unsurpassable seeing, listening, acquisition, training, service, and recollection.
What six things should be realized? Six direct knowledges. A mendicant wields the many kinds of psychic power: multiplying themselves and becoming one again; materializing and dematerializing; going unobstructed through a wall, a rampart, or a mountain as if through space; diving in and out of the earth as if it were water; walking on water as if it were earth; flying cross-legged through the sky like a bird; touching and stroking with the hand the sun and moon, so mighty and powerful; controlling the body as far as the realm of divinity.
With clairaudience that is purified and superhuman, they hear both kinds of sounds, human and heavenly, whether near or far.
They understand the minds of other beings and individuals, having comprehended them with their own mind.
They recollect many kinds of past lives, with features and details.
With clairvoyance that is purified and superhuman, they see sentient beings passing away and being reborn—inferior and superior, beautiful and ugly, in a good place or a bad place. They understand how sentient beings pass on according to their deeds.
They realize the undefiled freedom of heart and freedom by wisdom in this very life. And they live having realized it with their own insight due to the ending of defilements.
So these sixty things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Seven things are helpful, etc.
What seven things are helpful? Seven riches of the noble ones: the riches of faith, ethics, conscience, prudence, learning, generosity, and wisdom.
What seven things should be developed? Seven awakening factors: mindfulness, investigation of principles, energy, rapture, tranquility, immersion, and equanimity.
What seven things should be completely understood? Seven planes of consciousness. There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and diverse in perception, such as human beings, some gods, and some beings in the underworld. This is the first plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and unified in perception, such as the gods reborn in the Divinity’s host through the first absorption. This is the second plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and diverse in perception, such as the gods of streaming radiance. This is the third plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and unified in perception, such as the gods of universal beauty. This is the fourth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond perceptions of form. With the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite space. This is the fifth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite space. Aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the sixth plane of consciousness.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness. Aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they have been reborn in the dimension of nothingness. This is the seventh plane of consciousness.
What seven things should be given up? Seven underlying tendencies: sensual desire, repulsion, views, doubt, conceit, desire to be reborn, and ignorance.
What seven things make things worse? Seven bad qualities: a mendicant is faithless, shameless, imprudent, unlearned, lazy, unmindful, and witless.
What seven things lead to distinction? Seven good qualities: a mendicant is faithful, conscientious, prudent, learned, energetic, mindful, and wise.
What seven things are hard to comprehend? Seven aspects of the teachings of the true persons: a mendicant knows the teachings, knows the meaning, knows themselves, knows moderation, knows the right time, knows assemblies, and knows people.
What seven things should be produced? Seven perceptions: the perception of impermanence, the perception of not-self, the perception of ugliness, the perception of drawbacks, the perception of giving up, the perception of fading away, and the perception of cessation.
What seven things should be directly known? Seven qualifications for graduation. A mendicant has a keen enthusiasm to undertake the training … to examine the teachings … to get rid of desires … for retreat … to rouse up energy … for mindfulness and alertness … to penetrate theoretically. And they don’t lose these desires in the future.
What seven things should be realized? Seven powers of one who has ended the defilements. Firstly, a mendicant with defilements ended has clearly seen with right wisdom all conditions as truly impermanent. This is a power that a mendicant who has ended the defilements relies on to claim: ‘My defilements have ended.’
Furthermore, a mendicant with defilements ended has clearly seen with right wisdom that sensual pleasures are truly like a pit of glowing coals. …
Furthermore, the mind of a mendicant with defilements ended slants, slopes, and inclines to seclusion. They’re withdrawn, loving renunciation, and have totally eliminated defiling influences. …
Furthermore, a mendicant with defilements ended has well developed the four kinds of mindfulness meditation. …
Furthermore, a mendicant with defilements ended has well developed the five faculties. …
Furthermore, a mendicant with defilements ended has well developed the seven awakening factors. …
Furthermore, a mendicant with defilements ended has well developed the noble eightfold path. … This is a power that a mendicant who has ended the defilements relies on to claim: ‘My defilements have ended.’
So these seventy things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
The first recitation section is finished.
Eight things are helpful, etc.
What eight things are helpful? There are eight causes and reasons that lead to acquiring the wisdom fundamental to the spiritual life, and to its increase, growth, development, and fulfillment once it has been acquired. What eight? It’s when a mendicant lives relying on the Teacher or a spiritual companion in a teacher’s role. And they set up a keen sense of conscience and prudence for them, with warmth and respect. This is the first cause.
When a mendicant lives relying on the Teacher or a spiritual companion in a teacher’s role—with a keen sense of conscience and prudence for them, with warmth and respect—from time to time they go and ask them questions: ‘Why, sir, does it say this? What does that mean?’ Those venerables clarify what is unclear, reveal what is obscure, and dispel doubt regarding the many doubtful matters. This is the second cause.
After hearing that teaching they perfect withdrawal of both body and mind. This is the third cause.
Furthermore, a mendicant is ethical, restrained in the monastic code, conducting themselves well and resorting for alms in suitable places. Seeing danger in the slightest fault, they keep the rules they’ve undertaken. This is the fourth cause.
Furthermore, a mendicant is very learned, remembering and keeping what they’ve learned. These teachings are good in the beginning, good in the middle, and good in the end, meaningful and well-phrased, describing a spiritual practice that’s entirely full and pure. They are very learned in such teachings, remembering them, rehearsing them, mentally scrutinizing them, and penetrating them theoretically. This is the fifth cause.
Furthermore, a mendicant lives with energy roused up for giving up unskillful qualities and embracing skillful qualities. They are strong, staunchly vigorous, not slacking off when it comes to developing skillful qualities. This is the sixth cause.
Furthermore, a mendicant is mindful. They have utmost mindfulness and alertness, and can remember and recall what was said and done long ago. This is the seventh cause.
Furthermore, a mendicant meditates observing rise and fall in the five grasping aggregates. ‘Such is form, such is the origin of form, such is the ending of form. Such is feeling, such is the origin of feeling, such is the ending of feeling. Such is perception, such is the origin of perception, such is the ending of perception. Such are choices, such is the origin of choices, such is the ending of choices. Such is consciousness, such is the origin of consciousness, such is the ending of consciousness.’ This is the eighth cause.2112
What eight things should be developed? The noble eightfold path, that is: right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right immersion.
What eight things should be completely understood? Eight worldly conditions: gain and loss, fame and disgrace, blame and praise, pleasure and pain.
What eight things should be given up? Eight wrong ways: wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, and wrong immersion.
What eight things make things worse? Eight grounds for laziness. Firstly, a mendicant has some work to do. They think: ‘I have some work to do. But while doing it my body will get tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized. This is the first ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has done some work. They think: ‘I’ve done some work. But while working my body got tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the second ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has to go on a journey. They think: ‘I have to go on a journey. But while walking my body will get tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the third ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has gone on a journey. They think: ‘I’ve gone on a journey. But while walking my body got tired. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the fourth ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, but they didn’t get to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, but I didn’t get to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is tired and unfit for work. I’d better have a lie down.’… This is the fifth ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, and they got to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, and I got to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is heavy, unfit for work, like I’ve just eaten a load of beans. I’d better have a lie down.’… They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the sixth ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant feels a little sick. They think: ‘I feel a little sick. Lying down would be good for me. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the seventh ground for laziness.
Furthermore, a mendicant has recently recovered from illness. They think: ‘I’ve recently recovered from illness. My body is weak and unfit for work. I’d better have a lie down.’ They lie down, and don’t rouse energy… This is the eighth ground for laziness.
What eight things lead to distinction? Eight grounds for arousing energy. Firstly, a mendicant has some work to do. They think: ‘I have some work to do. While working it’s not easy to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized.’ They rouse energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized. This is the first ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has done some work. They think: ‘I’ve done some work. While I was working I wasn’t able to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’… This is the second ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has to go on a journey. They think: ‘I have to go on a journey. While walking it’s not easy to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’… This is the third ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has gone on a journey. They think: ‘I’ve gone on a journey. While I was walking I wasn’t able to focus on the instructions of the Buddhas. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’… This is the fourth ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, but they didn’t get to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, but I didn’t get to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is light and fit for work. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’… This is the fifth ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has wandered for alms, and they got to fill up on as much food as they like, coarse or fine. They think: ‘I’ve wandered for alms, and I got to fill up on as much food as I like, coarse or fine. My body is strong and fit for work. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’… This is the sixth ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant feels a little sick. They think: ‘I feel a little sick. It’s possible this illness will worsen. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy.’… This is the seventh ground for arousing energy.
Furthermore, a mendicant has recently recovered from illness. They think: ‘I’ve recently recovered from illness. It’s possible the illness will come back. I’d better preemptively rouse up energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized.’ They rouse energy for attaining the unattained, achieving the unachieved, and realizing the unrealized. This is the eighth ground for arousing energy.
What eight things are hard to comprehend? Eight lost opportunities for spiritual practice. Firstly, a Realized One has arisen in the world. He teaches the Dhamma leading to peace, extinguishment, awakening, as proclaimed by the Holy One. But a person has been reborn in hell. This is the first lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn in the animal realm. This is the second lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn in the ghost realm. This is the third lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world.2113 But person has been reborn in one of the long-lived orders of gods. This is the fourth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. But a person has been reborn in the borderlands, among uneducated foreigners, where monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen do not go. This is the fifth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. And a person is reborn in a central country. But they have wrong view and distorted perspective: ‘There’s no meaning in giving, sacrifice, or offerings. There’s no fruit or result of good and bad deeds. There’s no afterlife. There’s no such thing as mother and father, or beings that are reborn spontaneously. And there’s no ascetic or brahmin who is rightly comported and rightly practiced, and who describes the afterlife after realizing it with their own insight.’ This is the sixth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, a Realized One has arisen in the world. And a person is reborn in a central country. But they’re witless, dull, idiotic, and unable to distinguish what is well said from what is poorly said. This is the seventh lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
Furthermore, no Realized One has arisen in the world,2114 so there is no teaching of the Dhamma leading to peace, extinguishment, awakening, as proclaimed by the Holy One. But a person is reborn in a central country. And they’re wise, bright, clever, and able to distinguish what is well said from what is poorly said. This is the eighth lost opportunity for spiritual practice.
What eight things should be produced? Eight thoughts of a great man. ‘This teaching is for those of few wishes, not those of many wishes. It’s for the contented, not those who lack contentment. It’s for the secluded, not those who enjoy company. It’s for the energetic, not the lazy. It’s for the mindful, not the unmindful. It’s for those with immersion, not those without immersion. It’s for the wise, not the witless. This teaching is for those who don’t enjoy proliferating, not for those who enjoy proliferating.’2115
What eight things should be directly known? Eight dimensions of mastery. Perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limited, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the first dimension of mastery.
Perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limitless, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the second dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limited, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the third dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally, limitless, both pretty and ugly. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the fourth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are blue, with blue color and blue appearance. They’re like a flax flower that’s blue, with blue color and blue appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, blue, with blue color and blue appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the fifth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. They’re like a champak flower that’s yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, yellow, with yellow color and yellow appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the sixth dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are red, with red color and red appearance. They’re like a scarlet mallow flower that’s red, with red color and red appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, red, with red color and red appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the seventh dimension of mastery.
Not perceiving form internally, someone sees forms externally that are white, with white color and white appearance. They’re like the morning star that’s white, with white color and white appearance. Or a cloth from Varanasi that’s smoothed on both sides, white, with white color and white appearance. Mastering them, they perceive: ‘I know and see.’ This is the eighth dimension of mastery.
What eight things should be realized? Eight liberations. Having physical form, they see forms. This is the first liberation.
Not perceiving physical form internally, someone see forms externally. This is the second liberation.
They’re focused only on beauty. This is the third liberation.
Going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite space. This is the fourth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the fifth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they enter and remain in the dimension of nothingness. This is the sixth liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of nothingness, they enter and remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the seventh liberation.
Going totally beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, they enter and remain in the cessation of perception and feeling. This is the eighth liberation.
So these eighty things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Nine things are helpful, etc.
What nine things are helpful? Nine things rooted in rational application of mind. When you apply the mind rationally, joy springs up. When you’re joyful, rapture springs up. When the mind is full of rapture, the body becomes tranquil. When the body is tranquil, you feel bliss. And when you’re blissful, the mind becomes immersed. When your mind is immersed, you truly know and see. When you truly know and see, you grow disillusioned. Being disillusioned, desire fades away. When desire fades away you’re freed.2116
What nine things should be developed? Nine factors of trying to be pure. The factors of trying to be pure in ethics, mind, view, overcoming doubt, knowledge and vision of what is the path and what is not the path, knowledge and vision of the practice, knowledge and vision, wisdom, and freedom.2117
What nine things should be completely understood? Nine abodes of sentient beings. There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and diverse in perception, such as human beings, some gods, and some beings in the underworld. This is the first abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are diverse in body and unified in perception, such as the gods reborn in the Divinity’s host through the first absorption. This is the second abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and diverse in perception, such as the gods of streaming radiance. This is the third abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are unified in body and unified in perception, such as the gods of universal beauty. This is the fourth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that are non-percipient and do not experience anything, such as the gods who are non-percipient beings. This is the fifth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond perceptions of form. With the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite space. This is the sixth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite space. Aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they have been reborn in the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is the seventh abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness. Aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they have been reborn in the dimension of nothingness. This is the eighth abode of sentient beings.
There are sentient beings that have gone totally beyond the dimension of nothingness. They have been reborn in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the ninth abode of sentient beings.
What nine things should be given up? Nine things rooted in craving. Craving gives rise to seeking. Seeking gives rise to gaining material things. Gaining material things gives rise to evaluation. Evaluation gives rise to desire and lust. Desire and lust gives rise to attachment. Attachment gives rise to ownership. Ownership gives rise to stinginess. Stinginess gives rise to safeguarding. Owing to safeguarding, many bad, unskillful things come to be: taking up the rod and the sword, quarrels, arguments, disputes, accusations, divisive speech, and lies.2118
What nine things make things worse? Nine grounds for resentment. Thinking: ‘They did wrong to me,’ you harbor resentment. Thinking: ‘They are doing wrong to me’ … ‘They will do wrong to me’ … ‘They did wrong by someone I love’ … ‘They are doing wrong by someone I love’ … ‘They will do wrong by someone I love’ … ‘They helped someone I dislike’ … ‘They are helping someone I dislike’ … Thinking: ‘They will help someone I dislike,’ you harbor resentment.
What nine things lead to distinction? Nine ways to get rid of resentment. Thinking: ‘They did wrong to me, but what can I possibly do?’ you get rid of resentment. Thinking: ‘They are doing wrong to me …’ … ‘They will do wrong to me …’ … ‘They did wrong by someone I love …’ … ‘They are doing wrong by someone I love …’ … ‘They will do wrong by someone I love …’ … ‘They helped someone I dislike …’ … ‘They are helping someone I dislike …’ … Thinking: ‘They will help someone I dislike, but what can I possibly do?’ you get rid of resentment.
What nine things are hard to comprehend? Nine kinds of diversity. Diversity of elements gives rise to diversity of contacts. Diversity of contacts gives rise to diversity of feelings. Diversity of feelings gives rise to diversity of perceptions. Diversity of perceptions gives rise to diversity of thoughts. Diversity of thoughts gives rise to diversity of desires. Diversity of desires gives rise to diversity of passions. Diversity of passions gives rise to diversity of searches. Diversity of searches gives rise to diversity of gains.2119
What nine things should be produced? Nine perceptions: the perceptions of ugliness, death, repulsiveness in food, dissatisfaction with the whole world, impermanence, suffering in impermanence, not-self in suffering, giving up, and fading away.2120
What nine things should be directly known? Nine progressive meditations. A mendicant, quite secluded from sensual pleasures, secluded from unskillful qualities, enters and remains in the first absorption … second absorption … third absorption … fourth absorption. Going totally beyond perceptions of form, with the disappearance of perceptions of impingement, not focusing on perceptions of diversity, aware that ‘space is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite space. Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite space, aware that ‘consciousness is infinite’, they enter and remain in the dimension of infinite consciousness. Going totally beyond the dimension of infinite consciousness, aware that ‘there is nothing at all’, they enter and remain in the dimension of nothingness. Going totally beyond the dimension of nothingness, they enter and remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. Going totally beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, they enter and remain in the cessation of perception and feeling.
What nine things should be realized? Nine progressive cessations. For someone who has attained the first absorption, sensual perceptions have ceased. For someone who has attained the second absorption, the placing of the mind and keeping it connected have ceased. For someone who has attained the third absorption, rapture has ceased. For someone who has attained the fourth absorption, breathing has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of infinite space, the perception of form has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of infinite consciousness, the perception of the dimension of infinite space has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of nothingness, the perception of the dimension of infinite consciousness has ceased. For someone who has attained the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception, the perception of the dimension of nothingness has ceased. For someone who has attained the cessation of perception and feeling, perception and feeling have ceased.
So these ninety things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.
Ten things are helpful, ten things should be developed, ten things should be completely understood, ten things should be given up, ten things make things worse, ten things lead to distinction, ten things are hard to comprehend, ten things should be produced, ten things should be directly known, ten things should be realized.
What ten things are helpful? Ten qualities that serve as protector. First, a mendicant is ethical, restrained in the monastic code, conducting themselves well and resorting for alms in suitable places. Seeing danger in the slightest fault, they keep the rules they’ve undertaken. This is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is learned. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant has good friends, companions, and associates. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is easy to admonish, having qualities that make them easy to admonish. They’re patient, and take instruction respectfully. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is deft and tireless in a diverse spectrum of duties for their spiritual companions, understanding how to go about things in order to complete and organize the work. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant loves the teachings and is a delight to converse with, being full of joy in the teaching and training. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is content with any kind of robes, almsfood, lodgings, and medicines and supplies for the sick. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is energetic. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is mindful. They have utmost mindfulness and alertness, and can remember and recall what was said and done long ago. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
Furthermore, a mendicant is wise. They have the wisdom of arising and passing away which is noble, penetrative, and leads to the complete ending of suffering. This too is a quality that serves as protector.
What ten things should be developed? Ten universal dimensions of meditation. Someone perceives the meditation on universal earth above, below, across, undivided and limitless. They perceive the meditation on universal water … the meditation on universal fire … the meditation on universal air … the meditation on universal blue … the meditation on universal yellow … the meditation on universal red … the meditation on universal white … the meditation on universal space … They perceive the meditation on universal consciousness above, below, across, undivided and limitless.
What ten things should be completely understood? Ten sense fields: eye and sights, ear and sounds, nose and smells, tongue and tastes, body and touches.
What ten things should be given up? Ten wrong ways: wrong view, wrong thought, wrong speech, wrong action, wrong livelihood, wrong effort, wrong mindfulness, wrong immersion, wrong knowledge, and wrong freedom.
What ten things make things worse? Ten ways of doing unskillful deeds: killing living creatures, stealing, and sexual misconduct; speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical; covetousness, ill will, and wrong view.
What ten things lead to distinction? Ten ways of doing skillful deeds: refraining from killing living creatures, stealing, and sexual misconduct; avoiding speech that’s false, divisive, harsh, or nonsensical; contentment, good will, and right view.
What ten things are hard to comprehend? Ten abodes of the noble ones. A mendicant has given up five factors, possesses six factors, has a single guard, has four supports, has eliminated idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth, has totally given up searching, has unsullied intentions, has stilled the physical process, and is well freed in mind and well freed by wisdom.
And how has a mendicant given up five factors? It’s when a mendicant has given up sensual desire, ill will, dullness and drowsiness, restlessness and remorse, and doubt. That’s how a mendicant has given up five factors.
And how does a mendicant possess six factors? A mendicant, seeing a sight with their eyes, is neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware. Hearing a sound with their ears … Smelling an odor with their nose … Tasting a flavor with their tongue …
Feeling a touch with their body … Knowing an idea with their mind, they’re neither happy nor sad. They remain equanimous, mindful and aware. That’s how a mendicant possesses six factors.
And how does a mendicant have a single guard? It’s when a mendicant’s heart is guarded by mindfulness. That’s how a mendicant has a single guard.
And how does a mendicant have four supports? After appraisal, a mendicant uses some things, endures some things, avoids some things, and gets rid of some things. That’s how a mendicant has four supports.
And how has a mendicant eliminated idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth? Different ascetics and brahmins have different idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth. A mendicant has dispelled, eliminated, thrown out, rejected, let go of, given up, and relinquished all these. That’s how a mendicant has eliminated idiosyncratic interpretations of the truth.
And how has a mendicant totally given up searching? It’s when they’ve given up searching for sensual pleasures, for continued existence, and for a spiritual path. That’s how a mendicant has totally given up searching.
And how does a mendicant have unsullied intentions? It’s when they’ve given up sensual, malicious, and cruel intentions. That’s how a mendicant has unsullied intentions.
And how has a mendicant stilled the physical process? With the giving up of pleasure and pain and the disappearance of former happiness and sadness, they enter and remain in the fourth absorption, without pleasure or pain, with pure equanimity and mindfulness. That’s how a mendicant has stilled the physical process.
And how is a mendicant well freed in mind? It’s when a mendicant’s mind is freed from greed, hate, and delusion. That’s how a mendicant is well freed in mind.
And how is a mendicant well freed by wisdom? It’s when a mendicant understands: ‘I’ve given up greed, hate, and delusion, cut them off at the root, made them like a palm stump, obliterated them, so they’re unable to arise in the future.’ That’s how a mendicant’s mind is well freed by wisdom.
What ten things should be produced? Ten perceptions: the perceptions of ugliness, death, repulsiveness in food, dissatisfaction with the whole world, impermanence, suffering in impermanence, not-self in suffering, giving up, fading away, and cessation.2121
What ten things should be directly known? Ten grounds for wearing away. For one of right view, wrong view is worn away. And the many bad, unskillful qualities that arise because of wrong view are worn away. For one of right intention, wrong intention is worn away. … For one of right speech, wrong speech is worn away. … For one of right action, wrong action is worn away. … For one of right livelihood, wrong livelihood is worn away. … For one of right effort, wrong effort is worn away. … For one of right mindfulness, wrong mindfulness is worn away. … For one of right immersion, wrong immersion is worn away. … For one of right knowledge, wrong knowledge is worn away. … For one of right freedom, wrong freedom is worn away. And the many bad, unskillful qualities that arise because of wrong freedom are worn away.
What ten things should be realized? Ten qualities of an adept: an adept’s right view, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right immersion, right knowledge, and right freedom.2122
So these hundred things that are true, real, and accurate, not unreal, not otherwise were rightly understood by the Realized One.” This is what Venerable Sāriputta said. Satisfied, the mendicants approved what Sāriputta said.
The Long Discourses are completed.
Tradition holds that these were the words spoken by Ānanda when reciting the Suttapiṭaka at the First Council following the Buddha’s death. In fact it is a tag signifying that the text has been passed down through oral tradition and the speaker was not present at the events (DN 5:21.10, MN 127:17.4). | This sutta with its commentary was translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi in his The All-Embracing Net of Views. ↩
By convention, suttas do not specify the date, so we have scant internal chronology. | Walk about fifteen kilometers north from Rājagaha (modern Rajgir) to reach Nāḷandā. | “Mendicant” is a literal translation of bhikkhu, one who goes for alms. ↩
A “wanderer” (paribbājaka) was a homeless religious renunciate—male or female—who wandered seeking alms. Kauṭilya describes their lifestyle as “mastery of the senses, abstaining from ritual activities, living without possessions, abandoning attachments, practicing mendicancy, residing in the wilderness but not in a single place, and purifying himself internally and externally” (Arthaśāstra 1.3.12, Olivelle’s translation). | “Resident pupil” (or elsewhere just “pupil”) is antevāsi, a live-in apprentice of a master. | “Student” (māṇava) is a young man who was learning the Vedas from a master. ↩
Today these are called the Triple Gem that makes up the Buddhist religion; however they are not known by that term in the early texts. ↩
While the disagreement of student and teacher signifies their confusion, it also represents the diversity of views within the brahmanical caste and the openness with which a student could disagree with their teacher. ↩
Ambalaṭṭhikā means “place of mango saplings”. It was a rest-house set up by the king of Rājagaha about a day’s journey from the capital. It must have been sizable. ↩
Saṅkhiyadhamma is a unique term. The commentary glosses it as kathādhamma, following which it has been translated as “conversation” or “trend of conversation”. But saṅkhā means “appraisal, assessment, evaluation, measuring, calculating”, and here the subject of discussion is the different ways the two parties assess or judge the Buddha, Dhamma, and Saṅgha. Compare the “appraisal” of the Buddha at DN 19:19.2. ↩
Adhimutti is something that has been decided, a conviction or belief. ↩
This would have been an open air pavilion in the rest-house. By convention, when a teacher or other respected person is to sit, a sitting mat is spread out or made ready for them. ↩
The very first words of the Buddha in the Suttapiṭaka: he asks to hear what others are saying. ↩
Here and in similar passages the Pali repeats all and I abbreviate. ↩
The phrasing here is somewhat unusual and specific. They “should not do” what creates bitterness (i.e. judging others). Compare MN 22, where the same phrases are used. In the Buddha’s case, it has the neutral hoti, while for the mendicants it uses karaṇīya, as here. ↩
Complaining about others does not hurt them, only the one who gets upset. ↩
Equanimity is a prerequisite for evaluating facts. ↩
Ethics (or morality or virtue, sīla) is important, but it pales in comparison with the higher dimensions of the Buddha’s path. For an example of this kind of praise see MN 77:8.1. | The Buddha often referred to himself as “the Realized One” (tathāgata). ↩
Here the Buddha lays out in detail the ethical conduct for mendicant followers. ↩
The first and most important precept. It is not just the negative injunction to avoid killing, but also the positive injunction to have compassion for all creatures. | The Buddha is called “the ascetic Gotama” by non-Buddhists. ↩
An “ordinary person” (puthujjana) is anyone who has not, at minimum, entered the path to stream-entry. ↩
“Chastity” is brahmacariya, literally “divine conduct”. Here it is used in the narrow sense of refraining from sex, but more commonly it has a broader sense of “spiritual life”. ↩
This is the first of the four kinds of right speech. Just as the precept of not killing implies the positive injunction to live with compassion, the precepts on speech enjoin a positive and constructive use of speech. ↩
“Harmony” (or “unanimity”, samagga) does not excuse untrue, bigoted, or otherwise harmful speech. True harmony is only achieved in the presence of the Dhamma. ↩
Attha is a polyvalent term, here taking the senses “meaningful” and “beneficial”. Elsewhere it means “goal”, “need”, “purpose”, “lawsuit”, or “ending”, and the senses are not always easy to untangle. ↩
Buddhists generally do not regard plants as sentient, but value them as part of the ecosystem that supports all life. ↩
From MN 66:6.4 and MN 70:4.8 we can see that “at night” means after dark, while “at the wrong time” means in the afternoon. More explicitly, these are the “wrong time at night” and the “wrong time in the day”, in which case they are both the “wrong time”. ↩
Such sensual entertainments distract and excite the mind. This and the next three precepts encourage peace of mind for meditation. ↩
This was ignored by the Buddha’s cousin, Nanda (SN 21.8:1.2). ↩
To avoid sleeping too much. ↩
Literally “gold and silver” (jātarūparajata), but rajata is explained in Bu NP 18:2.8 as currency of any kind. ↩
Mendicants receive only the day’s meal and do not store or cook food. ↩
According to ancient Indian law (Arthaśāstra 3.13), a person in a time of trouble may bind themselves in service for a fee. Such bondservants were protected against cruelty, sexual abuse, and unfair work. After earning back the fee of their indenture they were freed, retaining their original inheritance and status. ↩
These are animals raised for food. ↩
Land for a monastery may be accepted by the Saṅgha as a community, but not by individual mendicants. ↩
These items are discussed in detail below. | Acting as a go-between for lay business was tempting due to the mendicants’ wandering lifestyle. However, it exposes them to risk if the message is not delivered or if it is bad news. ↩
For example, trading in monastery property. ↩
This section expands some of the former section in further detail. | The “middle” and “large” sections on ethics are not found in briefer presentations such as MN 27:14.1. ↩
That these are not five “kinds of seeds” but five kinds of “plants grown from seeds” is clear from the Vinaya and its commentary (Bu Pc 11: Bhūtagāmo nāma pañca bījajātāni). ↩
For storing up food as a sign of decline, see DN 27:17.5. ↩
Sobhanaka (“beauty pageant”) is explained by the commentary as the movement (or “sprinkling”) of dancers, or their beautification and painting. The PTS reading sobha-nagarakaṁ, supported by an unrelated reference to a gandhabba city of that name, is spurious. | Caṇḍālaṁ vaṁsaṁ dhovanaṁ should be a compound, as shown by the prose to Ja 498, where it is a performance by corpse-workers (caṇḍāla) in Ujjenī. Vaṁsa is the bamboo used by caṇḍāla acrobats (SN 47.19). Dhovana is referred by the commentary to AN 10.107, where it is a southern ceremony accompanied by drink and dance. The commentaries to AN and DN say it was the ritual washing of the bones of the buried dead after the decomposition of the flesh. Such “second funeral” rites have been observed world-wide. From the Jātaka it appears that the tradition had declined to a mere display for passers-by, perhaps featuring naked tribal girls. | Uyodhika is sometimes said to be “sham fights”, but at AN 10.30 it is not a sham. And the definition at Bu Pc 50 says “where strife is seen”. ↩
See too DN 31:11.1. ↩
“Checkers” (aṭṭhapada) was presumably the ancestor of the Gupta period caturaṅga and hence modern chess. | Yathāvajja is explained in the commentary as “mimicking deformities”, but I cannot find support elsewhere in Pali or Sanskrit for vajja in this sense. More likely it refers to musical instruments (Sanskrit vādya). ↩
Tiracchānakathā literally means “animal talk”. The Pali word for animal, tiracchāna has the sense of “moving horizontally”, and “low talk” is that which does not elevate. ↩
Bhavābhava does not mean “existence and non-existence” but is a distributive compound, “this or that state of existence”. Indian religious texts are full of discussions about different heavens and hells. ↩
The folly of disputatiousness is a consistent theme in the suttas, but is a special focus of the Aṭṭhakavagga of the Suttanipāta. ↩
“Rulers” (raññaṁ, genitive plural) include hereditary kings as well as the elected joint leaders of republican states such as the Sakyans or Vajjis. ↩
Some renunciants like to butter up potential donors, or make ostentatious displays to prompt further donations. | “Using material possessions to chase after other material possessions” includes trading monastery property for profit. ↩
This section focuses on practices that are wrong livelihood for a mendicant, though not for lay people. The Vinaya explains “low lore” as whatever is non-Buddhist or useless (Bi Pc 49), while the commentary says it leads not to emancipation but to heaven. ↩
Reading khattavijjā (“political science”) per variant as khettavijjā (“geomancy”). | Sara in saraparitta means “sound” not “arrow”; compare with sarabhañña “chanting”. | Migacakka is explained in the commentary, supported by the astrological text Bṛhatsaṁhitā, as interpretation of the cries and behaviors of wild animals. Here the suffix -cakka refers to the field of study. See also Mil 5.3.7:6.1 sācakkaṁ migacakkaṁ antaracakkaṁ (“divining omens from dogs, wild animals, and the directions around”), terms which are also found at Bṛhatsaṁhitā 2. ↩
The commentary oddly has “earrings or house-gables” for kaṇṇika (“eared one”), but it must be “rabbit”, for which see sasakaṇṇikā at Ja 535:76. ↩
Despite this, astrology is commonly practiced today among Buddhist mendicants. | (Up)pathagamana can hardly mean that the sun, moon, and stars will “go astray”. Rather, patha here has the sense of “range”, so it means “come within range”, which describes an astrological conjunction. | For “fiery sky” (disāḍāha) as an ill omen, see diśāṁ dāhe at Manusmṛti 4.115. ↩
“Cosmology” (lokāyata) in early Buddhist texts is not, as it later became known, the heterodox school of materialism. Rather, it was a branch of worldly knowledge within regular Vedic studies concerned with the nature and extent of the world and how this may be known (AN 9.38, SN 12.48; cf. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.3.1). ↩
The commentary has saṅkiraṇa/vikiraṇa as “saving and spending” (cp. Snp 1.6:23.1), but it seems unlikely. Vikiraṇa means “scattering” food or sand, while Sanskrit vikira is the ritual scattering of rice. Given the context, I think it refers to the custom of scattering rice at a wedding. | For viruddhagabbhakaraṇa, viruddha means “obstructed”. The commentary here, in general agreement with the Niddesa on gabbhakaraṇa at Snp 4.14, explains as giving treatments for the survival of the fetus. | I omit hanujappana as it is absent from the commentary and seems to have just arisen by confusion. ↩
Medicine is right livelihood, but a mendicant should not make a living from it. They may treat fellow mendicants, family members, or those close to the monastery. | Santikamma is the Sanskrit śāntikakarman, a rite for averting evil. | For vassakamma and vossakamma, the commentary has “fertile and infertile men” (vassoti puriso, vossoti paṇḍako), taking “rain” as a metaphor for semen. Such usages do have precedent elsewhere. But in context I take vassa simply as “rain” and vossa as equivalent to Sanskrit vyavasya in the sense of making a settlement for land. | I take paṭimokkho in the sense of “binding”; see pratimuñcate at Rig Veda 4.53.2, 5.81.2; paṭimokka at Ja 524:10, Ja 513:6; paṭimukka at MN 38:41.11 etc., rather than the commentary’s “release” (from the effects of caustic medicines; cf. Tha Ap 25:5.4). ↩
One meaning of dhamma is “principle” in the sense of a natural law as well as a moral value. | Here begins the famous exposition of the sixty-two views. The subtlety of the analysis lies in how, rather than refuting the details of the views, the Buddha traces them all back to their fundamental psychology. ↩
In such contexts, the “self” (attā) is a postulated metaphysical entity rather than a simple psychological sense of personal identity. The nature of this “self” or “soul” was endlessly debated. The Buddha rejected all theories of a “self”, and elsewhere it is said that “identity view” underlies all sixty-two views of the Brahmajāla (SN 41.3:4.13). | The “cosmos” is the loka, otherwise translated as “world”. This sometimes refers to the simple physical realm, sometimes to the world of experience, or else, as here, the vast universe as conceived in ancient Indian thought. ↩
“Immersion” (samādhi) is deep meditative stillness. The word conveys the sense of “gathered”, “collected”, with a secondary sense of “ignited”, “illuminated”. The practice of samādhi (or jhāna, “absorption”) has never been regarded as uniquely Buddhist. However, right meditation begins with right view. Since these meditators begin with wrong view, their samādhi is “wrong” because it merely reinforces their error. ↩
The recollection of past lives is specific, detailed, and confident as it is based on the clear mind of deep immersion. ↩
This is the Upaniṣadic view of the eternal ātman that is the immanent soul of the world or cosmos, loka. Elsewhere in the suttas such theorists assert that the self and the cosmos are identical (SN 24.3:1.3: so attā so loko). ↩
The eternal “self” is contrasted with the ephemeral lives of beings. | The famous word saṁsara is often understood as a “cycle” of rebirths, but the meaning is, rather, to “wander on” or “transmigrate”. | For the phrase sassatisamaṁ (“lasting forever and ever”), compare Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 5.10.1: “He reaches that world free of sorrow and snow, where he lives forever and ever” (sa lokam āgacchaty aśokam ahimam | tasmin vasati śāśvatīḥ samāḥ). ↩
Their meditative experience revealed a process of transient and changing lives, yet from that they infer that there must be an eternal self. ↩
This differs only in the length of time, which is now up to ten eons. A single eon (kappa) lasts longer than it would take to wear away a huge mountain by stroking it with a cloth once a century SN 15.5, while the number of eons is greater than the sands in the Ganges river SN 15.8. The vast time periods envisaged in early Buddhist texts are comparable with those of modern cosmology in physics. ↩
These theorists used a process of logic to arrive at the same conclusion as the meditators. Different groups of ascetic philosophers emphasized contemplation or rational inquiry as the means to the truth. The Buddha acknowledged that both are useful but limited because, as here, they can sometimes lead to mistaken conclusions. ↩
I have my doubts about this phrase. Everywhere else, ito bahiddhā means “outside of the Buddhist community”, not “outside of the cases just considered”. Still, the commentary and the Chinese parallel at T 21 agree on this sense. ↩
A “view” (diṭṭhi) is a relatively fixed framework for understanding the world; a “theory”. The “grounds for views” (diṭṭhiṭṭhānāni) are the bases from which the views are derived. In this case these are the meditative experiences or the logical reasoning. ↩
The word parāmasati means “to take hold” and is often used in the sense “to misapprehend”. ↩
Yathābhūtaṁ is often translated as “as it really is”, while I usually render it simply as “truly”. It often has a technical sense of seeing “how things came to be (bhuta)” as a process of conditionality (SN 12.31:7.1). Such direct vision of the truth is an attribute of the stream-enterer, who has realized the first of the four stages of awakening, in contrast with those on the path who still rely on faith or inference (SN 25.1). Here it refers to the understanding of feelings from a fivefold perspective. Feelings underlie intellectual theories and arguments, which serve to sate cravings and fears. ↩
Long texts are sometimes marked by their “recitation sections” (bhāṇavāra), which was the length that would be recited in one session. ↩
Despite being views of the “self and the cosmos”, the main focus in the next four views is the self. ↩
This is the end of an eon. It might be compared with what the physicists call the “big crunch”. ↩
The human and similar realms are destroyed in the conflagration at the end of the universe, but sentient beings are sustained by the power of their past kamma. | The “realm of streaming radiance” is a Brahmā heaven corresponding to the second jhāna. ↩
“Mind-made” (manomaya) beings are spontaneously born due to past kamma, not by sex. | “Rapture” (pīti) is a joyous emotional response to pleasure, usually a spiritual sense of elevation or uplift in meditation. | “Self-lumious” (sayaṁpabhā) as an external representation of the light of absorption through which they attained their exalted status. In the Rig Veda it is used of the divine light of the sun (1.52.9 svaścandram; 6.64.4 svabhāna) or the lightning (5.87.5 svarociṣa; 1.82.2 svabhāna). ↩
This might be compared with the “big bang” of a cyclic universe. ↩
The realms into which beings are reborn exist interdependently with the beings themselves. The different dimensions correspond with different kinds of kamma. ↩
That is, they pass from a world corresponding to the second jhāna to one corresponding to the first jhāna. ↩
This passage echoes the creation myth in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.4. At 1.4.2, the self-created Divinity feels fearful and alone, and at 1.4.3 and 1.4.17 wishes for a partner. From a Buddhist point of view, this simply shows how even God is trapped by emotional attachments in the cycle of transmigration. ↩
These beings are reborn according to their own kamma, and it is just a coincidence that they appear after the first being made their wish. ↩
His first words ahamasmi brahmā (“I am Brahmā”) are equivalent to aham brahmāsmīti at 1.4.10. See too so’hamasmīti (“I am that”) at Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.4.1, which parallels the Pali eso’hamasmi at MN 28:6.8 etc. ↩
At Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.4.5 the Divinity thinks, “I created all this”. ↩
The other creatures appeared after his wish, not because of it. God confuses correlation with causation, a mistake perpetuated by no small number of his followers. ↩
At Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.4.9–10 the created humans also think first about the Divinity who preceded them, from whose knowledge of self all was created. ↩
Again, their meditation experience is genuine, but what they infer from it goes beyond the facts. ↩
The surviving forms of Indic religion (Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism) typically hold that all creatures ultimately share the same nature and hence can find liberation. Here we see this was not always the case, for these theorists believed that there are inherently different orders of beings in the cosmos. This is not due to their conduct but to the circumstances of their creation. ↩
Delightful as the life of the gods is, even they are supposed to retain a sense of moderation (MN 37:11.2), a lesson forgotten by those “depraved by play” (khiḍḍāpadosikā). | Note that mindfulness (sati) is not held to be a specifically Buddhist virtue. Here it refers to a sense of moral compass and self-awareness, rather than a meditation practice. ↩
Here the difference in beings is attributed not to the circumstances of their creation but to their behavior. ↩
The parallel between manopadosika (“malevolent”) and khiddapadosika (“depraved by play”) suggests a rendering “depraved in mind” for manopadosika. However, elsewhere in the suttas manopadosa consistently means “malicious intent” (MN 56:13.15, MN 93:18.30, DN 26:20.3. Also see mano padūseyya at MN 21:20.1 and MN 28:9.6. Thus the contrast is between greed and hate. | Here, as usual, mano and citta are synonyms for “mind”. ↩
The Buddha critiqued this view at SN 12.61, arguing that the body is, in fact, longer lasting than the mind. ↩
The terms “mind” (citta), “sentience” (mano), and “consciousness” (viññāṇa) are broadly synonymous and in many cases may be substituted for one another. Nonetheless, they each have a particular context in which they predominate. Citta is to be developed, in which respect it pertains to the fourth noble truth, the path. Mano, which I translate here as “sentience” for the sake of disambiguation, is often used in the active sense of the deeds done by the mind, pertaining to the second noble truth, the origin of suffering. Viññāṇa is the key factor in the experince of suffering, pertaining to the first noble truth. ↩
Here we move from views that conceive of both the self and the cosmos together to those that focus only on the physical extent of the cosmos. It is not clear why these are classified as “views of the past”. ↩
Once again the view is inferred from meditation, showing that meditative experience was regarded by some as revealing genuine truths about the physical realm. ↩
The nature of their meditation is assumed to be the nature of the world itself. ↩
In each of the two previous sets of four views, the views themselves were the same, only the means of knowing them differed. Here the views themselves differ. The differences take the form of a tetralemma: A, not-A, both A and not-A, neither A nor not-A. This pattern is commonly found in early Buddhism, as well as Indian thought more generally. The final two items are not meant to be obscure or mysterious, but to express genuine possibilities that cannot be captured by a simple duality. ↩
It is common today to say that one’s own experience is valid for oneself. Clearly that is not how these philosophers thought. ↩
They perceive the universe as spread out like a disc. One might call it a “discworld”. ↩
The text doesn’t specify what this is, but it might include the view that the ideas “finite” and “infinite” are inadequate to describe the universe. Consider a universe expanding at the speed of light. At any point in time it is not infinite, but as it is impossible to reach its end it is not finite either. ↩
Vikkhepa is “flip-flopping”. | Amarā is explained in the commentary as either “undying” or “eel-like”. However, amarā in the sense of “eel” is found only in the commentary to this term so is probably spurious. The feminine form amarā is attested in Sanskrit (eg. Manu 2.148). See also note to SN 4.1:5.2. ↩
This is a basic requirement for any spiritual teacher. ↩
Despite their dullness, they have a genuine sense of conscience and wish to avoid breaking precepts. ↩
A wise teacher avoids making pronouncements about what they do not understand, but these teachers use this as a cover to hide the fact that they do not understand anything. ↩
Here too they show a certain sincerity to avoid giving rise to unwholesome qualities. ↩
They avoid making statements, not from a sense of conscience, but for fear of public shaming. ↩
Also at MN 76:30.2. ↩
Here begins a series of four tetrads that are commonly encountered in the suttas. The first is the belief in an afterlife. ↩
The denial of an afterlife. ↩
This could include a belief that eternal life is offered only to adherents of a certain religion. ↩
This could include the idea that our intrinsic nature is one with the cosmos, and our separation from that infinitude in this life is only a veil of delusion. Thus there is no other world, because all worlds are this world, but it is also not the case that there is nothing after death. ↩
This is beings such as the gods or various ghosts and spirits, which are not born organically. ↩
This denies the existence of such beings. Not everyone in ancient India believed in the various orders of beings. ↩
The belief that beings are both spontaneously born and organically born. Perhaps this denies that such a distinction can be made clearly, because both kinds of birth take place within the same order of beings. ↩
Beings are reborn in other ways. ↩
This is the standard Buddhist view of kamma, shared with some, but not all, of the other Indian religions of the time. ↩
Doing good or bad has no result; moral nihilism. ↩
Sometimes good and bad deeds have results, other times not. ↩
The results of actions are too subtle to be described as good or bad. ↩
An awakened one, whether the Buddha or anyone else, exists after death, for example in an eternal state of Nirvana. ↩
A sage ceases to exist at the time of death. From a Buddhist point of view, this is incoherent since it assumes the underlying attachment to a “self”, which the Realized One has done away with. ↩
For example, their body does not exist but their mind does. ↩
A sage is in a subtle state that cannot be characterized in terms of existence or non-existence. ↩
Adhicca is usually translated in this context as “chance”. The root meaning refers to something that has been “lifted out”, making it a “special exception” or “anomaly”. It isn’t used in Sanskrit for a philosophical theory of chance, for which we find instead yadṛcchā (“arbitrariness”, Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 1.2). The theory proposed here is not that the universe in general operates by chance, but that the happenstance of creation is an “anomaly” in the general scheme of things. At SN 12.24:3.4 and SN 12.25:2.4 we learn that some philosophers who believed in the doctrine of kamma nonetheless argued that suffering arose anomalously. ↩
This is an obscure realm of existence where the operations of consciousness are suspended. ↩
The idea of creation from nothingness is discussed at Rig Veda 10.129, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.2. ↩
First each section is concluded, then the whole first part is concluded. This formalism is a characteristic of oral tradition. It creates a nested hierarchy of content, clarifying the structure and helping to preserve the text in memory. ↩
This section introduces more tetralemmas. Many of the views describe the self in terms of the five aggregates—form, feeling, perception, choices, and consciousness. ↩
Usually a self is conceived of as percipient, so that the subject experiences a continuity. | The term aroga (“free of disease”) is explained by the commentary as “permanent” (nicca), drawing on the root sense of the word, “unbroken”. However, aroga is always used in the sense “free of disease, well, healthy” (eg. MN 97:2.4), and this applies to the Brahmanical tradition as well as the Buddhist. Chandogya Upaniṣad 7.26.2 says that one who sees (the self) does not see death, they have no disease or pain. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.4.12 similarly says that one who sees the self will not suffer in the wake of the body, which Śaṅkāra explains, “Struggling with desires for himself, for his son, for his wife, and so on, he is born and dies again and again, and is diseased when his body is diseased.” ↩
Here the self has a physical dimension but no perception. This might include rebirth as a plant or inanimate object. ↩
Buddhism acknowledges a formless realm of neither perception nor non-perception, which is attained through advanced meditation. ↩
These theorists assert the true existence of a being, thus falling into the fallacy of identity view. For the Buddha, the words “being” or a “self” describe an ongoing process that is conditioned and impermanent, and do not correspond to a genuine metaphysical reality. The distinction between contingent, empirical reality and metaphysical, absolute existence is essential to understanding early Buddhism. ↩
This is the materialist view, which accepts only the coarse physical realm. This view is common today, but was also well known in the Buddha’s time. | The “four principal states” are earth, water, fire, and air, i.e. the states of matter: solid, liquid, plasma, and gas. ↩
The theorist accepts multiple selves. As self theories evolve, they typically move from more coarse materialist theories towards more subtle conceptions. Sometimes the former view is rejected as being false. Sometimes, as here, the former view is seen not as false, but as incomplete and shallow. ↩
“Form” (rūpa) includes not just the physical realm of the elements, but various kinds of subtle form (sukhumarūpa). These include the energetic or mind-made bodies of beings in various dimensions. Rūpa ultimately refers to the appearance or manifestation of physical properties, and can even include the perception of colors, lights, and shapes in the mind. Here the bodies of the divine beings are not very distant from our own, as they still consume solid food. This probably refers to various nature deities or entities that were believed to consume the food offered to them by humans. ↩
Whereas the eternalists believe that their heavenly rebirth will last forever, annihilationists believe that even heaven is limited, and it ends in final annihilation. ↩
This is a more subtle kind of divine rebirth, no longer dependent on physical food. The subtle body still takes on a humanoid form, however, appearing complete in all its limbs. It includes realms produced through the practice of the four jhānas. | Sabbaṅga has the sense “whole and healthy of limb” (Rig Veda 10.161.5c, Atharva Veda 8.2.8c, 11.3.32 ff.). One is reborn with “whole body” (sarvatanu, Atharva Veda 5.6.11c, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 11.1.8.60, 12.8.3.31). | Paccaṅga means “minor limb”, for example the fingers or internal organs. ↩
Such a rebirth has left even the subtle body behind, becoming sheer consciousness. | The word āyatana is from a root meaning “expanse”. It is prominently used in this context, where it refers to a realm or “dimension” of rebirth, and in the analysis of sense experience, where it refers to a “field” of sense experience. ↩
This phrase appears incongruous as formless beings do not have a body. However the Chinese parallel at DA 21 does not mention kāya here, so it is likely to have arisen as an error in transmission where an earlier phrase was mistakenly copied. ↩
The extension of the normal description of this state with the phrase “this is peaceful, this is sublime” is found only here and at AN 10.99:35.1. ↩
These five theories argue for the extinguishment of suffering through the experience of pleasure in the present life. The Buddha taught extinguishment (nibbāna) in this very life, but not “of an existing being” (sato sattassa) or “self” (attā). The Buddha denied that there is such a thing, pointing out that we are a stream of ever-changing conditions, fueled by desire and attachment, and liable to suffering. With the end of craving there is no fuel to sustain the stream, so suffering comes to an end. | It is unclear why these views of the “present life” (diṭṭhadhamma) are classified under views of the future; see MN 102:2.8. ↩
The hedonist. ↩
Here we see the philosophical reasoning that prompts the evolution of more refined conceptions of self. ↩
The “absorptions” (jhāna) are central to Buddhist meditation. The Buddha did say that they can be considered “extinguishment in the present life” in a qualified sense (AN 9.51). As we have seen above, however, if they are undertaken with wrong view, the experience itself will tend to reinforce the attachment to a self. ↩
The theorist has an experience of a deeper state of meditation, so they know that the first jhāna cannot be the ultimate. ↩
Jhānas are subtle states of refined consciousness in which nothing is coarse when compared to ordinary consciousness. Within each state, however, certain mental factors are coarse relative to others. A meditator proceeds through the jhānas with the successive stilling of the relatively coarser factors in each state. ↩
Ābhoga (“partaking”) is unique in the early texts in this sense. The commentary says that after emerging from jhāna, one repeatedly partakes and attends to that bliss (for ābhoga with manasikāra, see Mil 5.1.1:8.3). Compare Patañjalī’s commentary on Yogasūtra 1.17: “vitarka is the gross (sthula) partaking in the mental object, vicāra is subtle”. ↩
It is not clear why the still more subtle states of the formless attainments are not included here. ↩
Even the views of annihilation or extinguishment lead to rebirth, contrary to the beliefs of those who hold them. ↩
Here the Buddha brings to the fore the notion of feelings which has been briefly mentioned throughout the text. Views are not objective descriptions of the world, but responses to our innermost needs. The word paritassita (“anxiety”) conveys both fear and desire, while vipphandita (“evasiveness”) captures how attachment to theorizing serves as an avoidance strategy. ↩
The analysis is introducing more elements of dependent origination. The famous twelve links say that contact is the condition for feeling, which in turn causes craving. ↩
The text repeats all, but I abbreviate for legibility. In the oral tradition, extensive repetitions serve to reinforce the learning and ensure reliability of transmission. More subtly, they also help deepen understanding and contemplation. After reciting the extensive and complex treatment of the sixty-two views, the reciter takes the time to go over them again and again, letting them settle and consolidate. True learning takes time, but the repetitions that are reflective and reassuring in recitation become irksome and ponderous in reading. ↩
Finally the process of dependent origination, which has been foreshadowed little by little, is brought to its ultimate conclusion. The full twelve factors of dependent origination are not mentioned, but the process beginning with ignorance is implied throughout. Wrong view is a form of ignorance, and we have seen several examples of how such wrong views prompt intentional choices that generate consciousness in a new life. ↩
“Contact” (phassa) is the conjunction of the sense stimulus, the sense organ, and the associated consciousness. ↩
They cannot see a way past attachment so long as they theorize in terms of an existing self. ↩
The title is explained with a vivid simile. The Buddha was a master of observation, and constantly drew from everyday experience to illustrate his teachings. The metaphor works on a surface level to illustrate how theorists are trapped. But it also conveys something deeper, a sense of pathos and empathy with the helpless creatures who have no idea why they suffer. ↩
The Buddha is not his body, which is merely the remnant of past kamma. The phrase bhavanetti (“conduit to rebirth”) invokes a channel that leads to a future life. ↩
This metaphor is found at Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.3.36, where it refers to the separation of the self from the body at death. ↩
It is not uncommon to find multiple names for the same sutta, and here we see this practice originated with the Buddha himself. When is referred to by name at SN 41.3:2.4 and Kd 1:1.8.8, however, it is always called the Brahmajāla. It is also referred to by the list of views, numbered as sixty-three at Snp 3.6:42.1 and sixty at SN 8.2:5.1 = Thag 21.1:9.1. ↩
This sutta with its commentary was translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi in his The Fruits of Recluseship. ↩
This monastery belonged to the Buddha’s doctor, Jīvaka, who appears later in the sutta. His story is told in Kd 8, where we learn that he was raised by Prince Abhaya of Magadha, a Jain (MN 58) who was also interested in the teachings of Pūraṇa Kassapa (SN 46.56). MN 55 on eating meat is addressed to him. ↩
The Komudī was an especially celebrated full moon on the last month of the rainy season (kattikā, October/November), when the skies were clear, the lotuses (kumudā) were in bloom, and the moon was in conjunction with the Pleiades, which gave the month its name. ↩
Ajātasattu (“one against whom no foe is born”) was the son of Bimbisāra and heir to the Haryaṅka dynasty of Magadha. In inscription and Jain tradition he is also called Kūṇika. Jain tradition holds that his mother was Cellaṇā daughter of Ceṭaka, a Licchavī ruler from Vesālī. This begs the question as to why Cellaṇā was said to be “of Videha”; perhaps he married a Videhan princess to forge an alliance with the Licchavī’s northern neighbors. In any case, this is more plausible than the Buddhist tradition that his mother was Kosalan. ↩
Pāsādikā here does not mean “tranquil”; it is part of a stock list of terms meaning “beautiful, attractive” (eg. DN 4:13.7). | Lakkhaññā is unique in early Pali. It is probably a synonym in the sense of “possessing remarkable features, striking”, rather than “auspicious”. ↩
The king seeks redemption through his own actions; it is not that the ascetic has any special power to bring peace to his mind. | The sutta is deliberately holding back the reason for the king’s distress. Compare AN 5.50, where the reason for King Muṇḍa seeking solace is stated up front. ↩
Though the king mentioned “ascetics and brahmins”, his advisers only recommend famous teachers of the ascetics (samaṇa). For a shorter survey of their doctrines, see SN 2.30. ↩
A little-known teacher of the inefficacy of action and consequence, Pūraṇa was poorly regarded even by his own students (MN 77:6.19). He is said to have advocated a doctrine of six classes of rebirth (AN 6.57; the same text reverentially mentions Makkhali Gosāla). | Pūraṇa means “filling” (not purāṇa, “ancient”). ↩
The reason for the king’s silence is revealed later. The narrative is full of foreshadowing. ↩
Founder of the Ājīvakas, who became the third largest ascetic movement after Buddhism and Jainism. None of their texts survive, but their teachings can be partially reconstructed from Buddhist and Jain sources. He practiced with Mahāvīra for six years before an acrimonious split, following which he developed his doctrine of hard determinism. Makkhali denotes a kind of ascetic bearing a bamboo staff, so (like the similar appellations nigaṇṭha and samaṇa) it indicates his affiliation. This being so, and noting that Buddhist Sanskrit texts spell his name as gośālīputra etc., the second name (like nātaputta and gotama) might indicate his clan. However, I can find no trace of such a clan, and both Jain and Buddhist tradition, albeit unreliably, say the name arose because he was born in a cowshed. ↩
A materialist, he was an early proponent of the ideas later known as Cārvāka. Kesakambala means “hair-blanket”, which was worn as an ascetic practice (AN 3.137). ↩
Another obscure teacher, he taught a reductive atomism which negated the possibility of action with consequences. His first name is sometimes spelled Kakudha; both words signify a hump or crest. ↩
An agnostic, he is evidently the “wanderer Sañjaya” who was the first teacher of Sāriputta and Moggallāna before they left him to follow the Buddha (Kd 1:23.1.1). His name is obscure. Sanskrit spells it vairaṭṭīputra, with several variations, but always with ṭi. The commentary says he was the “son of Belaṭṭha”; a Belaṭṭha Kaccāna is found selling sugar at Kd 1:26.1.2, supporting the idea that Belaṭṭha was a personal rather than clan name. ↩
The Jain leader Mahāvīra Vardhamāna is known as Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta in Pali texts. He is regarded as the 24th supreme leader of the Jains, although only he and his predecessor Pārśvanātha (not mentioned in the Pali) are historical. Nigaṇṭha means “knotless” (i.e. without attachments). As a term for Jain ascetics it is also found in Jain literature. Nātaputta indicates his clan the Ñātikas (Sanskrit jñātiputra; Prākrit nāyaputta). The Pali tradition has confused ñāti (“family”) with nāṭa (“dancer”). Thus Nigaṇṭha Nātaputta means “the Jain monk of the Ñātika clan”. | Jainism and Buddhism are the only ancient samaṇa movements to survive to the present day. The primary Jain teaching is the practice of non-violence while burning off past kamma by fervent austerities in order to reach omniscient liberation. ↩
His absence of speech signifies his wisdom. The narrative creates a dramatic expectation through his stillness, an exquisitely Buddhist aesthetic choice. ↩
According to the Vinaya, a monastery is normally offered to the “Saṅgha of the four quarters” and becomes their inalienable property. In the suttas this is not so clear, and it seems that Jīvaka still regarded the property as his. In practice there would have been a variety of arrangements, as there are today. ↩
The first appearance of the famous iti pi so formula. It is still recited in praise of the Buddha in Theravada communities. ↩
Indian kings were guarded by armed women inside the harem (Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra 1.21.1) and also while on hunt (Megasthenes’s Indica, via Strabo XV. i. 53–56). This passage may be the earliest evidence for this long-lasting practice. See also DN 23:15.4. ↩
The silence of the Buddha’s assembly is often contrasted with the rowdy gatherings of other ascetics, for example that of Poṭṭhapāda at DN 9:3.1. ↩
This is a double pun. Dīpa means “lamp” or “island, refuge”, while jhāyati means “burning” or “meditating”. So it could be rendered, “those are saviors meditating in the pavilion”. Jhāyati is the verb form of jhāna (“absorption”), which is the central practice of meditation described below. ↩
The Buddha looked like any other monk. But this also reveals Ajātasattu’s spiritual blindness. ↩
He has not yet gained faith, so does not bow. ↩
The Buddha, though fully aware of Ajātasattu’s crimes, responds to him with compassion. ↩
Most translators render sippa as “craft”. However, the basic meaning of “craft” is skill in doing or making things. What is meant here is a paid occupation regardless of whether it involves making things, i.e. “profession”. ↩
These are the professions on Ajātasattu’s mind. The first set of these is defined as branches of the military at AN 7.67. ↩
The question pertains to right livelihood, the fifth factor of the noble eightfold path. ↩
The purpose of right livelihood is to bring happiness in this life and the next. ↩
Ajātasattu’s question only pertains to happiness in this life. He would have seen ascetics living hard and austere lives for the sake of future happiness. ↩
The term “Great King” (mahārāja) identifies Ajātasattu as the hereditary monarch of a large realm, in contrast with the multiple elected “rulers” of the aristocratic republics such as Vajji and Sakya. ↩
As in DN 1:1.4.2, the Buddha begins by asking to hear what others have said. ↩
As with his meeting with the Buddha, Ajātasattu is respectful but not reverential. ↩
This is a denial of the doctrine of kamma. While his doctrine appears to be morally nihilistic, it seems unlikely this was Pūraṇa Kassapa’s full teaching. He may have subscribed to hard determinism, so that we have no choice in what we do. He may also have believed that we should keep moral rules as a social contract, but that this had no effect on the afterlife. | In such contexts, kar- means “punish, inflict” (MN 129:29.2). ↩
The unsatisfying nature of the answers given by these teachers is also emphasized at MN 36:48.4. ↩
Breadfruit is a starchy, fibrous fruit that is, needless to say, very different from a mango. ↩
Kings had a duty to protect all religions in their realm, even those with such extreme views. ↩
The commentary takes uggahita and nikkujjita as synonyms. Elsewhere, however, nikkujjati always means “overturns”. ↩
This denies the principle of causality and the efficacy of action. The vastness and inexplicably of the course of transmigration instils resignation. The fatalistic teachings of the Ājīvikas led to them becoming popular as prognosticators. ↩
The first three phrases, with the Magadhan nominative singular in -e, are unique to this passage. In AN 6.38:1.4 we find the regular nominative form in -o. They are omitted in the otherwise parallel passage at MN 76:13.6. ↩
For the “six classes of rebirth” see AN 6.57. | The next passage lays out the labyrinthine course through which souls must proceed before their final liberation. Many terms are unclear. The commentary is scathing of this text, seeing it as ignorant and plainly wrong. It is likely, however, that the Pali text misconstrues some of the technical terms. Basham has attempted to reconstruct their meaning, relying heavily on the Jain account in the Bhagavatī Sūtra (History and Doctrines of the Ājīvakas, p. 240 ff). My translation, drawing from Basham, assumes that the underlying scheme was coherent. For the commentarial account, see Bodhi. ↩
The “wombs” are probably species through which one transmigrates. | The many kinds of deeds classified by Ājīvakas have only contingent effect, as the ultimate course of transmigration is fixed. It seems the “half deeds” are performed by mind alone. | The 62 “paths of practice” perhaps echo the 62 wrong views of DN 1, indicating the kammic destinies of such practices. | The set of “4,900” (i.e. 7 × 700) refers to the number of times one will be reborn in each of these states. | Indriya perhaps means “lordship”, i.e. rulership in heaven or earth. | Rajodhātu perhaps relates to the Vedic sense of rajo as “dusky skies”, the cloudy regions of the lower atmosphere through which gods travel on their way from heaven. These are counted as three, six, or many. | The next set of sevens partially overlaps with a list in the Bhagavatī Sūtra, and appears to list kinds of rebirth experienced near the end of transmigration. | The Pali commentary says “non-percipient embryos” are plants, but it could be the “non-percipient beings”. | “Knotless embryos” (nigaṇṭhigabbha) perhaps refers to those born free of attachments in certain high heavens. | Pali mānusa (“human”) should probably be mānasa (“mental”), a name for an Ājīvaka heaven. But māṇasa and sara (“streams”) are also Ājīvaka terms for inconceivably long stretches of time in saṁsara. | Pavuṭā probably refers to the “castoff incarnations” (paüṭṭaparihāra), seven sages in whom, according to the Bhagavatī Sūtra, Gosāla had been born before his last life. | Papāta is “cliff”, here probably meaning “downfall” into a lower realm. | The significance of “dreams” here is unclear; perhaps they are portents. ↩
To “force unripened deeds to bear their fruit” by means of “fervent austerity” (tapas) is a Jain practice, whereas to “eliminate old deeds by experiencing their results little by little” is distinguished from the Jain view at AN 3.74. ↩
“Purification through transmigration” is saṁsārasuddhi. ↩
The denial of “mother and father” is usually interpreted as the denial of moral duty towards one’s parents. However, I think it is a doctrine of conception which denies that a child is created by the mother and father. Rather, the child is produced by the four elements, with parents as mere instigators and incubators. ↩
This is a materialist analysis of the person. | The word kāya (“substance”) is central to Jainism. Ācārāṅgasūtra 8.1.11 speaks of the “substances” of earth, water, fire, and air as being imbued with life so one should avoid damaging them. | The Buddha’s use of mahābhūtā (“principal states”) responds to Yājñavalkya’s core teaching at Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.12, where the several “states” or “real entities” (bhūtā)—namely the diverse manifestations of creation—arise from and dissolve into the “principal state” (mahābhūta) of the Self, singular and infinite. For the Buddha, the “principal states” are themselves plural, as there is no underlying singular reality. Later Sanskrit literature lists the “five states” (pañcabhūta) as earth, water, fire, air, and space. ↩
This is a reductive atomism. It argues that since all things are made of the seven fundamental substances (kāya), higher-order entities have no significance. ↩
Unlike the materialism of Ajita Kesakambala, one of the basic substances is the soul. He uses jīva, the same term used by the Jains, rather than attā as preferred by the brahmins. Likewise, the Jains held a similar doctrine of six uncreated and eternal “substances” (kāya or dravya): soul, the media for motion and rest, matter, space, and time. ↩
Compare AN 8.16:1.3. ↩
While this is a genuine Jain teaching, it has not been identified as a “fourfold restraint”. DN 25:16.3 preserves another “fourfold restraint” that is closer to that found in Jainism. At MN 12:44.1 the Buddha says he once practiced a “four-factored spiritual path” that consisted of Jain-like austerities. ↩
At Isibhāsiyāiṁ 29.19, Vardhamāna (Mahāvīra) teaches that a sage is savva-vārīhiṁ vārie, “restrained in all restraints”, which clearly parallels our current passage. In that passage, “restraint” refers to stopping the influx of defilements through the five senses, neither delighting in the pleasant nor loathing the unpleasant. Similarly we find vāriya-savva-vāri in the commentary to Sūyagaḍa 1.6.28. | Read vāri as future passive participle (cf. Sanskrit vārya). | Dhuta in the sense “shaken off (evil by means of ascetic practices)” is a characteristic Jain term. | For sabbavāriphuṭo compare ophuṭo at MN 99:15.5. In both cases phuṭ appears in a string of terms from the root var, and is possibly a corrupted form, or at least has the same meaning. ↩
This places him among the “endless flip-floppers” of DN 1:2.23.1. However, we do not know on which of the four grounds he justified his evasiveness. ↩
The Buddha answers directly, with confidence. This whole passage is a masterclass in effective dialogue. ↩
He engages Ajātasattu rather than lecturing him. ↩
Even a servant believed in the doctrine of kamma. ↩
There is no question of the divinity of kings. ↩
The doctrine of kamma leads to living a better life, not stewing in resentment. ↩
Kd 1:47.1.1 penalizes the ordination of bondservants or slaves, despite the fact that Ajātasattu’s father, Bimbisāra, had ordered that no action was to be taken against any bondservant who ordained under the Buddha. ↩
Here the Buddha foreshadows the larger themes detailed later. ↩
Even under a king so compromised as Ajātasattu, a runaway slave who has ordained is rewarded not punished. ↩
In contrast with the former teachers, the Buddha gives a clear answer in terms that Ajātasattu would understand. ↩
The Buddha establishes common ground with the king before venturing into deeper waters. ↩
By starting with a very basic and obvious fruit, the Buddha stimulates Ajātasattu to seek a deeper answer. ↩
Karakārako rāsivaḍḍhako is a unique phrase. For karakāraka, compare MN 57:2.3, where a naked ascetic “does a hard thing”. Rāsi means “heap” (of grain or wealth according to the commentary). ↩
The bonded servant had no wealth or family to renounce, but the worker does. ↩
Having established the king’s genuine interest and understanding, the Buddha prepares him for the long discourse to follow. ↩
This is the start of the teaching on the Gradual Training, encompassing ethics (sīla), meditation (samādhi), and wisdom (paññā). Only the ethics portion appeared in the Brahmajālasutta, while all three are restated in all the remaining suttas of this chapter, although in truncated form. | It is exceedingly rare for a Buddha to appear. ↩
The Buddha realizes the truth by his own understanding, not through divine intervention or other metaphysical means. ↩
It is good when first heard, when practicing, and when one has realized the fruits. ↩
The word “householder” (gahapati) informally refers to any lay person, but more specifically indicates someone who owns a house, i.e. a person of standing. The renunciate life is not just for slaves or workers wishing to escape their station. ↩
This serves as a table of contents for the teachings to come. | Nowadays, the “monastic code” (pātimokkha) means the list of rules for monks and nuns found in the Vinayapiṭaka. In the early texts, however, it has three main meanings. Sometimes it does refer to the list of rules, as at AN 10.36:1.6. Here it refers to the code of conduct that follows, which is a non-legalistic set of guidelines that preceded the Vinayapiṭaka. At DN 14:3.28.1 it refers to the verses summarizing monastic conduct known as the “Ovāda Pātimokkha”. ↩
While the precept includes any living creature, if a monastic murders a human being they are immediately and permanently expelled. ↩
To steal anything of substantial value is an expulsion offence. ↩
Buddhist monastics are forbidden from any form of sexual activity. To engage in penetrative intercourse is an expulsion offence. ↩
While any form of lying is forbidden, if a monastic falsely claims states of enlightenment or deep meditation they are expelled. ↩
To avoid sleeping too much. ↩
This is the first step in the Buddha’s answer to Ajātasattu. This is the sense of happiness and well-being that you have when you know you have done nothing wrong for which anyone might blame you. It is the psychological foundation for meditation. ↩
Here begins the series of practices that build on moral fundamentals to lay the groundwork for meditation. ↩
It is not that one cannot see things, but that, mindful of its effect, one avoids unnecessary stimulation. | “Covetousness and bitterness” (abhijjhā domanassā) are the strong forms of desire and aversion caused by lack of restraint. ↩
Their happiness deepens, as they see that not only their actions but also their mind is becoming free of anything unwholesome. ↩
Situational awareness is a psychological term popularized in the 1990s. It has to do with the perception of environmental phenomena and the comprehension of their meaning, which is very close to the sense of the Pali term sampajañña. ↩
These acts describe the daily life of a mendicant: going into the village for alms, at which time there are many distracting sights. Then they return, eat their meal, and spend their day in meditation. ↩
A Buddhist monk has three robes: a lower robe (sabong or sarong), an upper robe, and an outer cloak. ↩
These are the prerequisite conditions for embarking on deep meditation. ↩
For parimukha (“in their presence”) we find pratimukha in Sanskrit, which can mean “presence” or the reflection of the face. Late canonical Pali explains parimukha as “the tip of the nose or the reflection of the face (mukhanimitta)”. Parimukha in Sanskrit is rare, but it appears in Pāṇini 4.4.29, which the commentary illustrates with the example of a servant “in the presence” of their master (cp. SN 47.8). So it seems the sense is “before the face” or more generally “in the presence”. | To “establish mindfulness” (satiṁ upaṭṭhapetvā) is literally to “do satipaṭṭhāna”. ↩
Covetousness (abhijjha) has been curbed by sense restraint, and now is fully abandoned. ↩
Likewise ill will (byāpādapadosa), which was called domanassa in the formula for sense restraint. ↩
“Mindfulness and situational awareness” has a prominent role in abandoning dullness. ↩
Restlessness hankers for the future and is countered by contentment. Remorse digs up the past and is countered by ethical purity. ↩
The meditator set out on their path after gaining faith in the Buddha. ↩
The happiness of meditation is hard to understand without practicing, so the Buddha gives a series of five similes to illustrate in terms Ajātasattu would understand. ↩
The five hindrances remain a pillar of meditation teaching. The root sense means to “obstruct” but also to “obscure, darken, veil”. ↩
Each simile illustrates not the happiness of acquisition, but of letting go. ↩
The Buddha did not emphasize technical details of technique, but the emotional wholeness and joy that leads to deep meditation. ↩
Jhāna is a state of “elevated consciousness” (adhicitta), so all the terms have an elevated sense. | The plural form indicates that “sensual pleasures” includes sense experience, which the meditator can turn away from since they no longer have any desire for it. | The “unskillful qualities” are the five hindrances. | The “rapture and bliss born of seclusion” is the happiness of abandoning the hindrances and freedom from sense impingement. | “Placing the mind and keeping it connected” (vitakka, vicāra) uses terms that mean “thought” in coarse consciousness, but which in “elevated consciousness” refer to the subtle function of applying the mind to the meditation. ↩
As a meditator proceeds, their subjective experience of the “body” evolves from tactile sense impressions (phoṭṭhabba), to the interior mental experience of bliss and light (manomayakāya), to the direct personal realization of highest truth (MN 70:23.2: kāyena ceva paramasaccaṁ sacchikaroti). ↩
The kneading is the “placing the mind and keeping it connected”, the water is bliss, while the lack of leaking speaks to the contained interiority of the experience. | Here as elsewhere, water is used as a metaphor for the mind in absorption. Compare Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.3.32: “He becomes like water, one, the seer without duality; this is the world of Brahmā.” ↩
The Buddha has answered Ajātasattu’s question. But he is far from finished. ↩
Each jhāna begins as the least refined aspect of the previous jhāna ends. This is not consciously directed, but describes the natural process of settling. The meditator is now fully confident and no longer needs to apply their mind: it is simply still and fully unified. ↩
The simile emphasizes the water as bliss, while the lack of inflow expresses containment and unification. ↩
The water welling up is the rapture, which is the uplifting emotional response to the experience of bliss. ↩
The emotional response to bliss matures from the subtle thrill of rapture to the poise of equanimity. Mindfulness is present in all states of deep meditation, but with equanimity it becomes prominent. ↩
The meditator is utterly immersed in stillness and bliss. ↩
The emotional poise of equanimity leads to the feeling of pleasure settling into the more subtle neutral feeling. Pain and sadness have been abandoned long before, but are emphasized here as they are subtle counterpart of pleasure. ↩
The equanimity of the fourth jhāna is not dullness and indifference, but a brilliant and radiant awareness. ↩
The white cloth is the purity and brightness of equanimity. The commentary explains this as a person who has just got out of a bath and sits perfectly dry and content. ↩
Of the eight kinds of knowledge and vision, only the last is considered indispensable. The fourth jhāna is the ideal basis for developing higher knowledges, although elsewhere the canon shows that even the first jhāna can be a basis for liberating insight. Without jhāna, however, the eightfold path is incomplete and liberating insight is impossible. | The verb abhininnāmeti (“extend”) indicates that the meditator comes out of full immersion like a tortoise sticking out its limbs (SN 35.240:1.7). ↩
This is the “coarse” (olārika) body. Note that its generation by mother and father contradicts the doctrine of Ajita Kesakambala. The obvious impermanence of the body invites the tempting but fallacious notion that the mind or soul is permanent, which is dispelled by deeper insight. ↩
This distinction should not be mistaken for mind-body dualism. These are not fundamental substances but experiences of a meditator. ↩
Strung gems were loved in India from the time in the Harappan civilization, millennia before the Buddha. ↩
This form of “knowledge and vision” is rarely mentioned, being found only here, at DN 10:2.21.3, and at MN 77:29.2. The next realization, the “mind-made body” is also only found in these three suttas. | The Mahāsaṅgīti edition adds the spurious title vipassanāñāṇa (“insight knowledge”) to this section. This term does not appear anywhere in the Pali canon. ↩
The “mind-made body” is the interior mental representation of the physical body. In ordinary consciousness it is proprioception, which here is enhanced by the power of meditation. The higher powers in Buddhism are regarded as extensions and evolutions of aspects of ordinary experience, not as metaphysical realities separate from the world of mundane experience. ↩
This is similar to the experience of the “astral body” described by modern spiritualists. Note that it is still “physical” (rūpī) even though it is mind-made. This is the subtle (sukhuma) body, which is an energetic experience of physical properties by the mind. ↩
Here begin the “six direct knowledges” (chaḷabhiññā), which are found commonly throughout the early texts. | “Psychic powers” (iddhi) were much cultivated in the Buddha’s day, but the means to acquire them varied: devotion to a god, brutal penances, or magic rituals. The Buddha taught that the mind developed in samādhi was capable of things that are normally incomprehensible. ↩
Only a few of these are attested as events in the early texts. The most common is the ability to “materialize and dematerialize”, exhibited by the Buddha (AN 8.30:2.1), some disciples (MN 37:6.1), and deities (MN 67:8.1). The Pali is āvibhāvaṁ tirobhāvaṁ, literally “manifest state, hidden state”. Also found in Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.26.1. ↩
These similes hark back to the descriptions of the purified mind as pliable and workable. ↩
“Clairaudience” is a literal rendition of dibbasota. The root sense of dibba is to “shine” like the bright sky or a divine being. The senses of clarity and divinity are both present. ↩
The Buddha occasionally used this ability for teaching, as at MN 75:6.1. ↩
The simile emphasizes the clarity and distinctness of the sounds. Compare AN 4.114: bheripaṇavasaṅkhatiṇavaninnādasaddānaṁ. ↩
Note that the Indic idiom is not the “reading” of minds, which suggests hearing the words spoken in inner dialogue. While this is exhibited by the Buddha (eg. AN 8.30:2.1), the main emphasis is on the comprehension of the overall state of mind. ↩
Again the simile emphasizes how clear and direct the experience is. Without deep meditation, we have some intuitive sense for the minds of others, but it is far from clear. ↩
Here begins the “three knowledges” (tevijjā), a subset of the six direct knowledges. The first two of these play an important role in deepening understanding of the nature of suffering in saṁsāra. While they are not necessary for those whose wisdom is keen, they are helpful. ↩
Empowered by the fourth jhāna, memory breaks through the veil of birth and death, revealing the vast expanse of time and dispelling the illusion that there is any place of eternal rest or sanctuary in the cycle of transmigration. The knowledge of these events is not hazy or murky, but clear and precise, illuminated by the brilliance of purified consciousness. ↩
The word for “past life” is pubbenivāsa, literally “former home”, and the imagery of houses is found in the second of the three knowledges as well. Recollection of past lives is as fresh and clear as the memory of a recent journey. ↩
Here knowledge extends to the rebirths of others as well as oneself. Even more significant, it brings in the understanding of cause and effect; why rebirth happens the way it does. Such knowledge, however, is not infallible, as the Buddha warns in DN 1:2.5.3 and MN 136. The experience is one thing; the inferences drawn from it are another. One should draw conclusions only tentatively, after long experience. | “Clairvoyance” renders dibbacakkhu (“celestial eye”), for which see Chāndogya Upaniṣad 8.12.5, “the mind is (the self’s) celestial eye” (mano’sya daivaṁ cakṣuḥ). ↩
This simile is also found at DN 10:2.33.1. The Majjhima employs a slightly different simile (MN 39:20.3, MN 77:35.2, MN 130:2.1). | Pāsāda is often translated as “palace” or “mansion”, but in early Pali it meant a “stilt longhouse”. As here, it is an elevated place from which one can observe the street below. ↩
This is the experience of awakening that is the true goal of the Buddhist path. The defilements—properties of the mind that create suffering—have been curbed by the practice of ethics and suppressed by the power of jhāna. Here they are eliminated forever. ↩
These are the four noble truths, which form the main content of the Buddha’s first sermon. They are the overarching principle into which all other teachings fall. The initial realization of the four noble truths indicates the first stage of awakening, stream-entry. ↩
The application of the four noble truths to defilements indicates that this is the final stage of awakening, perfection (or “arahantship”, arahatta). | Many translators use “defilement” to render kilesa, but since kilesa appears only rarely in the early texts, I use “defilement” for āsava. Both terms refer to a stain, corruption, or pollution in the mind. ↩
Bhavāsava is the defilement that craves to continue life in a new birth. ↩
This is a reflective awareness of the fact of awakening. The meditator reviews their mind and sees that it is free from all forces that lead to suffering. ↩
This is a standard declaration of full awakening in the suttas, said both of the Buddha and of any arahant (“perfected one”). Each of the four phrases illustrates a cardinal principle of awakening. (1) Further transmigration through rebirths has come to an end due to the exhaustion (khīṇa) of that which propels rebirth, namely deeds motivated by craving. (2) The eightfold path has been developed fully in all respects. (3) All functions relating to the four noble truths have been completed, namely: understanding suffering, letting go craving, witnessing extinguishment, and developing the path. (4) Extinguishment is final, with no falling back to this or any other state of existence. | For “state of existence” (literally “thusness”, itthatta), see DN 15:21.4. ↩
Once again the pool of water represents the mind, but now the meditator is not immersed in the experience, but looks back and reviews it objectively. ↩
The Buddha roars his lion’s roar. His teaching leads not just to some benefits, but to the highest benefits that are possible. ↩
The king’s distress has been alleviated by the Buddha’s uplifting words. ↩
This is the standard form in which lay people went for refuge. It is not something that the Buddha required, but a spontaneous act of inspiration. Conventionally, it indicates that someone is a “Buddhist”. Today Theravadins recite the going for refuge thrice, but in the early texts this is found only as the ordination for novices (Kd 1:12.4.1). ↩
The king, unprompted, makes an astonishing confession. To say it in such a public forum, before a spiritual community and his own retinue, displays courage and integrity. ↩
The Buddha hears his confession, but it is Ajātasattu’s responsibility to do better. ↩
Even before such a dangerous and emotionally volatile king, the Buddha does not mince words. The Buddha makes a point to acknowledge what the king had done, without dismissing it and thereby discounting the inner work he had achieved to get to this point. ↩
Confession does not erase the past, but it does set a better course for the future. This confession is similar to that done by monastics when they have broken Vinaya rules. ↩
These terms are commonly used in the context of keeping precepts (eg. AN 3.50:4.1). The Buddha is supportive when he speaks with Ajātasattu, but does not hide the severity of his crime. ↩
The killing of one’s father is one of five “incurable” acts that doom a person to hell in the next life (AN 5.129:1.3). If he had not done so, he would have become a stream-enterer. ↩
This sutta marks a turning point where the Buddha’s teachings were embraced by the leading brahmin Pokkharasāti. The suttas that follow reverberate with the consequences of this encounter. He was one of the most influential brahmins of his time, although the Buddha elsewhere denied that he had any special knowledge (MN 99:15.5). Brahmanical texts confirm that he was a real person, an influential teacher around the time of the Buddha known as Pauṣkarasādi in Sanskrit. He is cited on grammar by Kātyāyana and Patañjali, and in the Taittirīya-prātiśākhya; on allowable food and theft in the Āpastamba Dharmasūtra; and on Vedic ritual in the Śāṅkhāyana-Āraṇyaka. His name identifies him as descended from a man of Puṣkarāvati, capital of Gandhāra. MN 99:10.3 clarifies that he is of the Upamañña lineage. ↩
Icchānaṅgala was a center east of Sāvatthī for the innovative brahmins of the Kosala region. ↩
Ukkaṭṭhā is mentioned only rarely, and always in the context of extraordinary teachings and events that emphasize the cosmic grandeur of the Buddha against the brahmins (DN 14:3.29.1, MN 1:1.2, MN 49:2.1). Sanskrit sources call it a droṇamukha, a leading market town accessible by land and water (Divyāvadāna 319.010). At MN 99:10.3 Pokkharasāti is said to be “of the Subhaga Forest”. | “Royal park” is rājadāya (cp. migadāya, “deer park”). | A brahmadeyya is a gift of land by a king to a brahmin, which was an outstanding feature of Indian feudalism. ↩
Contrast with his rejection of this possibility at MN 99:10.7. ↩
Pokkharasāti does not care whether the Buddha identified as a follower of the Vedas. The wise do not concern themselves with religious identity. ↩
“Vocabularies” is nighaṇḍu (Sanskrit nighaṇṭu), known from the Nirukta of Yāska. | Keṭubha lacks an obvious Sanskrit form. The commentary explains, “The study of proper and improper actions for the assistance of poets.” This suggests a connection with ritual performance, which is the special area of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. There we often find phrases such as kṛtam bhavati, “it is performed”, of which keṭubha is perhaps a contraction. | Akkhara (literally “syllable”) is explained by the commentary as sikkhā (Sanskrit śikṣā), which is the study of pronunciation. This can be traced back to Pāṇinī, and is sometimes referred to as akṣara-samāmnāya, “collation of syllables”. | Pabheda is found in Buddhist Sanskrit texts as padaprabheda, “classification of words”, such as into the different parts of speech. The commentary identifies it with nirutti. | Padaka is one skilled in the padapāṭha recitation of Vedas, which separates the individual words. | For “testaments” (itihāsa) see itihāsa-purāṇa in Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 11.5.6.8, explained by the commentator there as legends of creation and olden times (see also Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.1.4). | For “cosmology” (lokāyata), see note on DN 1:1.25.2. | For “authorized as a master” (anuññātapaṭiññāta) see MN 98:7.1 and Snp 3.9:6.1. | For “scriptural heritage of the three Vedas” (tevijjake pāvacane) see MN 95:12.2. ↩
Almost the same words are spoken to the bodhisatta by his first teachers, Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta (MN 36:14.9). This connects Pokkharasāti with Āḷāra Kālāma and Uddaka Rāmaputta, and suggests that the anointing of a talented student in this way was a regular practice of wise brahmins. ↩
Following PTS and BJT editions of the parallel phrase at MN 91:4.9, which read tayā for tathā. ↩
The thirty-two marks are detailed in DN 14:1.32.7, DN 30:1.2.4, and MN 91:9.1. In Buddhist texts they are presented as the fulfillment of Brahmanical prophecy, but they are not found in any Brahmanical texts of the Buddha’s time. However, later astrological texts such as the Gārgīyajyotiṣa (1st century BCE?) and Bṛhatsaṁhitā (6th century CE?) contain references to many of these marks, albeit in a different context, so it seems likely the Buddhist texts are drawing on now-lost Brahmanical scriptures. | The notion of a two-fold course for a great hero—worldly success or spiritual—can be traced back as far as the epic of Gilgamesh. ↩
The idea of the wheel-turning monarch draws from the Vedic horse sacrifice, which establishes the authority of a king from sea to sea. The Buddhist telling is divested of all coarse and violent elements. The wheeled chariot gave military supremacy to the ancient Indo-Europeans, allowing them to spread from their ancient homeland north of the Black Sea. In Buddhism, the wheel, which also has solar connotations, symbolizes unstoppable power. For a legendary account of such a king, see the Mahāsudassanasutta (DN 17). Rig Veda 8.63.8 speaks of Indra as the “wheel turner”. ↩
The sacrificial horse on its journey across the land is protected by a hundred sons. ↩
The relation between Pokkharasāti and Ambaṭṭha is similar to that between the Buddha and his followers. They share the same understanding, but the Buddha is distinguished as the teacher. ↩
In this sutta, māṇava is always applied to Ambaṭṭha and māṇavaka to the rest. It seems that the diminutive māṇavaka means “young student”. | There are said to be sambahula students, a word that is often translated as “many”. But later we see that they all fit inside the Buddha’s hut, so the sense must be “several”. ↩
This is the practice of walking meditation. Meditators pace mindfully up and down a smooth path, keeping attention on their body. ↩
Bho is a respectful term of address used by brahmins. The forms of address used in Pali are complex, and it is rarely possible to map them to modern English with any precision. ↩
The parallel passage at MN 35:7.4 has a different phrase here. ↩
The term kulaputta (literally, “son of a family”) typically refers to someone from a well-to-do or respected family, a “gentleman”. It is a gendered term which assumes the social status of men. ↩
The introduction has told us that the Buddha was staying in a forest at this time. Nonetheless, this was not a wilderness, but was developed enough to have huts with latched doors. ↩
The Buddha draws attention to Ambaṭṭha’s rude behavior. Throughout the suttas, the manner in which people greet the Buddha gives us a hint as to their attitudes and qualities. ↩
Note the racial connotations of using kaṇha (“black”) as a slur. The brahmin caste hailed from the (relatively) fair-skinned Indo-Europeans who entered India from the north. Vedic texts indicate that there was Brahmanical prejudice against dark-skinned natives, but also that they were assimilated and raised to positions of honor. ↩
Ambaṭṭha is “qualified” (vusita) in scripture, but far from “qualified” in spiritual development. Vusita is normally an expression of arahantship: vusitaṁ brahmacariyaṁ (“the spiritual journey has been completed”). ↩
The PTS reading rabhasa means “violent, aggressive”. But the commentary reads bhassa, explained as “speaking much”. Moreover, the story below does not demonstrate violence. ↩
Ambaṭṭha despises the Sakyans as “primitives” (ibbha) who do not respect Vedic culture. The word ibbha (“primitive”) stems from a non-Aryan word for “elephant” (ibha). It originally referred to the native inhabitants who tamed elephants; see eg. Chāndogya Upaniṣad 1.10. At Snp 3.1:18.4 the Buddha describes his own people as “natives” (niketino), those who have a long connection with the land. ↩
The Buddha’s use of āyasmā is noteworthy here: he is taking a conciliatory tone. ↩
The Ambaṭṭhas were a people in the north-west of greater India (eg. Mahābhārata 7.4.5c, 7.132.23a). They were evidently the Abastanians whose rout at the hands of Alexander is recorded by Arrian (The Anabasis of Alexander, chapter 15). They were probably located near what is today the northern Sindh province in Pakistan. Later texts such as Manusmṛti 1.8 say that an ambaṣṭha is born of a brahmin father and vaiśya mother. ↩
Kaṇhāyana means “descendant of the dark one (kaṇha)”. Since no clan of that name is attested it is perhaps a confusion with the Kāṇvāyanas of Rig Veda 8.55.4. But the confusion, if it is such, has an old history, for Rig Veda 1.117.8 refers to “Dark Kaṇva” (Śyāva Kaṇva). ↩
Normally I take ayyaputta as a simple honorific, but here the sense is not that the Sakyans were the masters, but were descended from them. ↩
Okkāka (Sanskrit Ikṣvāku) was the legendary son of the first man, Manu, and the founder of the solar dynasty of Kosala. It is a Munda name, which may be associated with the introduction of cane sugar (ikṣuḥ) from eastern Asia, a theory endorsed by the 9th century Jain scholar Jinasena (Natubhai Shah, Jainism, the World of Conquerors, 2004, vol. 1, pg. 15). ↩
The words for “teak” (sāka) and “sal” (sāla) have evidently been confused from the Munda root sarja (both appear at MN 93:11.6). But teak does not grow so far north, so the sal must be meant here. To maintain the pun I use sakhua, which is an alternate Hindi name for the sal tree. This story suggests that when they settled in their northern home in the shadow of the Himalayas, harvesting sal was a primary source of wealth. Compare Gilgamesh, for whom Lebanese cedar was the foundation of his royal capital. ↩
“Own” is saka, the second pun on the Sakyan name. Incest is, of course, common among royal families for exactly the reason stated here. Marriage between cousins persisted even in the Buddha’s day. | For sambheda in the sense of “dissolving, leaking”, see AN 2.9:1.5 = DN 26:20.2, AN 5.103:6.4, AN 10.45:4.1. ↩
This draws on both the puns above. But the commentary also explains sakya here as “capable” (samatthā, paṭibalā) in reference to their survival against all odds, thus connecting Sakya with sakka (“able”). ↩
Vedic dāsa (“slave, bondservant”) refers to the “dark-wombed” (kṛṣṇayoni, Rig Veda 2.20.7) foes of the Aryan peoples (Rig Veda 10.22.8) who upon defeat were enslaved (Rig Veda 10.62.10). The name disā therefore probably means “foe” (Sanskrit dviṣa). ↩
The passage wavers between treating kaṇha (Sanskrit kṛṣṇa, i.e. Krishna) as a personal name, a description, and a word for a goblin. I try to capture this ambiguity by using variations of “black boy”. | The passage does not say who the father was. According to Arthaśāstra 3.13, a female slave is protected against sexual harassment by the master, but should she have a child by him, both mother and child are to be set free, and if the sex was not consensual, he must pay her a fine. ↩
Like Siddhattha, he spoke as soon as he was born. The boy was no common child, but had a larger destiny. His words are a dramatic contrast with Siddhattha’s words of confident proclamation, and his birth which was devoid of filth or impurity. ↩
Lineage was important to brahmins, but the Brāhmaṇa and Upaniṣad literature shows that, as here, many were more concerned with conduct and wisdom than with birth. ↩
The threat of losing one’s head is found at eg. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.3.24, or at 3.9.26 when it actually did fall off. I cannot trace the detail of heads being split in seven to any early Sanskrit texts, but it is found in later texts such as Rāmāyaṇa 7.26.44c and Mahābhārata 14.7.2c. ↩
Vajirapāṇī (“lightning-bolt in hand”) appears here and in the parallel passage at MN 35:14.1. The synonymous Vajrahasta (Pali vajirahattha, DN 20:12.1) is a frequent epithet of Indra in the Vedas (eg. Rig Veda 1.173.10a: indro vajrahastaḥ), confirming the commentary’s identification with Sakka. Much later, Mahayana texts adopted the name for a fierce Bodhisattva who was protector of the Dhamma. ↩
The contemptuous senses of “black boy” represent the conservative brahmanical view, presented not as endorsement, but as a rhetorical means to undermine Ambaṭṭha’s pride. The Buddha now shows how a man of a supposedly low birth rose to great spiritual eminence. ↩
“Divine Spell” is brahmamanta, a term also found in the commentary to the Morajātaka (Ja 159), where it refers to a verse which, in Vedic style, worships the sun as the “one king”. In modern Hinduism it is used for a verse of praise for Brahmā. | Kaṇha is one of several “dark hermits” who accrued mighty and lineage-busting powers in the south. ↩
The Hindu deity Krishna won the hand of his seventh wife Lakṣmaṇā, also known as Madrī, at an archery contest. This detail is too precise to be a coincidence, and proves there must be some shared basis between the two figures. ↩
This draws on the ancient belief that the king’s acts affect the natural order of things. ↩
This sequence seems to be an etiological myth explaining certain rites of kingship and succession, providing an origin story for this prayer. ↩
National prosperity is ensured through symbolic regicide. This example was omitted from Frazer’s accounts of such substitute sacrifices. Here there is a double substitution: the prince substitutes for the king, then a threat substitutes for the act of killing. This suggests that, even from the legendary perspective of this story within a story, the rite was an ancient one that had evolved through multiple stages. ↩
The use of the bare personal name for the king is unusual. ↩
“Divine punishment” is brahmadaṇḍa, harking back to the Divine Spell (brahmamantra). The Buddha had his own version of the brahmadaṇḍa, which was to give the silent treatment (DN 16:6.4.1). ↩
In MN 56:19.2 āvaṭa/anāvaṭa is used in reference to Upāli “shutting his gate” against the Jains and opening it for the Buddhists. In DN 17:1.23.2 anāvaṭa means “open to the public”. ↩
Sanaṅkumāra (“Everyoung”) became a Hindu deity closely associated with the worship of Krishna. He first appears in the seventh chapter of the Chāndogya Upaniṣad. There he teaches the learned Nārada what lies beyond the mere surface of words (nāma) by giving a progressive meditation that ultimately reveals the highest Self. Thus he is a perfect foil for Ambaṭṭha. The occasion he spoke this verse is recorded at SN 6.11, and it is repeated several times in the suttas. ↩
To his credit, after that thorough humiliation, Ambaṭṭha is ready to learn. ↩
Reading anuttarāya vijjācaraṇasampadāya as locative, in agreement with yattha below. ↩
The Buddha emphasizes that his “knowledge and conduct” rejects the notion of birth that is so essential to Brahmanism. ↩
The Pali text abbreviates the gradual training in this sutta and those that follow. The reader is expected to understand it as in DN 2. Note, however, that the suttas sometimes have small differences in their perspective that make reconstruction tricky. ↩
In later Theravada, apāyamukha refers to deeds that cause rebirth in lower realms. However this does not apply in the early texts; the acts described here are not evil. Rather, it means an “opening” (mukha) for “departure” (apāya). ↩
A common practice of pre-Buddhist hermits, who avoided the slightest harm to plants. Buddhist mendicants may also not harm plants, but they rely on alms and only eat fallen fruit in case of famine. ↩
The Buddha inverts Ambaṭṭha’s earlier claim that the other three castes only succeed in serving brahmins (DN 3:1.14.7). ↩
They are less strict than the previous ascetics, for they dig the soil and harm the plants. ↩
“Tradition” renders sācariyaka, “that which stems from one’s own teacher”. ↩
This practice is not elsewhere attested in early Pali. ↩
Ugga is a rare word whose root sense is “mighty”, but here it must be a noun. Given that it is a military man who consults with the king, I translate as “warrior-chief”. | Rājañña is used occasionally in the suttas; it is an archaic synonym for khattiya. ↩
Taking this and the next as one sentence, despite the punctuation of the Mahāsaṅgīti text. ↩
The “hymns” (mantā) are the verses of the Rig Veda. The ten names here all correspond with Vedic authors according to the Brahmanical tradition (for details, see note on DN 13:13.1). Note that in Sanskrit the names of the rishis are distinguished from the lineage holders, which take the patronymic. For example, Bharadvāja is the rishi, the Bhāradvājas are his descendants; Vasiṣṭha is the rishi, the Vāsiṣṭhas are his descendants. Pali texts do not make this distinction, but use the patronymic, although the two forms are not always readily distinguishable. | “Seer” is isi (Sanskrit ṛṣi), for which the Proto-Dravidian root icai (“sing”) has been proposed. It was taken to mean that they had “seen” the Vedas (mantradraṣṭa) or directly “heard” them from Brahmā through divine inspiration, rather than “composing” them like ordinary authors. Here, however, the Buddha says they were “authors” (kattāro). The Buddha adopted isi in the sense “enlightened sage”. ↩
Veṭhakanatapassāhi is otherwise unattested. At MN 55:12.4 veṭhaka evidently means “collar”. In the Lokuttaravāda Bhikṣuṇī Vinaya, the brazen nun Thullānandā gets out of the water and wraps herself in a veṭhaka, which here seems synonymous with paṭṭaka, a strip of cloth. It is allowable if used to tie a basket (Lo Bi Pn 3). Nata is “curve”, passa is “side, flank”. Walshe has “flounces and furbelows”, Rhys Davids has “fringes and furbelows round their loins”. These are prissy descriptions of what is evidently stripper gear. ↩
The Buddha calls back to earlier in the sutta, where Ambaṭṭha drove a mare-drawn chariot (DN 3:1.6.1). | The verbs here (vitudenti vitacchenti) are elsewhere applied to the pecking and slashing of vultures, crows, or hawks (SN 19.1:3.2, MN 54:16.2, etc.). The Buddha was disgusted with this maltreatment of the mares. ↩
Remembering that Pokkharasāti lived in a wealthy property that was a royal endowment. Just as today, excessive wealth breeds insecurity. ↩
The Buddha has been hard on Ambaṭṭha, but he is not unfair. He invites the same level of scrutiny for himself. ↩
This transition occurs nowhere else. ↩
Finally he remembers what his teacher Pokkharasāti told him in DN 3:1.5.2: he will know the Buddha by his marks. ↩
This exceedingly strange “miracle” is also found at MN 91:7.1, MN 92:14.1, and Snp 3.7:11.5. ↩
The diminutive ending for paṇḍitaka is the same as in samaṇaka, which Ambaṭṭha used of the Buddha. | For re (“bloody”), compare cara pi re at Bu Pc 70:1.35 and he je kāḷī at MN 21:9.13. Hard as the Buddha was on Ambaṭṭha, his own teacher was harder. ↩
Pokkharasāti shows his astuteness, for in many other dialogues the Buddha engaged with brahmins perfectly politely, as he does in the next sutta (DN 4). ↩
Illustrating the lack of restraint of even a senior brahmin teacher. ↩
Given Pokkharasāti’s mood, this was probably a diplomatic move. ↩
Khādanīya and bhojanīya are food categories commonly mentioned in Pali. Etymologically they stem from “hard and soft”. Bhojanīya is defined in Bu Pc 37:2.1.10 as grain, porridge, flour products, fish, and meat, thus being foods that are typically eaten cooked and “mooshed up” in with the fingers in the bowl. Khādanīya is not so readily defined, being essentially everything not included in other categories. But it would have included such “crunchy” things as fruit and vegetables, which may be eaten uncooked. ↩
Pokkharasāti makes sure he hears both sides of the story. ↩
So far has Ambaṭṭha fallen from the learned sage we were introduced to at the start of the sutta. ↩
The Buddha bears no ill will. Sukhī hotu is one of the most recognizable Pali phrases, but in early texts it is spoken only a few times: by the Buddha at DN 21:1.8.8 and Snp 5.1:54.1; by Punabbasu’s Mother at SN 10.7:10.1; and by various women at Bu Ss 5:1.4.8. ↩
“Robed up” because inside the monastery, monks would normally wear just a lower robe, and would don the upper and (sometimes) outer robes when visiting a layperson’s home. ↩
While all these teachings feature commonly in the suttas, there is no text that depicts this framework in detail. ↩
This is the briefest expression of the four noble truths. ↩
This indicates that he became a stream-enterer (sotāpanna), the first of four stages of Awakening. Such details of personal attainment are typically found in the narrative rather than the teaching attributed to the Buddha, and hence were added by redactors at some point. They vary considerably in different versions. In this case, the parallel at DA 20 says that he became a stream-enterer and later a non-returner. T 20 said that he understood the teaching and went for refuge, and agrees that he became a non-returner before his death. ↩
This is the insight into universal impermanence and dependent origination. ↩
When wandering for alms, mendicants would often roam randomly through the village (sapadānacārī). However if an invitation such as this were issued, the mendicant may visit that place for a meal. It was considered a special ascetic practice to refuse such invitations. The same invitation was issued by Lohicca to Mahākaccāna at SN 35.132:14.7. ↩
Māṇavikā is also mentioned at MN 56:27.1 and Ud 2.6:1.3 of a young married woman; and at AN 5.192:8.5 of a baby being born. Thus it does not seem that it meant “female student of the Vedas”. ↩
Kalyāṇaṁ vuccati is a politely ambiguous phrase. It is spoken twice elsewhere in the Pali, and both times the mendicant who said it immediately departed and never returned (SN 41.3:7.13, SN 41.4:6.7). ↩
This sutta shows how the conversion of Pokkharasāti in DN 3 affected the brahmins as far away as Campā. ↩
Campā is modern Champapuri near Bhagalpur in Bihar state, not far from West Bengal. It is near the eastern-most reach of the Buddha’s journeys. Campā was the capital of Aṅga, one of the sixteen “great nations” (mahājanapadā). It was a flourishing trade center at which Northern Black Polished Ware has been found, and became a sacred city for the Jains. ↩
Gaggarā, an onomatopoeic reduplication (“gargle”), is the name of a number of rivers and whirlpools in Sanskrit (cp. the modern Ghaggar River in north-west India). ↩
Here we see how the endowment of brahmadeyya helped the king of Magadha establish his influence over the Aṅgas. ↩
“Householders” (gahapati) is literal; it means land owners. Thus the “brahmins and householders” (not “brahmin householders”) were the wealthy class. ↩
Both the repetition below and the parallel at MN 95:8.3 include the phrase “it’s appropriate that he comes to see you”. It may have been omitted here by mistake. ↩
Jātivāda is sometimes translated as “doctrine of birth”, but the context here shows this cannot be the case. It refers to the genealogical records of the family lineage. ↩
Brahmavarcasa (“divine lustre”) commonly describes a spiritual or ethereal beauty due to ritual (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 13.1.9, 2.3.1, 4.1.1), or simply the healthy glow from time in the sun, which if overdone leads to sunburn (eg. Taittirīya Saṁhita 2.10.2). Brahmavarṇa (“divine looks”), on the other hand, seems unknown in the Vedic tradition. | For Mahāsaṅgīti vacchasī read vaccasī (Sanskrit varcasin), “possessing lustre”. ↩
Notice that the royal endowment was not just for a luxury residence, it was the site of a major international college. Kings invested in education. ↩
Later tradition says that the young Siddhattha sneaked out of his home to avoid creating such a scene, but the early texts say he left despite his parents’ weeping. ↩
This description is applied to the Buddha at DN 5:7.24, and to the corrupt but superficially charming monks Assaji and Punabbasuka at Bu Ss 13:1.3.4. ↩
This would be the assemblies of aristocrats, brahmins, householders, and ascetics (AN 5.213:3.1), rather than the Buddha’s four assemblies of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen (AN 4.129). ↩
Titthakara, literally “ford-maker”, is a term restricted to those such as the Buddha who founded a religion, or Mahāvīra who was a major reformer on the same level as a founder. ↩
Bimbisāra’s refuge is at Kd 1:22.11.4. ↩
Pasenadi’s refuge is at SN 3.1:14.5. ↩
This sutta must have been before the events of DN 2, but after those of DN 3. ↩
“Knapsack” is puṭosa, where puṭa is “bag” and osa is “food” (Sanskrit avasa). The compound is a dative-dependent tappurisa with reversal of the usual order, yielding the sense “bag for food”. ↩
Even before he meets him, Soṇadaṇḍa has extensive knowledge of the Buddha and faith in him. It’s also notable how Soṇadaṇḍa gives Pokkharasāti a special status. Perhaps Pokkharasāti told Soṇadaṇḍa of the encounter with Ambaṭṭha in DN 3, which would explain his hesitation. | Note the use of the term yoniso here, which I render “rational”. The basic meaning of the term is “womb, source”, and it is used to mean “with reason”, which here has the sense “pertinent, relevant”. ↩
For all his previous avowal of faith, Soṇadaṇḍa is merely polite, not reverential. This foreshadows the ending. ↩
This stock passage indicates different attitudes towards the Buddha, and perhaps also different social status. Examples of such behaviors are given in Dharmaśāstras. While they might not exactly apply to this situation, they do indicate that these behaviors were nuanced and deliberate. Here is an example: “One should rise to greet a sacrificial priest, father-in-law, paternal uncle, or maternal uncle who is younger than oneself, but not verbally salute him. Likewise, one should rise to greet, but not verbally salute a different fellow-citizen who is older than oneself—even a Śūdra provided he is at least eighty—if one is equal in age to his son. And a Śūdra should rise to greet, but not verbally salute an Ārya, even if he is younger than himself.” (Gautama 6.9–11, translation David Brick). ↩
The Buddha goes out of his way to make him comfortable. Soṇadaṇḍa is nervous and overly eager to please, but he is not contemptuous and grinding a personal ax like Ambaṭṭha. ↩
Suja (Sanskrit sruc) was a large wooden ladle for pouring ghee on to the sacred flame. ↩
The Buddha uses “Socratic method”. He has the other person articulate a view, then leads them to refine their view, leading to a clearer vision of the truth. ↩
When the Buddha convinces Soṇadaṇḍa, he does not crow over it or take pleasure in his discomfort, but praises his wisdom and affirms his conclusions. ↩
The Buddha has taken pains to establish common ground, but Soṇadaṇḍa’s description of wisdom is lacking, so the Buddha prompts a deeper inquiry. ↩
Normally, the Buddha frames his teaching as ethics, meditation, and wisdom, but here he adapts to Soṇadaṇḍa’s framing and places meditation under wisdom. ↩
Soṇadaṇḍa’s attachment to his reputation betrays his lack of inner confidence and stands in contrast with Pokkharasāti. Perhaps it may also be read as a regional characteristic, since Buddhism was less well established in the Aṅga region than in central Magadha. ↩
When asked about sacrifice, the Buddha tells a story of how a king was persuaded to forgo cruelty and institute a constructive social policy of welfare instead. ↩
Khāṇumata is only mentioned here. It means “stumpy”, perhaps indicating that it was, or had recently been, a rough out-of-the-way place. ↩
The commentary says this was similar to the Ambalaṭṭhikā of DN 1:1.2.1. ↩
Like the town Khāṇumata, the brahmin Kūṭadanta appears only here. His name means “pointy teeth”, but there is no evidence that he was a vampire. ↩
At Snp 2.7:26.1, the sacrifice of cows in particular was said to be the nadir of decline for brahmins. When similar sacrifices are described elsewhere in the canon, the number is five hundred rather than seven hundred (SN 3.9:1.2, AN 7.47:1.2). ↩
News of the Buddha had spread in Brahmanical circles. In DN 3 we saw the Buddha use his rhetorical technique of adapting his teaching to reframe Brahmanical doctrines in order to establish a common ground. Here we see the downside to such techniques, as the details of the reframing have been lost. ↩
No such sacrifice has been identified in Brahmanical texts. ↩
Kūṭadanta’s proposal that the Buddha advise him on the sacrifice of 700 animals is outrageous. Nonetheless, the Buddha responds politely since Kūṭadanta is being polite. While it is tempting to see the sacrifice of animals by supposedly virtuous priests as sheer hypocrisy, the fact of sacrifice remains one of the most widespread and mysterious of human religious practices. In an empathetic work that addresses this squarely, Roberto Calasso’s Ardor sees the vast complex of Vedic ritual and theory as making plain the fact of killing so that the guilt may be contained, in contrast with our modern culture of killing on an industrial scale while hiding it out of sight. ↩
Mahāvijita means “Great Dominion”. He seems to be only known from this story. The idiom bhūtapubbaṁ (literally “so it was in the past”) introduces legendary narratives of usually dubious historicity, like the English idiom “once upon a time”. ↩
In the Pali, meaningful thoughts often occur to people when withdrawn in seclusion. This doesn’t necessary mean they were in formal meditation. ↩
The great sacrifices, especially the horse sacrifice, ensured royal authority. Their very scale and wastefulness showed off the wealth of the king. ↩
“High priest” is purohita. He was a family chaplain advising and consecrating the royal family. The closeness of the relationship is shown by the fact that the royal family would take the lineage name of the purohita. ↩
Then, as today, government policy was driven by the perception of rising crime rate. This whole passage is one of the Buddha’s most important statements on public policy. It is expressed through storytelling, giving a good example of how myths were invoked—and subverted—as rationales for current policy. ↩
“Taxes” is bali. He would have had to press his people for the extra funds to hold the sacrifice. ↩
“Plague of savages” (dassukhīla) is the only occurrence of Sanskrit dasyu in early Pali. The dasyu were inveterate foes of the Aryans in the Vedic period. Bereft of civilizing rites, scriptures, and observances, they were no children of Manu (Rig Veda 10.22.8). Their wiles (māyā) made them a potent threat (Rig Veda 4.16.9, 8.14.14, 10.73.5). Indra was invoked to ensure their destruction (Rig Veda passim; Atharva Veda 2.14.5, 4.32.3, 20.21.4, 20.37.5, 20.42.2). Legend has it that Agni and Soma first supported the dasyu before being won over by Indra (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.6.3.13; see also 6.4.2.4). By the time of the Buddha the dasyu have vanished except as a legendary foe of the past. Where the Brahmanical texts advocate the pitiless destruction of the dasyu, the brahmin high priest in the Buddhist text advocates an inclusive policy of social welfare. ↩
The priest knows that the king will respond better to a pragmatic argument than a moral one. ↩
Effective social policy requires a forward-thinking plan, not just reacting to grievances. ↩
The king should spend his own resources to support his citizens in the various occupations. ↩
Here the priest identifies a fundamental cause of social unrest and disorder. ↩
The king spends out of pocket, but the economy flourishes, so tax revenues increase even though he has not raised taxes. This is the essence of Keynesian economic theory. ↩
Khema means a place of safety and sanctuary, where both humans and animals have no fear. ↩
A good leader listens to advice. ↩
Here the phrase “of both town and country” qualifies each group. At AN 4.70:1.3, however, “brahmins and householders” and “people of town and country” are separate groups of people. Elsewhere the context does not always decide between these two possibilities. Generally the idiom aims at inclusivity, as opposed to here where the king is consulting the rich and powerful, so I treat them as two separate groups, thus including the common folk. ↩
“Consenting factions” is anumatipakkhā. The king governs with the consent of his people, although only the landowning classes are considered. ↩
Royal authority is not based just on birth, conquest, ritual, or power, but on quality of character. ↩
Read sahati (“prevails”) over the several variants. ↩
Showing the importance of comprehension over blind adherence to tradition. ↩
Meditators focus on the present, but that does not mean they cannot think about the past or future; it just means they are not trapped in useless thoughts. ↩
These are four of the five qualities that Soṇadaṇḍa identifies as the qualities of a brahmin at DN 4:13.2. Missing is appearance, which is the first factor that Soṇadaṇḍa admits is unnecessary. ↩
Compare the three factors of a donor’s mind-state at AN 6.37:2.4. ↩
What a recipient does with a gift is beyond the donor’s control. ↩
PTS edition acknowledges sajjata only as a variant reading, but it is in the commentary, so should be accepted in the text. It is from √sajj (relinquish). ↩
Another lesson in leadership: the importance of communication. ↩
Due to abbreviation, the text only mentions householders here, but clearly all are intended. ↩
A leader gets results through inspiration, not fear. ↩
These were regarded as valuable yet harmless products. ↩
The king’s generosity and sincerity brings out the best in the others. ↩
Here ends the Buddha’s legendary account of the past. ↩
The other brahmins are satisfied, but Kūṭadanta senses there is more to it. ↩
“So I have heard” (evaṁ me sutaṁ) is the standard opening for Buddhist suttas. This tag was used to indicate that the speaker was not present at the events, but “heard” about them. This is in contrast with the phrase “I heard and learned this in the presence” (sammukhā sutaṁ, sammukhā paṭiggahitaṁ), which is used when reporting a teaching heard directly from the Buddha, eg. SN 55.52:5.1, SN 22.90:9.1, MN 47:10.7, etc. ↩
This qualifies the story of Mahāvijita as an early canonical Jātaka. There are a small number of such stories in the early suttas, only some of which overlap with the later Jātaka collections, the story of Mahāvijita not being among them. ↩
Kūṭadanta is hoping for a better return on his investment. Throughout the suttas, we find a strain of what might be called “spiritual economics”. ↩
The anukula (“propitious”) sacrifice is mentioned several times (eg. DN 5:22.4, AN 4.40:2.2). The Pali commentaries interpret it as “in line with (anu-) family (kula)”. But nothing in the contexts connects it with family customs, nor is such a term known in Sanskrit. It seems rather to be a misunderstanding of Sanskrit anukūla, literally “along the riverbank”, and in applied use, “in conformity with”, “favorable to”, as in the favor of the gods. This is the standard reading in Buddhist Sanskrit. Such a sacrifice is characterized, not by family custom, but by harmlessness. Thus anukula means “propitious, favored (by the gods and the Dhamma)”. ↩
This contradicts the description given above. ↩
This means that the dwelling could be used by any Saṅgha member, as opposed to being given to a particular monastic or group. The gift of a dwelling is regarded as the best kind of offering to the Saṅgha. ↩
Thus far the Buddha has described the regular practice of a Buddhist lay person. ↩
The entire path may be described as a “sacrifice”. ↩
Releasing animals remains a Buddhist practice today. ↩
Lying some 60 kilometers north of Pāṭaliputra (Patna), Vesālī was the largest city in the Vajji Federation, a republican league in the region north of the Ganges. ↩
In the earlier suttas of this chapter, we have seen how news of the Buddha spread, evidently following Pokkharasāti’s conversion. Here we see an example of the kind of meeting at which such news would be discussed. | The phrase “brahmin emissaries” (brāhmaṇadūtā) does not seem to occur elsewhere and is not explained in the commentary. Perhaps they were emissaries of the kings, meeting in a neutral location. Or perhaps they were emissaries of their respective communities of brahmins. ↩
This monastery features prominently as the Buddha’s usual place of residence near Vesālī. ↩
At some times the Buddha would go on retreat and ask that no-one visit him except to bring food; this sometimes happened at the Great Wood (SN 54.9:2.1). He also had the habit of withdrawing into the wood itself for meditation (AN 5.58:1.3). At this time, however, he was simply staying in a nearby hut, so it seems Nāgita is being over-zealous. ↩
Oṭṭhaddha mean “hare-lip” and is evidently a nickname or epithet. Throughout, the Buddha refers to him by his personal name, Mahāli. And it is under that name we meet him again in SN 11.13, SN 22.60, and AN 10.47. | The Licchavis, whose name is derived from “bear”, dominated the Vajji Federation. Note that the Mahāsaṅgīti edition here spells the masculine singular as licchavī, whereas normally it is licchavi. ↩
This Sīha is unknown elsewhere. ↩
Kassapa is Nāgita’s clan name; either he was a brahmin or a khattiya whose family chaplain (purohita) was a Kassapa. ↩
In trying to protect the Buddha, Nāgita was inflexible and lacking compassion. When given good advice by Sīha, he responded gracelessly, fobbing off responsibility to a junior. No wonder he was replaced by Ānanda. ↩
This is still a common place for forest monks to receive guests. ↩
This is the last we hear of these emissaries. ↩
Sunakkhatta features in several suttas, through which his journey may be traced. In MN 105 he meets the Buddha and gains faith; here in DN 6 he is becoming dissatisfied; in DN 24 he rejects the Buddha; and in MN 12 he attacks the Buddha after disrobing. ↩
This refers to “clairvoyance” and “clairaudience”, sometimes translated as the “divine eye” and “divine ear”. Despite being included in the Gradual Training, they are not a goal of Buddhist practice. Rather, they are unnecessary but potentially useful, as they reveal dimensions of being inaccessible to ordinary consciousness. Sunakkhatta, however, was evidently just interested in having pleasant supersensory experiences. ↩
This must have wounded his pride. ↩
This description of meditation is unique in the Pali canon. The Buddha answers Mahāli’s question directly, even though the premise betrays Sunakkhatta’s limited understanding. When a questioner is sincere, answering directly shows respect and builds trust. ↩
Having directly answered the original question, the Buddha reframed the issue on request. ↩
This is the first description of the four stages of awakening which are featured throughout the Pali canon. The three fetters are identity view, doubt, and misapprehension of precepts and observances (MN 2:11.3). ↩
The five lower fetters are the three mentioned above, plus sensual desire and ill will (AN 10.13:1.5). This is the non-returner, who spends their last life in an exalted Brahmā realm. Compare Chāndogya Upaniṣad 8.15.1: one who lives properly “attains the Brahmā realm and does not return again” (brahmalokam abhisaṃpadyate na ca punar āvartate) | A “spontaneous” rebirth is one that occurs without gestation in the womb, like most devas, or for that matter, Boltzmann brains (see note on MN 12:32.3). ↩
This is the arahant, the “worthy” or “perfected” one. Elsewhere it is said they abandon the five higher fetters: desire for rebirth in the realm of luminous form, desire for rebirth in the formless realm, conceit, restlessness, and ignorance (AN 10.13:2.2). ↩
This is the most fundamental of the Buddha’s teachings on the path, declared in his first sermon (SN 56.11). It reappears in DN 8:13.5, DN 19:61.7, and DN 22:21.2. ↩
The eight factors map roughly on to the Gradual Training thus: hearing the Dhamma gives rise to right view; the choice to renounce is right thought; ethics includes right speech, action, and livelihood; undertaking seclusion and sense restraint is right effort; developing meditation is right mindfulness; and gaining the four jhānas is right immersion. Realization of the Dhamma completes the circle by deepening conceptual right view to liberating insight. Sometimes this is expressed by adding two further factors, right knowledge and right liberation. ↩
The Buddha retells the events recorded in the next sutta, DN 7. ↩
Muṇḍiya means “bald one”; his name is spelled Mandissa in some manuscripts. He appears only in this passage. Jāliya returns in DN 24:2.4.1, which recounts the farcical events following Sunakkhatta’s disrobal. There he takes the Buddha’s part against the delusional Pāṭikaputta favored by Sunakkhatta. ↩
The term “soul” (jīva) was favored by the samaṇas, as opposed to the “self” (attā) of the brahmins. Both are rejected by the Buddha as forms of “metaphysical” self: they postulate the absolute, eternal existence of entities that cannot be established empirically. The repeated demonstrative pronouns (taṁ jīvaṁ taṁ sarīraṁ) assert an emphatic identity. ↩
They evidently believed that the experience of jhāna would grant insight into this dilemma. But it is a loaded question: it assumes that the soul is real and that what needs determining is its relation to the body. ↩
Until this point, none of the experiences described are fundamentally incompatible with the notion of an eternal metaphysical self. Buddhists believe that non-Buddhists, before and after the Buddha, are quite capable of realizing such states. However, they would tend to interpret them in line with their previous beliefs, thus reinforcing their theories of self. Faced with the end of all rebirth, however, no theory of eternal self can stand. ↩
This sutta depicts the events that were subsequently related by the Buddha in the previous sutta, DN 6. ↩
Ujuññā was a Kosalan town at which King Pasenadi visited the Buddha in MN 90. | “Deer parks” were nature reservations where the animals were safe from hunters. ↩
Naked ascetics are still found in India today. Some Jains went naked, but if he were a Jain he would have been introduced as such. Kassapa is an ancient clan name of the brahmins, and we meet four naked ascetics named Kassapa in the canon (here, SN 12.17, SN 41.9, and MN 124). They cannot be the same person, for at the end of each account it is said they went forth and attained arahantship. ↩
In his first sermon, the Buddha rejected extremes of self-mortification. There the term was attakilamatha (“self-mortification”), whereas here it is tapas (“heat, burning, fervor”). These refer to the same practices, but tapas points to the fervent ardor of the practitioner, generating an inner heat that “burns off” the corrupting traces of kamma and defilements. This topic is also discussed in AN 10.94. ↩
While the self-mortification itself may be useless, the person who practices it may have other good qualities. The Buddha is cautioning against rash judgement. ↩
Again we see the Buddha’s preferred method of establishing common ground first, then building an argument from there. ↩
Rather than logical hair-splitting, the Buddha recommends looking at a person’s conduct. ↩
Here -va has an exclusive sense (= eva). Compare Dhp 274: eseva maggo natthañño (“This is the path, there is no other”). ↩
Compare DN 16:5.27.1. ↩
What follows is a description of ascetic practices undertaken by the Jains and similar groups. | The phrase “course of fervent mortification” (tapopakkama) is unique to this sutta. Pakkama means “stepping out”. ↩
Buddhist mendicants may not receive food in their hands, nor lick them while eating. Followers of the practices listed here would have walked steadily and randomly for alms, accepting only what was given at the time. ↩
Keeping sheep (eḷaka, for slaughter) goes against the Jain principle of non-violence, as does keeping weapons (daṇḍa). | A musala often means “pestle”, but it can also be a “shovel”; at MN 81:18.12 it is regarded as a virtue to not use one to dig the soil (which is regarded as being alive in Jainism). | Thusodaka is an alcoholic porridge fermented from grain-husks, mentioned alongside sovīraka in the Pali commentaries and Carakasaṁhitā 27g.191. ↩
It is not easy to meaningfully distinguish the various kinds of grain. ↩
All are extremely uncomfortable. Christian ascetics wore a “hair shirt” in order to “mortify the flesh” . ↩
Jain ascetics tear out their hair at ordination, rather than shaving. ↩
Remaining in one posture for months or years at a time is one of the most difficult practices. ↩
Strict Jain ascetics did not bathe. ↩
At Kd 6:14.6.3 the four “great unnaturals” (or “filthy edibles”, mahāvikaṭa) are said to be feces, urine, ash, and clay. At MN 12:49.3 the Buddha said he ate the “unnatural things” of feces and urine when undertaking ascetic practices. ↩
This seems out of place here. It was a Brahmanical practice (SN 7.21), as the Jains refused to bathe at all. Indeed, bathing three times a day in the Indian climate would, for most of the year, be quite pleasant. ↩
The term “accomplishment in mind” (cittasampadā) is equivalent to “accomplishment in immersion” (samādhisampadā). More generally, when citta is used in the context of meditation, it is normally a synonym of samādhi. ↩
Mettā is universal love and good will free from attachment. As well as being a foundation for good character and healthy emotional development, it serves to lead the mind into deep meditation of jhāna. ↩
The Buddha was criticized for going soft after abandoning austere practices, but here he flips the script, arguing that it is inner transformation that is really hard, not outer shows of mortification. ↩
Note that the heading for this section in the Mahāsaṅgīti edition uses samādhi rather than citta. Headings were added by later editors, and are not part of the original text. ↩
This is the ethical practices as described in the Gradual Training. ↩
“Mortification in disgust of sin” renders tapojigucchā; tapo is “fervent mortification” and jigucchā is “loathing, disgust”. It captures the severity with which practitioners regarded the “evil” or “sin” with which they were infected, like a quasi-physical stain on the soul, and the burning flame of white-hot pain required to cauterize their spiritual wounds. ↩
The Buddha repurposes the concept of “disgust of sin”, which here stands in the place of meditation (samādhi). ↩
A “lion’s roar” is an unapologetic proclamation of spiritual supremacy. ↩
The Buddha is referring to the events of the Udumbarikasutta (DN 25). There Nigrodha is referred to as a “wanderer” (paribbājaka) who according to the commentary was clothed. The term tapabrahmacārī here is unique and is not explained in the commentary. I think it means he was a celibate student of a Brahmanical teacher. Tapas and brahmacariya are closely linked in Atharvaveda 11.5. ↩
In the early period, there was no distinction between “going forth” (pabbajjā) and “ordination” (upasampadā). They refer to two sides of the same coin: leaving the home life and entering the ascetic life. Ordination was originally granted by the Buddha with the simple call, “Come mendicant!” (Kd 1:6.32.1). As the community grew, the Buddha authorized the Saṅgha to perform the “going forth and ordination” (Kd 1:12.1.1). Later still, the novice (sāmaṇera) platform was introduced for teenagers and became known as “going forth” (Kd 1:54.3.2). Finally, the novice ordination was standardized for all ordinands, even if it was a mere preliminary for the “full ordination”. ↩
This probation is laid down in the Vinaya at Kd 1:38.1.5. The candidate shaves, dons the robes, takes refuge, and asks for probation. They must show good conduct and restraint, diligence in duties, and enthusiasm for the Buddha’s teachings and practice. ↩
In addition to individual exceptions, there are general exceptions for dreadlocked fire-worshipping ascetics, since they believe in kamma, and for the Buddha’s relatives (Kd 1:38.11.3). ↩
Poṭṭhapāda appears only here; he was named for a month of the lunar calendar (August/September). | Mallikā was the chief queen of Pasenadi, and her hall is mentioned in a similar context at MN 78:1.3. The commentary explains that the brahmins, Jains, and others would assemble there to “debate their beliefs” (samayaṁ pavadanti). Evidently the monastery grounds had accommodation for many ascetics of different beliefs, but only “one hall” where they would gather for debate. We hear many times of such debates, but here we catch a glimpse of a place that was set up to facilitate them. For -ācīra, read in the sense of “boundary, hedge” (commentary: timbarūrukkhapantiyā parikkhittattā; cf. Sanskrit prācīra, “enclosure, hedge, fence, wall”). ↩
According to the commentary, when he approached the vicinity of the city gate, he decided to check the position of the sun and noticed that it was too early to enter. The commentary and sub-commentary explain that it only sounds like the Buddha was in doubt, for Buddhas deliberate before deciding on a course of action. ↩
This can be understood as answering the criticism voiced in DN 8:22.2, that the Buddha was afraid to speak in an assembly. ↩
In contrast with the silence of the Buddha’s community at DN 2:10.7. ↩
The Buddha encourages quiet for the sake of mental development; Poṭṭhapāda does it for the sake of reputation. ↩
Poṭṭhapāda’s address is almost overly deferential. ↩
Always polite, the Buddha begins by showing an interest in them. ↩
Abhisaññā does not appear elsewhere. Here the prefix abhi- means not “higher”, but rather “about, concerning”. Compare abhidhamma at MN 32:8.6: dve bhikkhū abhidhammakathaṁ kathenti (“two mendicants engage in discussion about the teaching”); also abhivinaya at AN 3.140:4.4. The commentary here says abhi- is a mere particle, so it need not be translated. ↩
This discussion appears to have been directly sparked by the difficult passage in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.12 and 4.5.13. The sage Yājñavalkya, teaching his wife Maitreyī, says that the true Self is a sheer mass of “consciousness” (vijñāna, Pali viññāṇa), which is “great, endless, infinite reality”. After realizing this, he says, there is no “perception” (saṁjñā, Pali saññā), a statement that bewilders even the wise Maitreyī. He explains that only in an apparent state of duality (dvaitamiva) do the separate functions of sense consciousness operate. When all is realized as the Self, how, he asks, can one know that owing to which all this is known? He is implicitly distinguishing between viññāna as “infinite” (= vi-) knowing and saññā as “constrained” (saṁ-) knowing. Yājñavalkya says the separate Self emerges with these elements and vanishes with them (etebhyo bhūtebhyaḥ samutthāya tānyevānu vinaśyati), but he does not explain how or why this happens, which is the question the theorists here attempt to address. ↩
Here perception is not identified with the “person” (purisa), but rather belongs to them (cf. etaṁ mama, “this is mine”). In the discussion to follow, the Buddha only directly addresses this theory, while the remainder are included by inference. ↩
This idiom is also at SN 47.19:1.10. ↩
The self is defined as perception (eso me attā), one of the five aggregates. Compare the various theories of the self and perception at DN 1:2.38.0. ↩
Implying that at such times a person lacks a “self”. This is perhaps related to Yājñavalkya’s: “That man, when born, acquiring a body, is connected with ills (the bodily organs); and when he dies, departing, he discards those ills” (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.3.8). ↩
The commentary says these were devotees of āthabbaṇa, i.e the practices preserved in the Atharvaveda. This “fourth Veda” is mentioned only once by name in the early Pali (Snp 4.14:13.1), where, as here, it is associated with the performance of magic and the casting of spells. The commentary fairly drips with contempt: “Allegedly, the Āthabbaṇa practitioners cast a spell, showing a creature’s head as if cut off, or their hand as if cut off, or as if dead. Then they show them back to normal; imagining so, they say, ‘From cessation they have arisen.’” ↩
See DN 29:16.20 for upakaḍḍhati and apakaḍḍhati in this sense. ↩
Pakataññū is not elsewhere attested in the suttas, but it is found in the Vinaya, for example at Bu Pc 72:1.8). ↩
Here the Buddha argues that, since it is possible to change the nature of one’s own mind through practice, such changes cannot be random. ↩
It is is unusual if not unique to add “said the Buddha” (bhagavā avoca) in such a context. Normally, once a speaker starts, the text does not insert extra tags identifying the speaker without a reason, such as an interruption for a question. ↩
Sinhalese manuscripts, followed by PTS, include the paragraphs on the metaphor of the king’s security (DN 2:63.1) and on guarding the sense doors here. ↩
Progress through the jhānas is explained in terms of the refining of perceptions. ↩
“Subtle and true” is sukhumasacca, a term that appears only here. ↩
We have encountered the “formless attainments” (arūpasamāpatti) before, where they formed a refined basis for attachment to self (DN 1:3.13.4). Here they appear as part of the gradual refinement of consciousness through the cessation of increasingly subtle perceptions. ↩
This is the vision of light that later came to be called a “sign” (nimitta). In the first four jhānas this persists as a “subtle” (sukhuma) reflection or echo of the “substantial” (olārika) material basis of meditation, such as the breath or the parts of the body. Even though it is a purely mental phenomenon, it is still “form” (rūpa) since it has physical properties like light or extension. ↩
The “light” (obhāsa) of jhāna grows from “limited” (paritta) to “limitless” (appamāṇa, MN 128:29.1). Then the perception of even this limitless light vanishes, leaving only infinite space. ↩
Perception of infinite space fades away leaving only the infinite consciousness that is aware. ↩
The meditator is no longer even aware of infinite consciousness, but of the even vaster nothingness. ↩
The last of the four formless attainments is the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. Since this, by definition, lies beyond the scope of perception, it is not included here. ↩
For sakasaññī (“takes charge of their own perception”), see Bu Pj 2:6.2.2. One relevant factor in determining whether an object has been stolen is if the accused “perceives it as their own”. Here it means that the meditator understands that they can evolve their own perceptions through meditation. ↩
“Intend and choose” is ceteyyaṁ abhisaṅkhareyyaṁ (1st singular optative). These synonyms are used in the sense of a subtle sense of will or intentionality that underlies such attainments (MN 52:14.3) and which must be let go lest they generate rebirth (MN 140:22.10). ↩
Compare with “progressive cessation” (AN 9.31), “progressive tranquilizing of conditions” (SN 36.15), “progressive meditations” (AN 9.32), etc. | “Awareness” is sampajāna, which we have encountered previously as “situational awareness” in daily activities, or as the “awareness” in the third jhāna. Here it refers to a reflective capacity to understand the nature of deep meditation in terms of causality. The term was adopted by Patañjalī, who defined saṁprajñātasamādhi in a way that is clearly drawn from the Buddhist definition of jhāna. It is attained with vitakka, vicāra, ānanda (“bliss”), and āsmitā. According to the commentary, this last term is “experience of the one self”, ekātmikā saṁvid) and so is probably adapted from the Buddhist factor of ekaggatā. (Yogasūtra 1.17). ↩
Taking the kernel of Yājñavalkya’s theory of the cessation of limited perception, the Buddha has expanded it in psychological and practical detail, while leaving out the metaphysical assumption of the Self. ↩
Poṭṭhapāda shows the Buddha that he has been paying attention. Notice how it is culturally assumed that it is possible to retain and repeat the exact content of the teaching. ↩
The meaning of this is not clear to me. It might mean that insight can be developed based on any of the stages of meditation, so for that person their peak of perception is different to another’s. The commentary says that it refers to different meditation subjects, or simply to different occasions of meditation. ↩
Poṭṭhapāda’s distinction between “perception” (saññā) and “knowledge” (ñāṇa) echoes Yājñavalkya’s distinction between “perception” (saṁjā) and “consciousness” (vijñāna, or in the repeated passage at 4.5.13, prajñāna). ↩
Perception has been described in terms of the progress through more refined meditations (samādhi). Only then does the “knowledge” (ñāṇa) of insight arise. ↩
The term “specific condition” (idappaccayā) is well known from dependent origination (eg. SN 12.20:2.3), where it applies to the general situation of ongoing existence in transmigration. When developing insight, a meditator takes their own meditation experience as their primary locus. This is then generalized to an understanding of the nature of conscious existence. ↩
This draws from the initial presentation of different theories of the person and perception (DN 9:6.4). ↩
“Believe” is paccesi, literally “fall back on”. It implies that an idea is something one relies on or takes as fundamental. The Buddha wants to know where Poṭṭhapāda stands before exploring this topic. ↩
Despite his previous questions about perception and the self, Poṭṭhapāda takes his stand on a purely materialist view, identifying the “self” with the organic “substantial” body. ↩
Again, the Buddha does not rush to tell Poṭṭhapāda he is right or wrong, but rather draws out the implications of his statement. ↩
Here tiṭṭhateva is not “leaving aside”, but “remains”. Compare the similar construction at MN 107:13.1. ↩
This is the “subtle” (sukhuma) body, corresponding with the form experienced in the four jhānas. All manuscripts appear to be missing the expected rūpī in this passage, but it occurs in the corresponding passage on “reincarnation” below. ↩
This identifies the self as that which is experienced in the formless attainments. Poṭṭhapāda is simply cycling through possible self theories without really thinking through the implications. ↩
Poṭṭhapāda can only attest a belief in various theories and still does not know how to assess them for himself. ↩
The text shifts from añña “other” (eg. aññadiṭṭhikena) to aññatra (aññatr’āyogena), which normally means “apart from”. Most authorities follow the commentary in taking aññatra here in the sense of “other”. However I think the change of sense is deliberate; the Buddha is not discouraging them, merely informing them what it will take. ↩
This is the famous list of ten “undeclared points”, which are found throughout the suttas (eg. MN 25:10.21, MN 63:2.3, MN 72:3.1, and the whole of SN 44). They seem to have functioned as a kind of checklist by which philosophers could be evaluated and classified. | The word loka occurs in a number of senses, but here it refers to the entire “cosmos” of countless worlds. ↩
This phrase recurs at SN 21.9:1.4 and AN 3.64:11.1, with some variant readings. ↩
The commentary says Citta was the son of an elephant trainer. Here he shows greater respect to the Buddha than does Poṭṭhapāda. ↩
This point seems to be lost on a number of modern commentators, who infer from passages such as the ten undeclared points that the Buddha refused to make any definitive declarations at all. The Buddha, rather, was a vibhajjavādin (MN 99:4.4, AN 10.94:4.7), “one who speaks after analysis”. ↩
See DN 1:2.38.2. ↩
The Buddha does not rely on rumor; he begins by checking his facts with those concerned. Not only does this affirm his commitment to truth, it shows respect and establishes a common ground from which the argument proceeds. ↩
The verb viharati means “dwell”, and functions as an auxiliary verb implying duration. In spiritual contexts it often means “a period or state of meditation”. This first question is asking whether they see such a state in a regular meditation practice. ↩
Perhaps they might not be able to develop a meditation for seeing that self, but at some point they may have had some sort of perception or vision or insight. ↩
Since they have no experience, they might at least have an idea how to reach that experience. ↩
They haven’t even heard a report about it. ↩
“No demonstrable basis” renders appāṭihīrakataṁ. The Vedic pratiharate means “to yearn for, to welcome, to delight in”, from which pāṭihāriya means “that which should be delighted in, an amusement, an entertainment, an attraction”. In early Pali, the primary sense is something demonstrated or displayed that is convincing or inspiring. In later Pali this narrows to “miracle”. ↩
Janapadakalyāṇī is typically rendered as “the most beautiful lady in the land”. At SN 47.20:2.2 we learn that she is a dazzling singer and dancer. And while she was famed for her beauty (Ud 3.2:9.1), the word kalyāṇa normally means “(morally) good, fine, lovely” and does not refer solely to her appearance. ↩
Nisseni only occurs elsewhere in Bu Ss 6:2.3.6 and Bu Ss 7:2.67, where it is something carried, i.e. a ladder rather than a flight of stairs. ↩
Attapaṭilābha is literally “re-acquisition of self”, where attā is explained by the commentary as attabhāva, the “state of the self” or “life-form” that is acquired at rebirth, i.e. the body (sarīra), whether material or immaterial. ↩
These recap the three theses of perception and the self posted by Poṭṭhapāda from DN 9:22.1. ↩
Compare with the similar sentiment at SN 22.2:10.1. ↩
The Buddha points to the experience to demonstrate what he is talking about, rather than offering a long theoretical explanation. Ayaṁ is a pronoun of presence, used to indicate what is apparent before the subject. ↩
Citta is asking an ontological question, assuming that these three states are existent realities of the self. ↩
The Buddha reframes the question as one of conventional description. He is describing states in which one might be reborn, not underlying ontologies. ↩
This anticipates one of the great philosophical debates of sectarian Buddhists which gave rise to the Sarvāstivāda, the school whose core doctrine was that “all exists (in the past, future, and present)”. The Buddha describes past, future, and present with the three grammatical tenses. ↩
Compare Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 3.3.3.2. ↩
Words such as “self” have a conventional usage and in that context are perfectly fine. But what that “self” refers to is constantly changing, as it is reincarnated in different states. It is like a river which keeps the same name even though the water is always changing. If, driven by attachment, we assume there is a metaphysical reality underlying the conventional “self”, we step beyond what can be empirically verified. Note, however, that the Buddha is not asserting that there are two levels of truth, conventional and ultimate, a distinction not found in early Buddhism. | Compare MN 139:3.9, MN 74:13.1, SN 1.25. ↩
In AN 6.60 we find Citta Hatthisāriputta, still a somewhat junior monk, rudely interrupting his seniors. After admonition he disrobed, but he ordained again and later achieved arahantship. We can reconcile these two accounts by recognizing that the phrase acira “not long after” is a conventional term, which might be several years. Thus the events of AN 6.60 occurred some time between his ordination and awakening. ↩
Ānanda’s role became more prominent as a leader of the Saṅgha in the years after the Buddha’s passing. This sutta shows the continued propagation of the Buddha’s teachings after his death. ↩
The same Subha earlier met the Buddha in MN 99 and again in MN 135, where he asked about kamma. His father Todeyya was a prominent brahmin, often mentioned alongside Pokkharasāti. The two apparently lived not far from each other, as, according to the commentary, Todeyya was named for his village of Tudi outside of Sāvatthī (see Pāṇini’s Aṣṭādhyāyī 4.3.94). | These events suggest a certain, albeit tenuous, timeframe for the significant conversion of influential brahmins initiated by Pokkharasāti in DN 3. Here, Subha is active after the Buddha’s death, suggesting his age is aligned with that of Ānanda, a generation younger than the Buddha. If this is so, Subha’s first meeting with the Buddha would have taken place no earlier than the middle period of his teaching, perhaps twenty years before the Parinibbāna (MN 99). There he mentions Pokkharasāti’s hostility to the claims of ascetics, so this must precede Pokkharasāti’s conversion in DN 3 by a considerable period. If we are on the right track, the conversion of Pokkharasāti, and the events that flowed from that, must have happened late in the Buddha’s career, perhaps in the final decade of his life. ↩
Ānanda was getting old. ↩
Cetaka is mentioned only here. The commentary says he was named for his home country of Cetī, which is roughly the modern region of Bundelkhand, about 500 km south-west of Sāvatthī. ↩
What follows has much the same content as DN 2, but arranged under these three heads rather than as successively refined happiness. ↩
While samādhi proper is the deep immersion in meditation, here it is a category that pertains to developing such states. ↩
He had already gone to the Buddha for refuge in MN 99:28.4 and MN 135:21.4. ↩
This was the scene for some controversial discussions with Jains (MN 56, SN 42.8), and Sāriputta’s touching declaration of faith shortly before his passing (SN 47.12, DN 16:1.16.1, DN 28). It is probably the Pāvā (modern Pawapuri) at which Mahāvīra died according to the Jain tradition. ↩
Kevaḍḍha is mentioned only here. Manuscripts spell his name variously as Kevaddha or Kevaṭṭa (“fisherman”). The Chinese form 堅固 means “sturdy” (from dṛḍha) and thus supports Kevaḍḍha. ↩
I have been asked to do the same thing for the same reason. ↩
In fact it is forbidden in Kd 15:8.2.23. ↩
The reading dhaṁsemi is dubious. An old Burmese manuscript has the reading dhammaṁ desemi, which echoes the Buddha just above. Note too that Kevaḍḍha urges the Buddha to “direct” the monks (samādisatu, from the same root as desemi). I think the tension is deliberate: Kevaḍḍha says he isn’t telling the Buddha how to teach, but he absolutely is. Other readings convey the sense “attack, insult”, but this seems out of place. ↩
As noted previously, the basic sense of pāṭihāriya is “demonstration”, and as the context here shows, it may or may not involve a “demonstration of wonders” i.e. a “miracle”. ↩
These three are mentioned frequently in the suttas. Only the last is endorsed by the Buddha, as it leads to genuine growth. ↩
Their priors have been confirmed. ↩
Note how a skeptical mindset sticks closer to the truth. ↩
“Spell” is vijjā (Sanskrit vidyā, “(potent) knowledge”, cf. English “wicca”, “wizard”, “witch”). The commentary says it was practiced by the seers of Gandhāra (north-west Pakistan). Jain tradition also knows a Gandhārī mantra, but attribute it to certain vidyādhara deities. Sanskrit tradition similarly knows of a vidyādevī (“lore goddess”) named Gandhārī. Gandhāra was an ancient land of learning, and a convenient location for exotic magics. ↩
These feats that have nothing to do with spiritual growth, hence they may be produced or perhaps faked by a variety of means. ↩
“Revealing” is ādesana, from root dis “to indicate, show, or point”. ↩
The Pali terms here are citta, cetasika, vitakka, and vicāra. ↩
Here we have mano (twice) and citta. ↩
From maṇi, “gem”. Magical gems are a common feature of Indian storytelling. Buddhist stories often feature the “wish-granting gem” (cintāmaṇi), which according to the commentary is meant here. ↩
This story is presented as an actual event, but is phrased like a fable. ↩
The question is about meditation, not the annihilation of the material world. The first four jhānas are based on the “subtle form” (sukhumarūpa) that manifests as light in deep meditation. He is asking how to go beyond this to the formless attainments. ↩
The mendicant has already well developed the jhānas. | “Controlling the body as far as the Brahmā realm” is one of the “demonstrations of psychic power” listed above. ↩
The “gods of the Four Great Kings” are deities born in a realm subject to the overlords known as the Four Great Kings. These deities inhabit the lowest of the celestial realms. ↩
These are powerful spirits who guard the four quarters. In AN 8.36 it is explained that they, like the other leading gods mentioned below, achieved their station due to their greater generosity and morality. ↩
The “thirty-three” enjoy refined sensual delights. The number is a reduplication of the trinity. In Buddhist texts they are not enumerated, but Yājñavalkya reckons them as eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Ādityas, plus Indra and Prajāpati (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.9.2). The final pair are elsewhere said to be Dyaus (“Heaven” = Zeus) and Pṛthivī (“Earth”), or the twin Aśvins. ↩
Conventionally known as “lord of gods”, but in fact the ruler only of the relatively lowly realm of the thirty-three. He is Vedic Indra, heroic slayer of the dragon Vṛtra, and is the most personally known god in the Pali Canon. ↩
Gods in this realm (spelled yāma, “of Yama”) are subjects of the god of the dead, Yama. ↩
The previous deities achieved their station by mere morality and generosity, not by jhāna. The gods of Brahmā’s Host practiced the first jhāna, but they do not know what lies beyond. ↩
The same passage appears in DN 1:2.5.2, where it also had a satirical tone, poking fun at the pomposity of religious titles. ↩
Even Brahmā’s community are not confident. ↩
This passage may be one of the sources for the later use of nimitta to mean the appearance of light that signifies the approach of jhāna. ↩
He puffs his own chest, but like the ascetic teachers of DN 2, he does not answer the question. ↩
He addresses Brahmā with āvuso. This is often translated as “friend”, but the root is āyu (“age”) and it is respectful not familiar. ↩
Rather than trying to engage with Brahmā’s agenda, he keeps restating his question. This is a skillful way of curbing narcissism. ↩
Brahmā is embarrassed to reveal his ignorance. Perhaps a satire of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.2.13, where Yājñavalkya takes Jāratkārava Ārtabhāga by the hand and leads him aside for a secret discussion. ↩
At least he is honest about his lack of knowledge, even if not publicly. ↩
The first pair of couplets rephrase the question about where the (absorptions based on) material form cease. The verb is changed to gādhati, “find a footing”. | This couplet is also found at SN 1.27:2.1, Ud 1.10:14.1. ↩
The verse is syntactically ambiguous, as there are three couplets, each with the question-word kattha, but only two verbs. I take the first pair of couplets as a distinct verse, with the verb gādhati acting as a “lamp” illuminating both the first and second couplets. These are also unified in that they deal only with material qualities. ↩
A similar list of descriptors elsewhere describes things that are not stolen (Snp 3.9:45.1) or the kinds of sentient beings (Snp 1.8:4.3). These are aspects of how “form” manifests in desirable or undesirable ways. ↩
Four terms in this verse are identical with the first four terms in Yājñavalkya’s description of the immutable Brahman as “neither coarse nor fine, neither short nor long” at Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.8.8. ↩
This final couplet is distinguished in having a different verb (“cease”) and in including mental qualities (nāma). It therefore appears there are two questions with two answers. ↩
This couplet is spoken by Baka the Divinity at MN 49:25.1, so it was probably a free-floating couplet illustrating the Upaniṣadic theory of the Self as infinite consciousness. I think the Buddha is quoting Brahmā here in order to contrast with his own teaching of the cessation of consciousness, to emphasize that even this most sublime form of consciousness will cease. | “Where no form appears” (anidassanaṁ) here is a synonym for “formless” (see eg. MN 21:14.8, “space is formless and invisible”, ākāso arūpī anidassano). Normally the colors and images seen in the “form” absorptions are described as “appearing” (eg. DN 16:3.29.1), so this indicates a formless attainment. ↩
“Infinite” (ananta) is the direct qualifier of “consciousness”, but in the Pali it is shifted to the next line to fit the meter. It indicates the second of the formless attainments. Yājñavalkya describes consciousness as infinite in the famous passage at Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.12. | Pabhaṁ means “luminous”, as with the deities that are “self-luminous” (sayaṁpabhā, DN 27:10.3). This echoes descriptions of the Divinity of consciousness as “radiant” (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 5.6.1, Chāndogya Upaniṣad 3.14.2) | Sabbato pabhaṁ (“luminous all-round”) is synonymous with pariyodāta (“bright”, literally “white all over”), a stock descriptor of the mind of fourth jhāna, on which the formless states are based. ↩
The division of these ten lines is not obvious. Since the previous couplet appears to be an independent saying, I take the remaining eight lines as two four-line verses. This couplet, too, appears as the first two lines of a six-line verse, with the initial yattha rather than ettha (SN 1.27:2.1). ↩
The verb “do not remain” applies to both the former and subsequent couplet. ↩
These lines also at Snp 5.2:6.6, with initial yattha instead of ettha. ↩
According to dependent origination, when consciousness ceases, name and form cease, and with it the manifestation of all things desirable and undesirable in the world. ↩
Throughout, take the locative ettha as locative of reference, as in similar constructions at eg. SN 1.30. The point is that when the Buddha is speaking of the cessation of consciousness, he is speaking specifically of the “infinite consciousness” of the Upaniṣads: that is what ceases. ↩
This is the only appearance of a place called Sālavatikā (“Abounding in Sal Trees”). A courtesan of Rājagaha named Sālavatī appears in Kd 8:1.3.1; she might perhaps have come from there. ↩
A certain brahmin Lohicca also appears in SN 35.132. But since that is set far away in Avantī after the Buddha’s passing, and since in both cases he is said to have taken refuge, it seems likely these are different people. ↩
A similar view is sometimes unjustly imputed to the Theravādins, that they are only interested in their own liberation. ↩
While nhāpita would seem to be identical with nhāpaka (“bathroom attendant”), it is usually translated per Ja 395 where it means “barber”. ↩
Note the unusual use of kira in this idiom, found in SN 35.133:2.3, MN 85:3.5, MN 127:2.5, and Ud 2.8:6.8. I think this expresses polite deference, and render with “might” rather than “would”. ↩
It seems the barber was not only a trusted confidant, but an intelligent man with sincere concern for Lohicca’s well being. ↩
The Buddha is modest as to his chances. ↩
Here the Buddha takes the initiative. “Harmful misconception” is pāpakaṁ diṭṭhigataṁ. ↩
Kosala is the native realm of Pasenadi. Kāsi had formerly been an independent kingdom, but was taken over by Pasenadi’s father Mahākosala. Towards the end of the Buddha’s life it was contested between Kosala and Magadha (SN 3.14, SN 3.15). Ultimately it became part of the greater Magadhan empire. ↩
It is only through sharing what good things we know that we can support each other. ↩
Even though he has characterized Lohicca’s view as harmful, the Buddha goes out of his way to show that it is not entirely wrong. There are cases where it is best to avoid teaching. ↩
The genders of this passage are made clear through the use of feminine nouns. Making unwelcome advances was seen as an obvious example of something wrong. ↩
At DN 29:5.2 the opposite sense is expressed as samādāya taṁ dhammaṁ vattati. ↩
The Buddha adopts Lohicca’s formulation, but applies it in a specific sense, not as a generalization. ↩
Now that the Buddha has established a degree of overlap between their views, Lohicca wants to hear more. ↩
Again, the Buddha answers directly and simply. ↩
Naraka means “cliff” or “abyss” in early Pali (MN 49:5.9, MN 86:6.15, Snp 3.11:28.4, Thag 16.8:4.2). It does not have the sense “hell” until the late canonical period; the early Pali term for hell is niraya. Notably, naraka is not strongly attested in the sense of “hell” for pre-Buddhist Sanskrit either, although we do find nāraka, apparently in the sense of “hell being”, at Atharva Veda 12.4.36c and Śukla Yajur Veda 30.5. ↩
Manasākaṭa is mentioned only here. ↩
Aciravatī is called Rapti today. It was one of the great rivers that flowed from the Himalayas through Kosala into the Ganges. ↩
Similar discussions are found in MN 98 = Snp 3.9 and DN 27. | The compound maggāmagga can be read either as “what is the path and what is not the path” (per commentary, magge ca amagge ca), or as “the variety of paths” (compare phalāphala, “all sorts of fruit”). Here, however, they are concerned to distinguish one path as correct. ↩
This must have been earlier than Pokkharasāti’s conversion at DN 3:2.22.1. Pokkharasāti was a family man who denied the reality of superhuman meditative attainments (MN 99:10.4) and emphasized ethics and duties over lineage (MN 98:3.7), which agrees with him being cited on ethical matters at Āpastamba Dharmasūtra 1.6.19.7 and 1.10.28. | Brahmasahabyatā does not mean “union with Brahmā” but rather “rebirth as one of the members of Brahma’s retinue” (see eg. AN 5.34:9.4). The non-dualist concept that the limited personal self merges with the cosmic divinity is expressed in Pali, rather, with such phrases as so attā so loko (“the self is identical with the cosmos”). | For añjasa (“direct route”) see SN 12.65:7.1 and note. ↩
In Pali we never meet Tārukkha and he is only mentioned in his absence. He evidently advocated that lineage rather than conduct made one a brahmin (MN 98:3.4). There is a Tārukṣya whose view was that union (with Brahmā) arose with the conjunction of speech and breath; this was discussed alongside the views of many other brahmins (Aitareya Āraṇyaka 3.1.6.1; Śāṅkhāyana Āraṇyaka 7.19). In Rig Veda 8.46.32 a certain Balbūtha Tarukṣa the Dāsa makes an offering to a sage. Sāyaṇa, the Vedic commentator, says that Balbūtha Tarukṣa was a guardian of cows, evidently alluding to the Aitareya Āraṇyaka, which describes Tārukṣya as a guardian of his teacher’s cows, thus locating Tārukṣya in the lineage of Tarukṣa. Hiraṇyakeśīgṛhyasūtra 2.8.19 also mentions him as a teacher, there spelled Tarukṣa. ↩
Identified by Wijesekera (A Pali Reference to Brāhmaṇa-Caraṇas, Adyar Library Bulletin, vol 20, 1956; reprinted in Buddhist and Vedic Studies) and Jayatilleke (Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, p. 480). I use the familiar Sanskrit forms, as the Pali has several dubious spellings and variants. Their texts and corresponding Vedas are respectively: Adhvaryu = Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (incl. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad; White Yajur Veda); Taittirīya = Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (Black Yajur Veda); Chāndogya = Chāndogya Brāhmaṇa (Sāman Veda); Cāndrāyaṇa (omitted from MS edition) = Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa (Rig Veda; spelling established by Wijesekera; see below at DN 13:16.2); Bahvṛca = Bahvṛca Brāhmaṇa (Rig Veda; incorporated in Aitareya and Kauśītaki.) This is the only time the Pali canon mentions these schools, but in some cases we can identify them with brahmins in the canon. Examples include the murmuring Chāndogya brahmin (Ud 1.4); or the Buddha’s former teachers, who evidently hailed from the Addhariya tradition of the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (MN 26:15.1ff.). | Jayatilleke notes that the Śatapatha describes its own adherents as Adhvaryu (addhariyā), those priests of the Yajur Veda responsible for the physical acts at the ritual. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 10.5.2.20 and Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa 6.5.6–10 list the Adhvaryu, Chandoga, and Bahvṛca, thus including the same schools in the same order, except the Pali has split the Yajur and Rig followers into two. ↩
Earlier they were arguing over which one of the paths was correct, whereas now they have shifted to a more universalist “many roads up the same mountain” position. When speaking with each other they saw each others’ views as contradictory, but when speaking with an outsider they adopted a more conciliatory position. ↩
The ten names in Pali include the seven authors of the so-called “family books” of the Rig Veda (Maṇḍalas 2–8). As founders of poetic lineages, we often find works by their descendants, which are not always confined to their dedicated family book. Poems by the other three authors are mostly outside the family books. Thus the sages listed here cover most of the Rig Veda, although the Vedic tradition records many other authors as well. | Aṭṭhaka = Atri Bhauma (Maṇḍala 5, rather than Aṣṭaka Vaiśvāmitra of 10.104); Vāmaka = Vamra(ka) Vaikhānasa (10.99; see 9.66); Vāmadeva = Vāmadeva Gautama (Maṇḍala 4); Vessāmitta = Viśvāmitra Gāthina (Maṇḍala 3); Yamadaggi = Jamadagni Bhārgava, a descendant of Bhṛgu (several hymns mostly in Maṇḍalas 9 and 10); Aṅgīrasa = Aṅgirasa, identified with Agni as the founder of a lineage of poet-singers (Maṇḍala 8); Bhāradvāja = Bharadvāja Bārhaspatya (Maṇḍala 6); Vāseṭṭha = Vasiṣṭha Maitrāvaruṇi (Maṇḍala 7); Kassapa = Kaśyapa Mārīca (several hymns mostly in Maṇḍalas 9 and 10); Bhagu = Bhṛgu, the bringer of fire from heaven whose adoptive descendant was Gṛtsamada Bhārgava Śaunaka (Maṇḍala 2). ↩
Unlike the Buddhist monk at DN 11:80.1. ↩
“No demonstrable basis” is appāṭihīrakataṁ. ↩
The “blind following the blind” is also at MN 95:13.24 and MN 99:9.25. Maitrī Upaniṣad 7.8–9 turns it around, saying that the blind teach false doctrines aimed at destroying the Vedas, “the doctrine of not-self” (nairātmyavāda), an obvious reference to Buddhists. We also find it at Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.2.5, Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 1.2.8, Mahābhārata 2.38.3, and the Jain Sūyagaḍa 1.1.2.19. ↩
Kuṣītaka worshiped the rising and setting sun and moon, turning himself to follow their course (Kauṣītaki Upaniṣad 2.7–9). He founded the Kauṣītaki lineage, referred to above as “those who follow the course of the moon” (cāndrāyaṇa). ↩
Indra taught Bhāradvāja a new threefold knowledge by which he might become immortal and realize companionship (sāyujya) with the sun (Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 3.10.11.15). ↩
For the following list, compare the nine gods listed at Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.4.11 with the eight here. Six are shared with the Pali: Brahma is first, from whom derive Indra, Varuṇa, Soma, Yama, and Īsāna. Even the names that are not in common might arise from flawed transmission: Parjanya there is perhaps Pajāpati here; Rudra (or Shiva) would be well-described by Mahiddhi (“he of great power”); Mṛtyu (death) may have merged with Yama. If this connection is admitted, it would seem the Buddha is making a sly dig. Those who proclaim themselves to be true brahmins are prostrating themselves to those powers among the gods who, with the exception of Brahma himself, are in fact aristocrats (khattiya), not brahmins at all. The Upaniṣad draws attention to the rājasūya coronation, at which the brahmin sits beneath the aristocrat. Further, Indra, Pajāpati, Varuṇa, and Īsāna are also invoked in the martial exhortation at SN 11.3, cementing their status as aristocrat warriors. ↩
Soma is the ritual drug of exhilaration, identified with the moon. | Vedic Varuṇa was the god of command, the king of tough rule. | Īsāna (Sanskrit Īśāna) was created by Pajāpati as “president”, said to be the sun (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 6.1.3). He was also identified with Rudra and Śiva. | Pajāpati (“progenitor”) was the lonely god of creation (“Let Prajāpati generate progeny for us”, Rig Veda 10.85.3). The heat of his fervent exertions (tapas) created the world and all things in it (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 6). | Brahmā, like Pajāpati, is also a creator god, but is the divine power immanent within creation, rather than the forgotten instigator of the past. | The Mahāsaṅgīti reading Mahiddhi (“he of great power”) is not a regular name for a deity, but as noted above, he may be Rudra/Shiva, regarded as the chief deity of psychic powers. The BJT reads Mahinda (Sanskrit Mahendra), the “Great Indra”, said to be a title of Indra bestowed after slaying the dragon Vṛtra (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 2.5.4.9). | Yama (“twin”, with his incestuous sister Yamī) was born immortal but chose mortality, becoming the god of the dead. ↩
I wonder if this is a satire on the idea of upaniṣad (“sitting near”); even as they affirm their commitment to their texts, they drift apart (visāra) into separate schools and ideologies. ↩
The close -ti has apparently confused some editors; Vāseṭṭha is quoting what he has heard. ↩
Here the four brahmavihāras (“meditations of Brahmā”) stand in place of the four jhānas. Brahmavihāras are simply one of the means by which jhānas may be attained, chosen here to fit the stated goal of teaching the path to Brahmā. The suttas treat them as pre-Buddhist, but they have not been traced as a group in pre-Buddhist texts. However, they are shared with later non-Buddhist texts such as Yogasūtra 1.33 and the Jain Tattvārthasūtra 7.11. | “Love” (mettā) is a universal positive regard and well-wishing free of personal desires or attachments. It ultimately derives from the Vedic in the sense of “union”; Mitra was the god of alliances (Rig Veda 3.59). ↩
The mind in jhāna is so powerful that it effectively overrides any limited kamma, including ordinary good or bad deeds. Unless they have committed serious crimes with a fixed kammic result such as matricide, etc., the meditator will be reborn in a Brahmā realm. ↩
“Compassion” (karuṇā) is the quality of empathy with the suffering of another or oneself and the wish to remove it. ↩
“Rejoicing” (muditā) is joyful celebration in the success of others or oneself, free of jealousy or cynicism. ↩
Equanimity (upekkhā) is literally “close watching”, not interfering but standing ready when needed. It is not indifference, which is why it emerges only at the end, after the positive emotions are developed. ↩
A brahmin student who for their whole life practices harmlessness for all beings—except at holy places—attains the world of Brahmā (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 8.15.1). The exception for holy places is, of course, to allow for the sacrifice. ↩
Here the entire concluding section of the Gradual Training dealing with wisdom is omitted, as the aim is limited to teaching rebirth with Brahmā to Brahmanical laypeople, rather than teaching liberation. Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja later applied to ordain, in which time the Buddha taught the full path to Nibbana (DN 27:7.8). ↩
They also went for refuge in similar circumstances at MN 98:14.4 = Snp 3.9:69.3. According to the commentary, that was the first time they went for refuge, while this was the second time. This makes sense in terms of the progress of the teachings, for there they discuss what makes a brahmin, whereas here they ask the more subtle question how to achieve rebirth with Brahmā. The discussion, too, is on a more detailed level, with a more explicit criticism of the brahmins. Nonetheless, it is difficult to square the details of the narratives, for the opening of this sutta depicts Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja speaking about the Buddha by reputation rather than as devotees who have previously met him and gone for refuge. ↩
In the suttas, apadāna means “evidence”, “traces left behind” (DN 27:16.4, DN 24:2.7.3, MN 15:3.32, AN 3.2:1.1). The sense here seems to have been “(story about) the traces that deeds leave behind”. The sense “legend of past lives” probably grew out of this sutta, and later became the title of the collections of legends of past lives of the monks (Thera-apadāna) and nuns (Therī-apadāna). ↩
Kareri is evidently Miliusa tomentosa, known as hoom or kari in Hindi. It is related to the custard apple, not the curry tree (Murraya koenigii). ↩
“Past life” is pubbenivāsa, literally “former abode”. ↩
At MN 71:14.2 and SN 42.9:4.5 the Buddha says he recollects ninety-one eons, which must refer back to the life of Vipassī. We shall see the origin of his name below. ↩
Sikhī means “crested one” and refers to a halo or crown. A story of him and his disciples is told at SN 6.14. ↩
Vessabhū is Sanskrit Viśvabhṛt. It means “all-bearing”, probably originating as a word for the earth. A legendary king of the same name once ruled over the city of Avantī (DN 19:36.14). ↩
Due to the appearance of four Buddhas in this cycle it is known as “fortunate” (bhadda). | Stories from Kakusandha’s day appear at MN 50 and SN 15.20:2.8. There is no obvious etymology for his name, but perhaps it stems from kaku (“peak”) and thus “the union of the peaks”, a valley at the junction of mountains. ↩
The meaning of Koṇāgamana is unclear. In Sanskrit it is often spelled Kanakamuni, “the golden sage”, while in the (dubious) Nigali Sagar Edict of Ashoka it is Konākamana. At Thig 16.1:71.1 we hear the past life of three nuns in the time of Koṇāgamana. ↩
Kassapa (Sanskrit Kaśyapa) means “tortoise”. It is a common Brahmanical clan name, stemming from an ancient figure reckoned as the eldest of the “seven sages”, to whom some Vedic verses are attributed. Details of the Buddha Kassapa’s time are found at MN 81, SN 15.20:4.1, and SN 48.57:3.1. ↩
These numbers make up a quasi-logarithmic scale: the time gaps multiply by three, while the number of Buddhas divides by two. In eon one there are four Buddhas. Thirty eons ago the number is halved, so they had two Buddhas. Twice-thirty eons before that, the number is halved again, to one Buddha, thus ending the scale. ↩
In ancient India, the “aristocrats” (khattiya) and the brahmins vied for the prestige of being the highest class. The traditional business of the aristocrats was land, politics, agriculture, and war, while the brahmins were a hereditary priestly caste who served as advisers and ritualists. It is said that the Buddha-to-be was born in whatever caste was most prestigious at the time so that his word would have the most impact. | In this sutta, the Buddha simply refers to himself as “I” with no personal name. When the seven Buddhas are listed at DN 32:3.14, however, he is called Aṅgīrasa. ↩
The Koṇḍaññas (Sanskrit Kauṇḍinya) originated as the leading clan of the city of Kuṇḍina the capital of Vidarbha, which is probably modern Kaundinyapura on the Wardha River. ↩
Gotama is an ancient Brahmanical clan name, which like Kassapa stems from the Vedas and the seven sages. Why does the Buddha, an aristocrat, have a Brahmanical clan? During initiation by a Brahmanical family priest (purohita), an aristocrat was ritually determined to be a brahmin for a short time, during which he would assume the lineage name of the priest. After being restored as an aristocrat, he and his family would still be referred to by that name. Thus the Sakyans’ purohita must have been of the Gotama lineage. Other examples of this practice include the Mallas who are called Vāseṭṭha (DN 16:5.19.2) and Saccaka who is called Aggivessana (MN 35:4.2). The Jain Ācārāṅgasūtra 2.15.15 records a similar situation, for while Mahāvīra was, like the Buddha, a khattiya, he was of the Kāśyapa gotta, and various relatives were assigned to Vāsiṣṭha, Kauṇḍinya, and Kauśika. ↩
Stereospermum chelonoides. Dictionaries of Pali and Sanskrit call this the “trumpet-flower tree”, but that is more commonly used for Oroxylum indicum. ↩
Puṇḍarīka is the white lotus, but here it is the name of a tree. The commentary says this is setamba (“white-mango”). It is not, however, the mango variety known by that name today (Mangifera caesia), which is not found in India. ↩
Shorea robusta. ↩
Albizia lebbeck, sometimes still known by the old name of sirisa. Older sources sometimes call it an acacia. ↩
Ficus racemosa. ↩
Ficus benghalensis. ↩
Ficus religiosa, sacred to Buddhists, Jains, and Hindus alike. Ancient sources referred to it both as assattha (Sanskrit aśvattha) and pippala. Buddhists today simply call it the Bodhi (or Bo) tree. ↩
Abhibhū means “Victor”, while Sambhava means “son of Śambhu the blessed”. Śambhu is commonly found in the Rig Veda in the sense, “blessing, benefit”, and became a common name or epithet of gods, etc. ↩
The number of disciples diminishes as we approach historical time. ↩
An extensive journey of the Buddha with 1,250 mendicants is documented in Kd 6, at one point of which occurs the events of the Selasutta (Snp 3.7 and MN 91). The Buddha is also accompanied by 1,250 mendicants in the Sāmaññaphalasutta (DN 2) and the Parosahassasutta (SN 8.8). ↩
Bandhumā literally means “one who has kin”. A King Bandhumant is recorded as a descendant of Ikṣvāku, son of Manu, son of the Sun (Viṣṇu Purāṇa 4.1). Gotama, likewise, was a “kinsman of the sun” (ādiccabandhu). ↩
The son of King Dawn and Queen Radiant in the City of the Dawn, Sikhī is the streaming rays of sunrise. These names recall a solar myth. ↩
In Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa ch. 131, a Pabhāvatī, daughter of the king of Vidarbha, is said to have married Marutta, king of Vajjī. ↩
There is an Arunawati River in Maharashtra, not far from the ancient homeland of the Koṇḍaññas in Kuṇḍina. ↩
Vessabhū’s parents King Goodfall and Queen Rainy recall a seasonal fertility myth, where they gave life to their son the earth, “the nourisher and bearer of all”. Note, however the variants suppatīta (“well pleased”) and yasavatī (“celebrated”). ↩
The names of the brahmin fathers all refer to ritual offerings. Aggidatta means “offered to the fire”. ↩
The names of the brahmin mothers all recall Indian nakkhatta. These are “constellations” or more properly “lunar mansions”; segments of the sky through which the Moon passes and which are associated with certain stars or clusters. In the Atharvaveda system, Visākhā is the 16th lunar asterism (Libra). ↩
Based on the Ashoka pillar there, this is identified with modern Gotihawa, southeast of Kapilavastu in Nepal. ↩
“Offered in sacrifice”. ↩
Several constellations are distinguished as “former” (pubba) and “later” (uttara). Since it lies between Visākhā and Dhanavatī, this may be the 21st constellation, Uttara Āṣāḍhā (Sagittarius/Capricorn). ↩
If the dubious Ashokan edict there is to be believed, this was traditionally identified with the town known today as Nigali Sagar near Kapilavastu in Nepal. ↩
“Offered to Brahmā”. Many of the Jātakas feature a king of this name, usually said to reside in Benares. ↩
Dhanavatī means “wealthy”, but it is also an alternate name for the 23rd constellation, dhaniṣṭhā (or śraviṣṭā, Delphinus). ↩
Kikī (“blue jay”) appears in the story of the past Buddha Kassapa at MN 81. ↩
Suddhodana means “white rice”. He is mentioned by name at Thag 10.1:8.1, Snp 3.11:7.2, and Kd 1:54.1.4. ↩
Māyā means “illusion”. She is mentioned by name at Thag 10.1:8.2 and Thig 6.6:6.2. ↩
“Principle of the teachings” is dhammadhātu. At SN 12.32:18.1, Sāriputta’s mastery of the dhammadhātu gives him the ability to answer any questions on the Dhamma. ↩
These characteristics of the birth of the Buddha-to-be are also found in MN 123, where Ānanda quotes the Buddha, although the wording is a little different and three extra details are added at the start. In addition, this detail and that about emerging mindfully from the womb are found at AN 4.127. | Normally in early Pali, the word bodhisatta is reserved for the Buddha-to-be once he has left home and is practicing “intent on awakening” (eg. MN 26:13.1). This passage extends the usage back as far as the end of the immediate past life. ↩
“Normal” is dhammatā, a natural principle. This entire passage differs from the earliest concept of the bodhisatta (“one intent on awakening”), which in early texts is typically applied to Siddhattha after he left the home. ↩
The commentary identifies this realm of “utter darkness” (andhakāratimisā) with a cold hell realm. There is a corresponding Purāṇic hell called andhatāmisra. | Asaṁvutā was translated by Ñāṇamoḷī as “abysmal”, but this relies on a commentarial cosmology that is not found in the suttas. The sense, rather, is “boundless”. The root harks back to the Vedic serpent Vṛtra who wraps the world in darkness. | Nānubhonti (“makes no impression”) is glossed in the commentary to AN 4.127 as nappahonti “ineffective”. ↩
The light is a physical one, not just a metaphor. From this, it appears that sentient beings may be spontaneously reborn in interstellar space. Compare the problem of the “Boltzmann brain” in physics. ↩
These are the Four Great Kings, regarded as protector deities. ↩
The five precepts. ↩
While sensual pleasures provoke attachment, they are nonetheless a kind of pleasure and therefore a sign of virtue and good past kamma. ↩
This tragic detail is also mentioned in Ud 5.2. The Buddha is raised by a step-mother, which in our Buddha’s case was Māyā’s sister Mahāpajāpatī (AN 8.51:9.8, MN 142:3.3). ↩
Ten signifies fullness and completion, as for example the “ten directions”. | The notion that the term of pregnancy was “nine or ten months” is also found at Chāndogya Upaniṣad 5.9.1. In the Rig Veda it is typically “in the tenth month” (5.78.7, 10.84.3). ↩
In illustrations she is depicted standing while holding a tree in the pose known as sālabhañjikā, a common motif in Indian art representing the abundance of springtime. ↩
Kāsi is the nation of which Varanasi is the capital. Their cloth was of exceptional quality. ↩
This passage implies that Buddhahood was destined from the time of birth, which stands in contrast to the rest of the suttas, where Buddhahood was hard-won by the Bodhisatta’s efforts while striving for awakening. | “Stands firm on his own feet” signifies that he will be awakened by his own efforts. | “North” is uttara, which is also “the beyond”; this predicts his attaining Nibbana. | “Seven strides” signifies crossing over the vast cycles of birth and death, especially by developing the seven awakening factors. | The “white parasol” signifies purity and royalty. | “Surveying all quarters” signifies his universal knowledge. | The “dramatic proclamation” is āsabhiṁ vācaṁ, literally the “voice of a bull”. Other contexts show that this is is an expression emphasizing speech that is dramatic and imposing (SN 52.9:3.2, DN 28:1.5 = SN 47.12:5.2). | At Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 6.1.1 and Chāndogya Upaniṣad 5.1.1 the “vital breath” (prāṇa) is said to be “eldest and first” (jyeṣṭhaśca śreṣṭhaśca). ↩
Many of the details of the following account were later incorporated into the life of Gotama, under the principle that the major events of the lives of Buddhas follow a natural order. Nonetheless, they are not always consistent with other accounts in early texts. For example, in the Attadaṇḍasutta the Buddha says his going forth was prompted by disillusionment and fear due to chronic conflict and warfare (Snp 4.15). ↩
In Snp 3.11, the newborn Siddhattha is examined by the dark hermit Asita. These two versions are combined in later accounts. ↩
Asita did not look at the 32 marks, and he predicted only one destiny: that he would become a Buddha. ↩
Various “treasures” (ratana) or “gems” of a king are discussed in such texts as Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 5.3.1. ↩
The marks are elsewhere listed in DN 30:1.2.1 and MN 91:9.1. Here I list the related marks in the Bṛhatsaṁhitā as identified by Nathan McGovern (On the Origins of the 32 Marks of a Great Man, Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 2016, vol. 39, pp. 207–247). ↩
This echoes the posture of the newborn bodhisatta, and has the same meaning: that he will become awakened by “standing on his own two feet”. ↩
These leave marks that were seen by Doṇa (AN 4.36:1.3). They are often depicted in Buddhist art, signifying the perfection and completeness of the traces that the Buddha leaves behind in his teachings and practice. Bṛhatsaṁhitā 69.17 lists several auspicious marks, including the wheel. ↩
Described as “abundantly long” at DN 30:1.12.8. ↩
Same at Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.36. ↩
Tender feet at Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.2. ↩
Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.2 has śliṣtāṅgulī (“compact or sticky fingers”). The commentary denies that the Pali jāla means a physical web. I think it means that the fingers and toes were usually held together rather than splayed, hence not letting things slip through the fingers. ↩
Ussaṅkha means “(curved) up like a shell”, while Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.2 says “curved up like a tortoise”. The descriptive verse at DN 30:1.21.12 shows that it refers to the tops of the feet. ↩
These are presumably the long, elegant rear calves of the Indian Blackbuck. ↩
This agrees with Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.35. ↩
Same at Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.8. ↩
Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.102 says kings have a shining complexion. ↩
Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.102 mentions a “clean complexion” (śuddha). ↩
Same at Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.5. ↩
Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.26 says those with hairs turning right become kings. ↩
Here brahm- is an adjective from √brah + ma, equivalent to the Sanskrit bṛṁh, having the sense “grown, extended”. The Sanskrit form here is bṛhadṛjugātra. ↩
Hands, feet, shoulders, and chest (DN 30:1.13.5). ↩
Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.18 compares not the chest but the hips with a lion. ↩
Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.27 says the heart is raised and muscular. ↩
Bṛhatsaṁhitā 69.13 has the same proportions without the simile. These are the normal human proportions, yet we cannot touch our knees without bending. The only way these marks could be reconciled is if the arms were extra long and the length of the legs below the knees was extra long as well. And this is exactly what we are told: the ankles are stretched and long, and the calves are like those of an antelope, whose rear calves are long proportionate to the thigh. Thus in this regard the marks appear to be internally consistent, though not describing normal human anatomy. ↩
“Ridged taste buds” is rasaggasaggī. Rasa can mean either “taste” or “nutrition”, but the use of ojā in DN 30:2.9.8 confirms the latter. Gasa is “swallow” and per DN 30:2.7.4 it is the “conveyance of savor” (rasaharaṇīyo). Agga often means “best”, but this is derived from the primary sense of “peak”. The descriptors uddhagga (“raised”) at DN 30:2.7.4 and susaṇṭhitā (“prominent”) at DN 30:2.9.8 confirm that the latter is meant. The mark refers to taste buds raised in noticeable ridges on the tongue that absorb nutrition and aid digestion. It has often been interpreted as “excellent (aggī) sense (gasa) of taste (rasa)”, but this, being imperceptible to others, is rather a secondary consequence of the mark. ↩
Even, gapless, and white teeth are at Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.52. ↩
Same at Bṛhatsaṁhitā 68.53. ↩
At Thig 13.1:6.2 Ambapālī describes her eyes as abhinīla. While some Indians do indeed have blue eyes, this probably describes a black so deep it appears blue. ↩
Cows have long and elegant eyelashes. ↩
The uṇhīsa is depicted as a bulge on the Buddha’s crown. ↩
This is the dakkhiṇā, the religious offering given in gratitude and respect for the services. ↩
His birth mother has passed away and there is no mention of a step-mother. ↩
Normally clairvoyance and related abilities are said to arise due to the power of the fourth jhāna, whereas here it comes naturally due to past kamma. After jhāna this ability is empowered by the radiant mind clear of hindrances, whereas here it seems to be a more limited ability to see clearly and in the dark. ↩
Vipassī’s name is simply the personal form of the word made famous in Buddhist meditation, vipassanā. This is usually rendered as “insight”, but the sense here is more like “clear seeing”. ↩
Indian epistemology acknowledges two fundamental sources of knowledge: direct perception (paccakkha) and inference (anumāna). This passage shows that vipassanā includes both. I render vipassanā with “discernment” in an attempt to capture both nuances, rather than the standard “insight”. ↩
Here begins the story of the four signs that led to Vipassī’s going forth—an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a renunciate. Later texts apply the same story to Siddhattha, indeed to all bodhisattvas. | These four “signs” (nimitta) are also called “messengers of the gods”, reckoned as five (MN 130) or three (AN 3.36). ↩
Antepuraṁ (“royal compound”) was the inner sanctum of the royal residence. Maximally it referred to the area enclosed by walls within which the ruling families and staff lived. It later became used in the more restricted sense of “harem”. ↩
“Brood” is pajjhāyati. He is having an existential crisis. ↩
In any story of prophecy, efforts are made to avert it and they invariably fail. This is a recursive property of prophetic myth. If the prophecy were averted, the myth would not exist and we would not know of it; but because the myth does exist, we know how it ends and the prophecy must come true. ↩
An existential crisis takes its own time; it cannot be rushed. ↩
Neither reading vilāta or milāta appears to occur elsewhere in this sense. The commentary says it is a bier (sivika). ↩
“Renunciate” is pabbajita (“one who has gone forth”), one of the many words for religious ascetics. It is a general term and does not specify his affiliation. ↩
“Celebrate” is sādhu, the famous Buddhist words of approval and rejoicing still heard every day in Theravāda Buddhist cultures. It later acquired the meaning “renunciate” but does not have that sense in early Pali. The virtues that he celebrates are common values of Indian religions. ↩
His apparently sudden decision to go forth arises only after an extensive period of crisis and contemplation. ↩
The idea that a whole populace would follow the bodhisatta on his renunciate path occurs several times in the Jātakas. ↩
Following the PTS edition in omitting janapada, which is absent from the commentary and the parallel passage at DN 19:58.3. ↩
This is the only place vāsūpagata (“entered his dwelling”) is added to this stock phrase. ↩
At SN 12.4–10 this same reflection is attributed to each of the seven past Buddhas, kicking off an investigation into dependent origination in reverse order, starting with the outcome: suffering. Here this is treated as a meditative contemplation, whereas the next sutta, DN 15 Mahānidānasutta, delves into the philosophical implications. ↩
The reflection shows how the bodhisatta is still digging into the trauma of discovering the reality of old age and death. ↩
Yoniso maniskāra (“rational application of mind”) is a distinctively Buddhist term that literally means “applying the mind by way of source”. It is mostly used in investigating causality, although over time it came to have a more general sense of “reflection, inquiry, attention”. ↩
Here begins the sequence of dependent origination. I give basic definitions of terms here, and more details in DN 15. See also my notes in the Nidānasaṁyutta, especially SN 12.1 and SN 12.2. | Rebirth is a necessary antecedent condition for old age and death. Note that it is not a sufficient condition for old age, for many die when young. ↩
Since there cannot be an end to the “birth” that starts this life, jāti means “rebirth”, the next stage in the ongoing cycle. ↩
Bhava means “being, existence, life” in the sense of “past and future lives”. It refers to the ongoing process of continued existence, transmigrating through life after life. By itself, bhava has a positive connotation, and represents the longing that many people have to continue to exist after death in a permanent and happy state. The Buddha, however, situates it as just one more dimension of the flow of conditions. ↩
“Grasping” (upādāna) at sensual pleasures, views, precepts and observances, and theories of a self (DN 15:6.3). Grasping has the active sense of “taking up” a new life, not just “clinging” to what one has. It has a dual sense, because it also means the “fuel” that sustains the fire of existence. ↩
Craving (taṇhā, literally “thirst”) and grasping have a similar meaning, but craving is primal desire while grasping is more complex, involving doctrines and behaviors. ↩
“Feeling” (vedanā) is more fundamental than the complex concept of “emotion”. It refers to the hedonic tone of experience as pleasant, painful, or neutral. ↩
“Contact” is literally “touch” (phassa), and refers to the stimulation that occurs when sense object meets sense organ in experience. ↩
The five senses with the mind as sixth. This topic is treated extensively throughout early Buddhism, with a special focus on understanding and restraining the pull of sense stimulation. Āyatana has a root sense “stretch”, from which derived senses include “dimension”, “field”, etc. ↩
“Name and form” (nāmarūpa) is a Vedic concept referring to the multiplicity of material forms (rūpa) and associated names (nāma), especially the individual “sentient organisms” such as gods and humans (Rig Veda 5.43.10, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.6.1, Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.3.2), which are ultimately absorbed into the divine, like rivers in the ocean (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 3.2.8, Praśna Upaniṣad 6.5). The Buddha treated “name” analytically as feeling, perception, intention, contact, and application of mind, and “form” as the four elements and derived matter (DN 15:20.8, MN 9:52–54.7, and SN 12.2:11.1). ↩
“Consciousness” (viññāṇa) is simple subjective awareness, the sense of knowing. It arises stimulated by either an external sense impression or a mental phenomena such as thought, memory, etc. It is the subjective awareness that makes the entire multiform world of concepts and appearances possible. Thus far the analysis agrees with Yājñavalkya, who says that the manifold appearances in the world arise from consciousness (etebhyo bhūtebhyaḥ samutthāya, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.12). ↩
Here the Buddha decisively departs from Yājñavalkya’s view that individuated awareness (saññā) returns into “this great reality, infinite, unbounded, a sheer mass of consciousness” (idaṁ mahadbhūtam anantam apāraṁ vijñānaghana eva, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.12). Consciousness (viññāṇa) is not a fundamental reality (mahadbhūta) underlying multiplicity, but rather a conditioned process that exists only together with name and form. ↩
Dependent origination normally continues with two further factors: choices and ignorance. The full series does not appear in the Dīghanikāya. This truncated series emphasizes the mutuality of name and form with consciousness, but does not preclude the normal linear series. Each presentation of dependent origination reveals a different aspect of a complex, ramified process. ↩
Note the use of repetition to sum up the main doctrinal teachings. This serves to lock the sequence in memory and ensure no items are missing or displaced, while for one who is reciting the text from memory it provides an opportunity to reflect and apply the meaning in their own experience. ↩
This phrasing recalls the Buddha’s first sermon (SN 56.11:5.1), an insight that is said to be common to all Buddhas (SN 56.12:1.1). Pubbe ananussutesu (“not learned before from another”) means that this is a fresh insight not passed down in an oral tradition. ↩
The PTS edition has vipassanā-maggo here, despite admitting the term is found in no manuscripts and is taken from the commentary, where it is clearly an explanation not a reading (maggoti vipassanāmaggo). This error is followed by Rhys Davids and Walshe in their translations. ↩
Insight into dependent origination here indicates the attaining of stream entry. ↩
The five grasping aggregates (pañcūpādānakkhandhā) are mentioned as a summary of suffering in the Buddha’s first sermon (SN 56.11:4.2). Most of the teachings on this topic are collected in the Khandhasaṁyutta at SN 22, but they are also found in the Dīghanikāya at DN 22:14.1, DN 33:1.11.45, DN 33:2.1.4, and DN 34:1.6.16. The contemplation on the aggregates dispels the mistaken assumption of a self. Many of the theorists in DN 1 identify the self with one or other of the aggregates. ↩
Saṅkhāra in early Buddhism has three main doctrinal senses. (1) The broadest sense is “conditioned phenomena”, which we find in the Dīghanikāya at DN 16:6.10.10, DN 17:2.16.1, and DN 34:1.8.59. This essentially means “everything except Nibbana”. (2) Sometimes it is a physical or mental “process” or “activity” as at DN 18:24.1, where it refers to the gradual stilling of energies in the development of meditation. (3) In the five aggregates and dependent origination it has the sense of “morally potent volitions or choices” and is a synonym for cetanā (“intention”). It is defined as good, bad, and imperturbable choices (DN 33:1.10.77), the latter of which refers to the kamma of the fourth jhāna and above. In this sense it is the moral “choices” for good or ill that propel consciousness into a new rebirth. ↩
The radical thesis of the Buddha’s teaching is the idea that consciousness is merely another empirical phenomena that comes to an end, as is also emphasized in the concluding verses of DN 11. ↩
This indicates the attainment of arahantship, the complete release from all attachments leading to rebirth. ↩
No longer a bodhisatta, he is now called a Buddha for the first time. ↩
In early Buddhism, the idea of teaching the Dhamma only arose after awakening. ↩
A similar account is told of Gotama Buddha at SN 6.1:1.4, MN 26:19.2, MN 85:43.2, and Kd 1:5.2.2. ↩
Here “clinging” is ālaya, from a root meaning “to stick”. ↩
“Specific conditionality” ( idappaccayatā) refers to the fact that dependent origination traces the specific conditions for other specific things: this conditions that. It is not a general principle of universal conditionality (“everything is interconnected”). ↩
“Stilling of all activities” (sabbasaṅkhārasamatho) is the cessation of all conditioned energies or phenomena. | “Attachment” here is upadhi, which is both the things of the world to which we cling, and the inner clinging. The Jains defined upadhi similarly (Tattvārthasūtra 9.26). The dominant meaning in Sanskrit is “fraud”, which perhaps informs the Buddhist sense. ↩
The commentary is careful to specify that the Buddha means physical exhaustion only. ↩
“Not supernaturally inspired” (anacchariyā) rejects the Vedic “channeling” of scripture from the Divinity, while “not learned before in the past” (pubbe assutapubbā), echoing the Dhammacakkappavattanasutta (SN 56.11:5.1), rejects the oral tradition. ↩
“Shrouded” is āvuṭā, which is from the same root as asaṁvutā in DN 14:1.17.5 above, as well as nīvaraṇa (“hindrance”). All these terms ultimately stem from the Vedic serpent Vṛtra (“the constrictor”) who wraps the world in darkness. ↩
Had he followed this inclination he would have been a paccekabuddha, a Buddha “awakened for himself”. ↩
In the accounts of Gotama’s life this is specified as Brahmā Sahampati (see MN 26:20.1 and note). This whole passage is a moment of high cosmic solemnity and drama. ↩
The Buddha teaches on the invitation of the highest divinity. This sets a precedent for Buddhists to refrain from proselytizing, but rather teach by invitation. These passages are still recited in some places to invite a teaching. ↩
Aññātāro is an agent noun in plural, literally “understanders”. ↩
Previously he simply reflected to himself, now he uses his psychic abilities to ascertain people’s spiritual potential. ↩
Indriya (“faculty”) is an abstract noun from indra, the name of the potent Vedic god of war. In the Vedas, Indra manifests his indriya by drinking soma. The drug enables him to release his full potential and power; originally this probably referred to drinking an amphetamine-like substance before battle. Here we see that it means something like “spiritual potential” which is unleashed by the practice of the eightfold path. ↩
Here we see a verbal echo of Sahampati’s martial origins. ↩
A “caravan leader” (satthavāha) guides their flock through treacherous deserts and wastelands, as illustrated at DN 23:23.3. | Anaṇa (“debtless”) is a technical term in the Vedic system. According to Manu 6.35–7, a renunciate must first pay off three debts: study of Vedas, begetting a son, and offering of sacrifices. One who goes forth with these debts unpaid is headed for a downfall. The Buddha has indeed paid off all these debts: he studied the Vedas under his former teachers (MN 26:15.6); he has a son Rāhula; and his path is regarded as the highest form of sacrifice (DN 5:24.1). But in Buddhism the concept is reinterpreted as meaning one has let go of all defilements, becoming a “perfected”, literally “worthy” one, after which one can eat almsfood free of debt (MN 124:38.1, SN 16.11:13.2). ↩
Pamuñcantu saddhaṁ has long troubled translators, as the basic sense of pamuñcantu is “release”. The problem is a long-standing one, for Sanskrit variants include pramodantu (“celebrate”) or praṇudantu kāṅkṣāḥ (“dispel doubts”). I think it is a poetic variant of adhimuñcantu, to “decide” or “commit” to faith. Pali commonly uses a synonymous verb to reinforce the sense of the noun. In Snp 5.19, muttasaddho, pamuñcassu saddhaṁ, and adhimuttacittaṁ are all used in this sense. ↩
In the account of Gotama, he first thinks to teach his former colleagues under whom he practiced the formless attainments. Here we see the start of a tendency in the legends of past Buddhas to erase the education among other spiritual teachers before awakening. Note that these two, who will become Vipassī’s chief disciples, are leading khattiya and brahmin sons of the royal household. Khaṇḍa was Vipassī’s brother, and the priest’s son was virtually family. ↩
Khema (“sanctuary”) originally meant “oasis”. It is common name for lakes and nature parks in the Jātakas. ↩
There is a clear distinction between such managed “parks” and wilderness regions (arañña). ↩
In the early period, there was no distinction between “going forth” (pabbajjā) and “ordination” (upasampadā). They refer to two sides of the same coin: leaving the home life and entering the ascetic life. Ordination was originally granted with the simple call, “Come mendicant!” (ehi bhikkhu). ↩
Thus they became arahants, realizing the same truth that Vipassī had. ↩
As at Kd 1:11.1.4 and SN 4.5:2.3. One of the Buddha’s first acts is to empower his students. ↩
In the Vinaya of the current Buddha, the recitation occurs every fortnight on the uposatha (“sabbath”), and it includes only the mendicants resident in a specific monastery. Here they gathered from all over India. ↩
“Black Plum Tree Land” is jambudīpa, the South Asian subcontinent, including India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. The number 84,000 does not seem excessive, as the Chinese pilgrims recorded many thousands of monasteries throughout India. In modern Thailand there are around 40,000 monasteries. ↩
The verses that follow form the climax of the whole discourse. They are known as the Ovāda Pātimokkha, the “monastic code for exhortation”. It seems that they were recited on the uposatha in the days before the establishment of the list of rules that is also called pātimokkha. Most of the extant Vinayas still include these verses in the pātimokkha texts, the Pali being a notable exception. ↩
The Buddha redefines tapas from painful mortification to gentle acceptance. ↩
These verses speak of “Buddhas” in plural. ↩
These famous lines serve as a succinct summary of the entire Buddhist path. ↩
“Embrace” is upasampadā, to “enter into”. It is the same word used for taking ordination as well as entering jhāna. ↩
Through meditation. ↩
The buddhasāsana (“instruction of the Buddha” or “dispensation of the Buddha”) is the normal word used by Buddhists to refer to their own religion. ↩
Here “monastic code” means the principles outlined in these verses. They are spelled out in more detail in the Gradual Training (DN 2, etc.), and ultimately in the detailed legal code of the Vinayapiṭaka. ↩
The “higher mind” is the four jhānas (AN 3.90:3.2). ↩
The Buddha now returns to the present life. Ukkaṭṭhā is the home of Pokkharasāti (DN 3:2.13.1) and the site of the astonishing and cosmically significant discourses MN 1 and MN 49. ↩
Only non-returners are born in the pure abodes (suddhāvāsā), from where they realize full awakening. ↩
“Order of gods” is devanikāya. I use “deity” to distinguish devatā from deva but there is no substantial difference. ↩
This is a list of the major events in any Buddha biography. ↩
The lifespan in such a realm can be many hundreds of eons. ↩
These are absent in the Pali text at this point, but they are mentioned below, and the commentary says they should be included here. ↩
This is the detailed answer to the question asked by the mendicants at DN 14:1.13.6. ↩
This sutta with its commentary was translated by Bhikkhu Bodhi in his The Great Discourse on Causation. It is the longest and most complex discourse on dependent origination in early Buddhism. ↩
The Kurukṣetra was an ancient Brahmanical kingdom situated in the region around modern Delhi, bordered by the Ganges in the east, the Sarasvatī in the west, the Himalayas in the north, and the hills of the Aravalli Range in the south. The Mahābharata climaxes with the battle fought there between the Kurus and the Pāṇḍavas. These events, to the extent that they can be established historically, took place several centuries before the Buddha. Kuru marks the north-western extent of the Buddha’s travels. Kammāsadamma is identified with modern Kumashpur in Haryana, about 40 km north of Delhi. ↩
While we cannot date this text, the fact that Ānanda has evidently been studying deep matters for a long time, that it takes place outside the Buddha’s accustomed locales, and that it builds on teachings found elsewhere, suggests that it happened rather late in the Buddha’s life. At SN 12.60 we find the same introduction to a much shorter discourse. ↩
At SN 6.1:1.6 (and DN 14:3.1.6 in the case of Vipassī), the Buddha hesitated to teach the Dhamma because dependent origination is so hard to see. Ānanda was not only learned and wise, he was a stream enterer who had directly experienced dependent origination (AN 10.92:6.1), yet he still underestimates it. ↩
The sutta introduce subtle variations in the standard formula as a means to illuminate hidden implications and dimensions. ↩
The Buddha establishes the primary purpose of dependent origination: to understand transmigration so as to be free from it. ↩
Dependent origination is here taught in “reverse order” (paṭiloma, Ud 1.2:1.4), starting with the existential problem: we are all going to die. This factor and the next are resultant, so we cannot solve them directly. ↩
With this the Buddha denies the promise of immortality in this or any other realm. ↩
“Continued existence” (or “life”) is an encompassing term, including both resultant and causal dimensions. ↩
“Grasping” and “craving” (together with “ignorance” in the full sequence) are the defilements that drive the process on. It is here that the practice of the path takes effect, uprooting them entirely. ↩
The next three factors spell out the process of sense experience that unfolds automatically. Meditation slows it down so it can be seen clearly, but the process remains even for the perfected ones. ↩
Here we encounter the first unique feature of this sequence, as normally the six sense fields appear as the condition for contact. The reason for this special presentation becomes clear later on. ↩
The mutual conditioning of consciousness with name and form is a further subtlety of this presentation. We have met this idea before in DN 14:2.18.43; it also occurs in SN 12.65 and SN 12.67. Again, implications of this are explored below. ↩
The sequence is recapped in forward order (anuloma, Ud 1.1:1.4). ↩
The Buddha now takes up each of the terms in more depth. ↩
This emphatic phrasing drives home that “cessation” (nirodha) is not simply temporary suppression or non-arising, but permanent and complete absence. ↩
“Rebirth” (jāti) is defined as the birth of a new life, not as simple arising. ↩
The various terms for “cause” are used as synonyms (hetu, nidāna, samudaya, paccaya). The purpose of using different terms is not to add nuances, but to reinforce the central meaning and guard against the corruption of meaning; if one word is lost or misunderstood, the meaning of the sentence as a whole is not changed. ↩
These realms relate to the kamma that projects consciousness into them. The realms of “luminous form” (rūpabhava) and the “formless” (arūpabhava) are generated by the form and formless attainments respectively. Any other kamma, good or bad, pertains to the sensual realm (kāmabhava). All rebirth takes place in one or other of these realms. ↩
“Grasping” (upādāna) begins with the primal desire of the senses, but the three other graspings are rather intellectual and sophisticated. Only a grown human being with a developed linguistic ability is able to formulate a view to become attached to, and likewise with attachment to religious observances and vows, and to theories of a self. This is why the bulk of kamma is produced by adult humans, rather than by, say, animals or children, for whom these dimensions of grasping are nascent. ↩
“Craving” (taṇhā) is a fundamental desire or urge. Unlike grasping, it is fully active in children and animals. Often it has a threefold definition, which we find below, but in dependent origination it is usually defined in terms of the six senses, which relates it to the items to come. ↩
The usual threefold definition of feeling (pleasant, painful, neutral) is reframed in terms of the six senses. ↩
Here the Buddha introduces another, even more radical, departure from the typical sequence. Rather than continue back to contact and name and form, he branches out in an entirely new direction. These “nine things rooted in craving” are found independently at AN 9.23:1.2 and DN 34:2.2.31, but only here are they integrated with the standard dependent origination. ↩
While the purpose of the main dependent origination is to disclose the web of conditions that generates the suffering of transmigration, here the Buddha looks at the arising of social conflict and disorder. ↩
In DN 27 Aggaññasutta the Buddha narrates a legend showing how these things arise. The point is not that we should not safeguard (ārakkha) our possessions. It is, rather, that so long as we live in a world where safeguarding possessions is necessary, there will be conflict and violence. ↩
“Stinginess” is macchariya. ↩
There are many words in Pali that approximate the English word “attachment”. Here it is ajjhosāna. ↩
“Evaluation” is vinicchaya. We like to weigh up and consider the pros and cons of different objects of desire. ↩
Those who have nothing are grateful for any small thing, and do not indulge in picking and choosing. ↩
Our senses are tuned to hunt out and acquire pleasure. ↩
This is the normal definition of craving in the four noble truths, supplementing the previous definition in terms of the six senses. Both are included in this sutta to show that they do not contradict, but rather reveal different aspects of the same thing. It is not just sensual desire that drives acquisition. For example, religious people fight over sacred ground or holy objects to gain a place in heaven; or else those driven by nihilism go to any lengths for alcohol or drugs to erase existence. ↩
The threefold analysis of feeling leads to the process of acquisition, while the sixfold analysis of feeling leads to dependent origination. ↩
And now we rejoin the main sequence. ↩
People mostly want to enjoy pleasant sensations, in this life and the next, but those sensations depend on a constant supply of the appropriate stimuli. ↩
Name and form are said to be conditions for contact also at Snp 4.11:11.1. ↩
The “set of mental phenomena known as name” is nāmakāya. Its function depends not any underlying essence, but on the “features” by which it is “made known”; this is a phenomenological analysis. | “Labeling contact” is adhivacanasamphassa; it is the active process by which the mind makes sense of the world by attaching labels to experience. This passage reinforces the linguistic significance of nāma. ↩
The “set of physical phenomena known as form” is rūpakāya. | “Impingement contact” is paṭighasamphassa. Here paṭigha refers to the “striking” of physical phenomena against each other, such as light “hitting” the eye. It most commonly appears in this sense in the formula that begins the formless attainments. ↩
Labeling moves from the mind to the world; impingement moves from the world to the mind. Together they create a dynamic two-way process by which we learn about the world and how to make sense of it. ↩
Contact is fundamentally a meeting, normally expressed as the coming together of the sense stimulus (light), the sense organ (eye), and sense consciousness. By skipping the direct mention of the six senses, the Buddha opens another perspective on this process: mental labeling meets sense impingement, each essential to the other, and together making contact possible. The analysis itself exemplifies this process, as it starts by looking at the process from each side, and moves towards integration, seeing them both together. ↩
Consciousness in dependent origination is normally defined as the six kinds of sense consciousness (SN 12:6.3). The purpose of this is to emphasize that the process of rebirth and transmigration is an empirical process, which depends on the same ordinary consciousness we are experiencing now. Here, once again, by skipping the six senses, a new mode of analysis opens up, which emphasizes the organic growth of the individual. ↩
“Conceived” is okkamissatha, literally “descend” or “arrive”. | “Coagulate” assumes the PTS reading samucchissatha (Sanskrit sammurch). I believe this echoes the belief that the embryo is “coagulated” from the mix of blood and semen. Compare the Jain term sammūrcchana, “congealment”, which covers all kinds of birth not from a uterus or spontaneous (Tattvārtha Sūtra 2.35). | Linguistically, this passage through to DN 15:22.2 is marked with the extremely rare verbal ending -issatha_, which is the middle form of the third person singular conditional. ↩
“Miscarried” is vokkamissatha. | “State of existence” is itthattā, which is most commonly found in the declaration of the arahant that they will no longer be reborn into “this state of existence”. | Here “born” is abhinibbatti, which is listed along with jāti, okkanti, and other terms as a synonym in the standard definition of rebirth (SN 12.2:4.2, MN 9:24–26.7, DN 22:18.4). ↩
The connection between dependent origination and childhood development is further explored in MN 38:28.1. ↩
Now we turn to the mirror side of the pair of conditions. ↩
Just as name and form—the organic, sensual, and sense-making body—cannot grow without consciousness, so too consciousness must acquire a landing or grounding place to be “planted” in name and form. | Dukkhasamudayasambhavo (“the coming to be of the origin of suffering”) might be rendered “the coming to be and origin of suffering”. However, dukkhasamudaya occurs some hundreds of times in the sense “origin of suffering” so I take it in the same way here. This is supported by the PTS variant reading dukkhasamudayo sambhavo. ↩
This passage continues to employ rare middle forms, this time -etha, the third person singular optative. ↩
This passage explains why the sequence ends here rather than proceeding in the usual way to choices and ignorance. Any state of being ultimately depends on the codependency of name and form with consciousness. Within this key relationship is the extent not only of language, but also of wisdom, and the secret to the undoing of transmigration itself. One of the many profound implications of this is that there is no such thing as a state of pure consciousness independent of concepts. | Ettāvatā vaṭṭaṁ vattati itthattaṁ paññāpanāya should be read with such passages as SN 22.56:5.3: ye kevalino vaṭṭaṁ tesaṁ natthi paññāpanāya (“For consummate ones, there is no cycle of rebirths to be found”). | In Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.1.5, one who worships Divinity as name can do as they please “within the limits of name” (yāvannāmno gataṁ). | The Mahāsaṅgīti reading aññamaññapaccayatā pavattati is spurious, since it inserts an Abhidhamma concept from the commentary. ↩
The text now turns to an analysis of theories of “self” (attā), which is comparable to some of the passages of DN 1. The Buddha began his discourse by stating that it is the failure to understand dependent origination that keeps beings trapped in transmigration. Dependent origination explains transmigration in a purely empirical way by inferring from the mental and physical phenomena we experience here and now. Self theorists, on the other hand, explain transmigration by introducing a new metaphysical principle, the “self” or “soul”, by which they assume that the individual has an eternal underlying essence. ↩
“Formed” is rūpī (“possessing form”), identifying the self with the first of the five aggregates. If something were really the core essence of a person, you would think it is readily knowable. But the Buddha shows that theorists describe the self in multiple different and incompatible ways. Each of these draws on some more-or-less arbitrary aspect of empirical reality, such as “form”, to describe an unknowable metaphysical entity that is in fact just pure supposition. ↩
An example of a self that is “physical and limited” would be the body. ↩
Such as the cosmos. ↩
Perhaps this is the self of “limited perception” (DN 1:2.38.13). This would be where the mind is aware of something limited, and the self is identified with the mental dimension of that awareness. ↩
Such as the formless dimensions. ↩
The three options (“it is”, “it will be so”, and “I will make it be so”) illustrate how the theorist resorts to ever more convoluted means to justify the lack of empirical support for their pet theory. | Bhāviṁ (“sure to become”) is the root bhū with the primary affix -ī, which connotes an inevitable future state. | Tattha (“in some other place”, literally “there”) is explained by the commentary as paraloke (“in the next world”). ↩
Their surface differences rest on the same underlying assumption, so if the assumption is disproved there is no need to refute each individual theory. | Iccālaṁ resolves to iti alaṁ. ↩
This is the Buddha, who does not theorize a metaphysical self. Implicit in this argument is Occam’s razor, “entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity”. Since the self theorists want to prove the existence of the “self”, it is up to them to supply the grounds to support their suppositions. Since they fail to do so, the rational position is that there is no self. The Buddha is not under a similar obligation to prove the non-existence of the “self”, since it is reasonable to assume that things do not exist until the evidence says otherwise. ↩
Having asserted a metaphysical “self”, the theorists go on to make certain observations and interpretations regarding it. ↩
The Buddha moves from theories of the self as form to feeling, the second of the five aggregates. ↩
For example, identifying the self with the supposed eternal bliss of heaven. As with the description of self in physical terms, the theorist proceeds from a simple assertion of identity to more complicated hypotheses. ↩
This is the inverse of the previous. The self is still defined in relation to feeling, but it is a negative relation. Such theories are commonly found in the Upaniṣads, where a prominent thread of analysis systematically rejects all the things that are not the self (neti), before finally arriving at what is the self (eg. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.5.15). ↩
Here the theorist describes feeling as a function of the self: it is not what the self is, but what the self does. At MN 38:5.11 (= MN 2:8.8), Sāti describes the self as consciousness, “the speaker and feeler who experiences the results of good and bad deeds in all the different realms”. ↩
The Buddha goes on to develop specific arguments addressing each position. ↩
The Buddha points out the universal experience of feeling, thus establishing his argument on common ground. This same argument is found at MN 74:10.1. ↩
The idea that only one kind of feeling can be experienced at a time became an adage of Buddhist psychology, but it is not obvious to me that it is the case. Here and at MN 74 it is assumed to be a shared belief with non-Buddhists. ↩
Feeling is part of the fundamental structure of consciousness. This argument comes through more clearly in Pali, for the word for “feeling” (vedanā) is derived from and still lies close to the sense of “knowing, experiencing”. Thus the question is, “If there was no mind, would there be the thought ‘I am this’?” The commentary explains that this refers to the bare material realm which is devoid of consciousness. The commentary appears to support the variant reading ahamasmī here. This makes sense in context, for “I am” is the first and most primordial assertion of a self, while “I am this” is a more sophisticated identification of the self in relation to the aggregates. ↩
The theorist avoids identifying feeling as the self, but they must identify something as the self (as for example, Sāti said the self was viññāṇa). Feeling, however, is deeply wound into the structure of consciousness, so if feeling were to be utterly absent, no other mental phenomena could continue, and there would therefore be no possibility of forming a theory of self. ↩
Letting go is not just a conceptual matter, it has immediate emotional consequences. Paritassati conveys the twin senses of desire and agitation, for which “anxiety” seems the best fit. ↩
This recalls the similar statement at DN 15:22.6. Whereas there it was a statement about name and form with consciousness, here it is a description of the arahant who has fully realized it. Unlike the theorists whose views do not withstand empirical scrutiny, the arahant’s liberation is based on a direct understanding of reality. ↩
The Buddha returns once more to the question of rebirth, describing various states of rebirth in terms of consciousness. The seven planes are also mentioned at DN 33:2.3.28, DN 34:1.8.11, and AN 7.44:1.1. ↩
“Plane of consciousness” is viññāṇaṭṭhiti, which could also be rendered “station”. ↩
In the first of these dimensions there is no consciousness at all, and in the second there is no consciousness in the normal sense, which is why they cannot be called “planes of consciousness”. ↩
Abhinandituṁ, to “take pleasure in”, to “relish”, or to “delight in” appears in the standard formula for the second noble truth, where craving “takes pleasure in various realms” (tatratatrābhinandinī). ↩
One “freed by wisdom” has wisdom as the dominant faculty. ↩
The eight liberations (vimokkhā) are an alternative way of describing the meditative experiences of jhāna. Elsewhere they are listed at DN 16:3.33.1, DN 33:3.1.168, DN 34:2.1.191, AN:8.66, MN 77:22.1, and referred to at AN 4.189:1.8 and Thag 20.1:33.1. At AN 8.120 and MN 137:27.1 they are listed but not called the eight liberations. ↩
Someone sees a meditative vision based on the perception of their own body, such as through mindfulness of breathing or one’s own body parts. The first three liberations all cover the four jhānas. ↩
A meditator grounds their practice on some external focus, such as a light, the sight of a corpse, or an external element such as earth. ↩
This is a practice based on wholly pure and exalted meditation, such as the meditation on love, or the sight of a pure brilliant color like the sky. ↩
The “cessation of perception and feeling” (saññāvedayitanirodha) is a culminating meditation state of supreme subtlety that often leads directly to awakening (but see AN 5.166). The state itself, like all meditation states, is temporary, but afterwards the defilements can be eliminated forever. This liberating insight is the consequence of the balanced development of all eight factors of the path. ↩
This passage emphasizes that this person is fully adept and has mastered all the states of meditation. The Buddha claimed such mastery (AN 9.41:16.1), and retained the ability even on his deathbed (DN 16:6.8.1). ↩
Here we see the terms “one who is freed” used in two ways. All arahants have “freedom of heart” (by means of samādhi) and “freedom by wisdom” (the realization of the Dhamma). At the same time, one who emphasizes samādhi is said to have “freedom of heart” in contrast with one who emphasizes wisdom, who has “freedom by wisdom”. One who has consummate mastery of both samādhi and wisdom is said to be “freed both ways”. ↩
The longest of all early discourses, this dramatic and moving narrative tells the story of the Buddha’s slow journey towards his final passing. ↩
After the events of DN 2, Ajātasattu retained and consolidated his power. Magadha ultimately conquered the Vajji Federation and continued to expand until almost all of India was under its sway. ↩
According to the commentary, Ajātasattu’s anger was rooted in a dispute on trade routes. Control of shipping on the Ganges was essential for establishing international trade. There was a port on the Ganges extending over a league, split half and half between Magadha and Vajji. Valuable products were sourced from a mountain and brought down for trade, but the Vajjis kept absconding with the whole lot. The place is not identified, but Munger, a strategic port east of Patna, fits the description. The nearby hills have been mined since paleolithic times. It is also likely, as maintained in Jain tradition, that the Vajjis disputed Ajātasattu’s accession after committing regicide. His threatening posture towards the Vajjis is also mentioned in SN 20.8:2.2. ↩
Vassakāra appears in the suttas as a devoted follower of the Buddha. ↩
The Vajji Federation harks back to an early settlement founded by the legendary Nābhānediṣṭha in the Vedic period. It built its wealth on its extensive fertile plains and the trading possibilities opened up by the Gandak and Ganges rivers. ↩
While it may seem strange to consult the Buddha on such a violent plan, Ajātasattu knows from his experience in DN 2 that the Buddha will not hesitate to tell him the truth, even if it is bad news. It seems he is trying to avoid the downfall of tyrants who are surrounded only with yes men. ↩
Reading yojapetvā (“had them harnessed”), which is found in the Mahāsaṅgīti in similar passages, and in this passage in the PTS edition. ↩
Ānanda cares for the Buddha in his old age. Shortly after these events, Ānanda was entrusted with reciting the suttas at the First Council. This discourse would have been composed by him in the years following his Master’s death. More than a simple interlocutor, Ānanda shapes the story as its second lead, a relatable character with an empathetic point of view. He imbues the discourse with his emotional struggles as he deals with the Buddha’s passing and helps ensure the future survival of the Dhamma, while still developing his own meditation practice. ↩
As for example at AN 8.12:1.2. ↩
Harmony is especially important as the Vajji Federation was comprised of several different clans, among them the Licchavis of Vesālī, the Ñātikas just south of Vesālī, the Uggas of Hatthigāma (Elephant Village), and the Bhogas of Bhoganagara. Some sources say the Vajjis proper were another tribe within the alliance. The Videhans of Mithilā are also sometimes included, but several sources indicate that they remained an independent, if reduced, kingdom until they were conquered by Magadha some years later. The Mallas of Pāvā and Kusinārā formed a closely allied independent republic (MN 35:12.8). ↩
The “ancient Vajjian traditions” (porāṇe vajjidhamme) would have been established with the founding of the Vajji Federation some centuries earlier, which ensured that the members of the federation would have a voice in the Licchavi-dominated union. Compare with the “ancient traditions of the brahmins” (porāṇā brāhmaṇadhammā at AN 5.191 and Snp 2.7), the falling away from which is said to be the cause of Brahmanical decline. Similarly, the Buddha elsewhere scolds the Vajjis for their indulgence (AN 5.143), suggesting that the decline may have already set in. ↩
This advocates for legal protection for women from sexual violence. | For various legal regulations regarding women and sex, see Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra 12. ↩
The Buddha will stay at several of these shrines later in this discourse. They were sacred groves, maintained by the people in reverence for the powerful spirits of nature. | “Spirit-offerings” is bali. | The commentary explains “inner or outer” as inside or outside the town. ↩
It is an old Indian belief that the presence of holy persons provides a kind of umbrella effect that protects the realm. ↩
This event is recorded at AN 7.21, where the Buddha addresses the Licchavis. That chapter of the Aṅguttara mostly consists of the teachings found here presented as separate suttas. | The Sārandada shrine was short walk from Vesālī (AN 5.143). ↩
There is a certain tension here: the Buddha taught these principles to the Vajjis, one of which is that the Vajjis should not adopt new decrees. It seems that a “decree” (paññatta) is more like constitutional law, whereas a “principle” (dhamma) is more like a behavioral guideline. ↩
Upalāpana is used a number of times in the Vinaya, where it always has the sense of giving someone something to get them to do what you want. It has the same sense at SN 3.25:4.13, where an enemy king may be bribed with gold from the royal treasury. | The commentary says that Vassakāra himself was assigned with the task of weakening the Vajjis in this way. ↩
There were several monasteries and hermitages around Rājagaha (Kd 2:11.1.1). ↩
This especially refers to the fortnightly uposatha. Despite the dangers faced in the rugged hills around Rājagaha (Kd 2:12.1.1), the Buddha insisted that all monks of the locality attended the uposatha (Kd 2:5.3.1). ↩
The Buddha encouraged the mendicants to recite the Dhamma in harmony (MN 103:3.2), to resolve issues in harmony (MN 104:14.3), and on the uposatha to recite and train in the pātimokkha in harmony (Bu As 7:4.11). ↩
Picking up from the similar injunction to the Vajjis, this kicks off a long narrative arc that binds together the Buddha’s invitation to abolish the minor rules (DN 16:6.3.1) with the bad monk Subhadda’s seizing on the Buddha’s death as an excuse to give up the rules, which was the direct motivation for the First Council (DN 16:6.20.3 = Kd 21:1.1.24), at the end of which the Sangha agreed not to abolish any rules (Kd 21:1.9.20), a decision that was affirmed a century later at the Second Council (Kd 22). ↩
The nature of seniority in the Saṅgha is often misunderstood. There is no “hierarchy” (literally “rule of priests”) in the sense of power-based relationships: no monastic has the authority to command another monk or nun. Seniority is owed respect, not obedience. ↩
This stands in place of the injunction against sexual violence, both principles being concerned with the harmful effects of desire. ↩
This stands in place of the injunction to maintain the shrines, where mendicants would frequently stay. ↩
This stands in place of the injunction to look after arahants. ↩
“Work” is kamma, which especially means “building work”. Of course it is essential to do work, but one should not get too caught up in it. The Buddha did not believe that working hard was ennobling in and of itself. ↩
“Corrupt wishes” (pāpicchā) is defined as when a faithless person wishes to be known as faithful, or person otherwise lacking good qualities wishes to be known as having them (AN 10.23:6.2). ↩
This item and the preceding two were the downfall of Devadatta (Iti 89). ↩
As at AN 7.27. These “perceptions” are all meditation practices which are described at AN 10.60. ↩
These six principles are found in several places, but they are not elsewhere called “principles that prevent decline”; for example at AN 6.11 they are called “warm-hearted qualities” (dhammā sāraṇīyā). At AN 6.22, however, a different six qualities are called “principles that prevent decline”: not relishing work, talk, sleep, and company, being easy to admonish, and having good friends. ↩
This is the right view of the noble eightfold path, in other words, the four noble truths. ↩
This epitome of the Dhamma is repeated eight times in this discourse, summarizing the teachings in the Gradual Training. It is not found in this exact form elsewhere. ↩
“Imbued” (paribhāvita) as a mother hen imbues her eggs with warmth by sitting on them (AN 7.71:2.2). See also SN 55.21:2.3. ↩
Some editions add diṭṭhāsava (“defilement of views”), but since that appears to be a late interpolation I follow the Mahāsaṅgīti in omitting it. ↩
This is the same rest-house at which the Buddha sojourned on his way from Rājagaha to Nāḷandā in the Brahmajālasutta (DN 1). ↩
This was apparently the last time that the Buddha met Sāriputta. This encounter is recorded in an independent sutta at SN 47.12 and expanded into a long discourse at DN 28. The Saṁyutta follows this meeting with the record of Sāriputta’s passing at SN 47.13, and then the lament for the absence of both Sāriputta and Moggallāna at SN 47.14 . For some reason these events were omitted from the present discourse, even though they fit well thematically. ↩
As at DN 14:1.37.4, inference (anvaya) is regarded as a valid form of knowledge. The Buddha himself is said to rely on inference using the same simile at AN 10.95:10.4. See SN 12.33 and notes for discussion. ↩
This is modern Patna. In this account we see how it was developed from the simple riverside village of Pāṭaligāma to the citadel of Pāṭaliputta. Ajātasattu ultimately moved the capital of Magadha from the defensively-postured Rājagaha surrounded by hills to this trading center on open waters. Under Ashoka it became one of the greatest cities of the ancient world. It was named after the pāṭalī tree (Stereospermum chelonoides), known as patala in Hindi. ↩
Also at AN 5.213, Ud 8.6:4.1, DN 33:2.1.36, and Kd 1:28.4.1. ↩
The Buddha begins with the things most obvious and pertinent to the audience. ↩
Bewildered by fear and regret. ↩
Suññāgāra normally means an “empty dwelling”, but here the commentary describes it as a curtained-off cubicle. ↩
Vassakāra was no dawdler, as he preceded the Buddha to Pāṭaligāma. And not long after, he returned to Rājagaha to build more fortifications there (MN 108:6.2). | Nagara here means “citadel, fortress”, not “city”. It has the same sense as pura. The construction is defensive and may well have begun before Ajātasattu began thinking of invading. ↩
The relation between deities and building sites (vatthu) appears only in this passage in the early texts (repeated at Ud 8.6:15.2 and Kd 1:28.7.3). Divination and geomancy (vatthuvijjā) for building sites is said to be a wrong livelihood at DN 1:1.21.2. ↩
From this point, later texts always refer to Pāṭaliputta, but the reason for the change of name from Pāṭaligāma is not explained in the commentary. Putta is a suffix indicating the people of a certain clan or place, so pāṭaliputta means “a person from Pāṭalī (village)” or as we might say, “Pāṭalian”. As the city became well known and its identity as a village receded, it must have become known as the “city of the Pāṭaliputtas” and hence simply Pāṭaliputta. Compare the uses of ñātika below. | The commentary explains that puṭabhedanaṁ refers to the “opening of packages”, signifying that it was a center of trade. This usage is attested as late as the 13th century Jain Vividhatīrthakalpa of Jinaprabhasūri. | “Civilized region” is ariyaṁ āyatanaṁ, the cultural region defined by use of the Ariyaka language (cf. AN 6.96:1.3, Ud 8.6:17.9 and note to DN 26:4.8). ↩
Excavations reveal that Pāṭaliputta was constructed of wood, so the danger of fire was real. It is situated on a low-lying flood plain of the Ganges, so flooding would also have been an obvious danger. As for dissension (mithubheda), Vassakāra had indicated that this was a means of bringing down the Vajjis, so it would seem that kamma was lying in wait for them. ↩
This is the anumodanā recited for the meal offering. Other examples are found at Snp 3.7:34.3 = MN 92:25.6, SN 55.26:20.1, Kd 1:15.14.4, and Kd 1:1.5.1. | It is worth noting that no early anomodanā uses the imperative verb form -tu signifying giving a blessing (eg. bhavatu sabbamaṅgalaṁ, “may all blessings be”). They strictly use the indicative -ti to teach cause and effect: if you do this, that happens. ↩
Buddhism promotes good neighborliness with all beings, seen and unseen. Making an offering to the local spirits helps create a positive and healthy sense of place. ↩
At AN 4.67:8.3 a similar sentiment is expressed for animals. ↩
The “ford” (tittha) is symbolic; those who forge a path to salvation are called titthakara, such as the six leading ascetics of DN 2. Today there is a 5.7 km bridge at this crossing, which is appropriately called the Mahatma Gandhi Setu. ↩
“Dinghy” translates uḷumpa. ↩
In this stock phrase, we sometimes find paccuṭṭhāsi (“landed”) and sometimes pāturahosi (“reappeared”). ↩
Aṇṇavaṁ cannot mean “sea” here, since it is to be crossed with a bridge. ↩
Koṭigāma lay a short distance from the Ganges. The Buddha’s stay here must therefore have followed the events of SN 47.14 at Ukkacelā on the Vajjian bank of the Ganges, where he laments the passing of Sāriputta and Moggallāna. He would have heard of Sāriputta’s passing before then, while on the road from Nāḷandā to Pāṭaligāma, even though that is implausibly said to have happened at Sāvatthī (SN 47.13). ↩
Ñātika (also spelled nātika, or nādika; Sanskrit jñātṛka; Prākrit nāyika) was the clan to which the Jain leader Mahāvīra (called Nāṭaputta, i.e. Ñātiputta) belonged. Here it is unusually spelled in plural, which means “the land of the Ñātika clan”. ↩
Here Ñātika is in singular and appears to be the name of a town. Thus Ñātika is first of all a name of a clan, then the land they live in, then their chief town. | Over a millennium previously, the Indus Valley Civilization had built cities of fired brick with standardized size and construction methods, but in the Buddha’s day most buildings were wood. This is the only brick building mentioned in the suttas; brick construction is also discussed in the Vinaya. ↩
It is unprecedented to discuss the spiritual destinies of an entire town like this. Normally this question is only asked when specific individuals known to the Buddha have passed away. Likely the passage was created in the wake of the passing of Mahāvīra to show that even his own people were enthusiastic Buddhists. This portion of the text is also found at SN 55.8. ↩
SN 55.9 inserts another series on a monk, nun, layman, and laywoman all called Asoka. ↩
This portion of the text is at SN 55.10. I spell names consistently with there. ↩
The suttas consistently depict lay folk as attaining the third stage of awakening, non-return, but not the highest stage of arahantship, except in rare cases on the deathbed. The tradition extended this by saying that if a lay person becomes an arahant, they must ordain or die that day, but this is not supported in the early texts. The point is not whether you receive an ordination, but whether you let go of attachments. ↩
The commentary to the Saṁyutta attributes the large number of deaths to a recent plague (ahivātaroga, “viper’s breath disease”). This deadly contagion was known to kill off entire families (Kd 1:50.1.1). According to the commentaries, the same disease once afflicted Vesālī, prompting the teaching of the Ratanasutta (Snp 2.1, Kp 6). ↩
Mirrors are for doing makeup (DN 1:1.16.2) or admiring oneself (MN 77:33.18), which a mendicant should not do (Kd 15:2.4.1). In the Dhamma a mirror is for self-reflection (MN 61:8.2), while the mind is purified like polishing a mirror (AN 3.70:13.4). ↩
The four principles that follow are elsewhere identified as four factors of stream-entry (AN 9.27). At SN 12.41, understanding of dependent origination is included. ↩
“Experiential” is avecca, literally “having undergone”. “Experiential confidence” is the faith of a stream-enterer, who has seen for themselves. ↩
They have experiential confidence in the Buddha as a teacher because they have followed his path and realized the results that he speaks of. ↩
A stream-enterer has direct experience of the four noble truths, so they have confirmed that the teaching is indeed realizable in this very life. ↩
The suttas distinguish between two senses of Saṅgha. The “mendicant Saṅgha” (bhikkhusaṅgha) is the conventional community of monks and nuns. The “Saṅgha of disciples” (sāvakasaṅgha) is classified as fourfold according to the stages of awakening: stream-entry, once-return, non-return, and perfection. Each of these stages is further subdivided into those of the path who are practicing for realization and those of the fruit who have realized. These are referred to as “noble disciples”, four of the path and four of the fruit, making eight individuals in total. ↩
This entails keeping the five precepts at a minimum. ↩
Ambapālī means “protector of mangoes”. Here the text just says she had a “grove”, but it is identified as a mango grove below (DN 16:2.14.1). ↩
In some versions, the Buddha is said to have taught the monks mindfulness in anticipation of the arrival of the beautiful courtesan. ↩
In the Gradual Training the mendicant “establishes mindfulness” to begin meditation. Here this practice is expanded, and in DN 22 it is expanded even further. ↩
The locative idiom kāye kāyānupassī indicates that the meditator focuses on a particular aspect of body contemplation, such as observing the breath, awareness of the body parts, or reflection on the four elements. | “Rid of desire and aversion for the world” refers to clearing the mind through the previous practice of sense restraint. ↩
Dhammā here refers to the “principles” of cause and effect and the four noble truths which are understood by reflecting on the psychology of meditation itself. In this context dhammā does not mean “mental objects” or “phenomena” or “mental qualities”. ↩
A gaṇikā was a trained entertainer and escort whose company commanded a high fee (Kd 8:1.1.7). It was a respected position, as we see the city guild of Rājagaha, with King Bimbisāra’s blessing, appoint the young woman Sālavatī in a similar position (Kd 8:1.2.13). ↩
The text spends more time on the Vajjis’ appearance than on Ambapālī’s. At Thig 15.1:12.1 the nun Isidāsī recalls how she used to do the makeup for her husband every day, like his own personal beautician. ↩
There are various reading for paṭivaṭṭesi. The commentary glosses with pahari (“struck, collided”). ↩
The derogatory indeclinable vocative je is otherwise used of the “naughty maid” Kāḷī at MN 21:9.13. “Wench” is a term meant to insult on the basis of servitude or promiscuity, so it seems appropriate. The Licchavis are not distinguishing themselves here; given their youth, wealth, licentiousness, and evident familiarity with Ambapālī, it seems safe to conclude that they had been her clients. ↩
Dassatha is second future plural of dadāti. The Vinaya parallel at Kd 6:30.4.5 uses optative forms instead. | “With provinces” is sāhāraṁ (literally “with food”, commentary: sajanapadaṁ) refers to the holdings around the city that supplied food and other necessities. ↩
Despite the context, ambakā has no etymological relation to amba (“mango”) but is a term for “woman, mother”, used here as a play on words. ↩
This demonstrates that a woman of Ambapālī’s profession could own land and control significant resources. ↩
An ārāma is a tended and pleasant ground, a “park”. Here it has previously been referred to as “grove” (vana) and “mango grove”. Usually in the suttas, however, it is a name for a place where monastics live. In English, monastics don’t live in parks, they live in monasteries. So once a place has been dedicated for the Saṅgha, I translate ārāma as “monastery”. ↩
Pali texts waver between beluva (“wood-apple”) and veḷuva (from veḷuvant, “full of bamboo”). ↩
The Buddha was travelling with a large retinue, which could become burdensome on a small village if they were to stay the three months of the rains residence. The texts note several monasteries and places to stay around Vesālī. ↩
Here upaṭṭhāka refers to the lay devotees. | Apaloketi (“take leave”) also has a literal sense of “glance back”; both senses are found in the sutta (see DN 16:4.1.2). ↩
“Life force” is jīvitasaṅkhāra whereas below we find āyusaṅkhāra (DN 16:3.10.1). They are evidently synonyms; Ps 1.6:4.3 refers to the three jīvitasaṅkhāras from MN 43:24.2, but there the text has āyusaṅkhāra. Saṅkhāra could be interpreted here either as “volition” (“will to live”) or as “life force” (i.e. the vital energy that sustains life). Elsewhere, however, āyusaṅkhāra clearly means “life force” (SN 20.6:3.2, MN 43:23.1). ↩
This is the first indication of Ānanda’s fragile emotional state in the days to come. | Read diṭṭhā (= Sanskrit diṣṭyā), “fantastic, how fortunate”, per DN 26:21.9 and Ja 81:1.4. ↩
Previously the Buddha had spoken of “taking leave” of the Saṅgha, but here something more specific is meant. Udāharati is typically used when a previously-mentioned matter (often unpleasant) is “brought up”, as at the monastic procedures for confession or invitation to admonish (Kd 1:16.2.5, Kd 1:2.1.9). Ānanda is implying that there is some unfinished disciplinary business that needs attention. Despite the Buddha’s response, he did in fact go on to make a number of statements and rulings. ↩
For forty-five years he had been teaching and supporting the community. ↩
A principle not followed by some contemporary Buddhist schools that harbor “secret teachings”. ↩
“Closed fist of a tutor” is ācariyamuṭṭhi. Compare Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 6.2.4: “I have taught you all that I know.” ↩
Pariharissāmi needs careful parsing with regard to tenses. The general meaning is to “carry about” or “maintain, nurture”. The Buddha elsewhere said that he “leads” the Saṅgha (DN 26:25.6: pariharāmi). When the Buddha was about to go on retreat, Moggallāna said that he and Sāriputta “shall lead” (pariharissāmi), to which the Buddha said they “should lead” (MN 67:13.7: parihareyyaṁ). Devadatta, on the other hand, ensured his downfall when he determined that he “shall lead” the Saṅgha, having taken over from the Buddha (AN 5.100:2.3, Kd 1:2.1.23). Thus the future tense indicates the determination to lead. But at this point, the Buddha’s mind is already set on letting go. He is not saying that no-one should lead the Saṅgha, but that it is up to whoever leads it to address the issues. ↩
The reading and derivation of veṭhamissakena are unclear. As a form of violence we find veṭhamissena at Thag 2.12:1.1, notably also in instrumental. Veṭha means “twist, strap, turban”. Missa means “mixed” or “plaited” (Bu Ss 2:2.1.21). Thus it probably refers to a kind of strong twisted material used to tie or bind, i.e. rope. ↩
Compare Rig Veda 8.48.5: “As leather binds a chariot, soma knits my joints together.” Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.3.35 compares the labored breathing of one near death with the creaking of a heavily-laden cart. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 13.2.7.8 says a handsome cart is well-finished with ropes. Indian carts were bound with ropes down to modern times. ↩
The suttas say little about this signless (animitta) meditation. Its defining characteristic is that consciousness does not “follow after signs” (nimittānusāri viññāṇaṁ, eg. AN 6.13:5.3). This is explained in MN 138:10.2 as not being distracted or affected by the features of sense impressions, as the “signs” are created by greed, hate, and delusion (MN 43:37.1). The mental unification (ekattaṁ) based on this practice is listed after the form (and formless) jhānas, so it is very advanced. It is nonetheless a conditioned state (MN 121:11.4), so it is possible that a mendicant might fall from it and disrobe (AN 6.60:8.10). However it may also be used to describe the meditation of an arahant (SN 41.7:6.12). It is clear from MN 121:10.5 that the six senses are still functioning, unlike in deep serenity meditations. It seems that in such a state, the Buddha was able to function normally while seeing through the pain in his body. ↩
This central theme of the Buddha’s teaching—that each of us is responsible for our own salvation—becomes even more important as the Buddha’s days grow short. ↩
Read tama(t)agge with tama as superlative, literally “at the peak of the best”. ↩
This detail is often mentioned in texts of the Sarvāstivāda school, but rarely in Pali. ↩
Normally kappa as a period of time means “eon”, but the late canonical texts Kathāvatthu (Kv 11.5) and Milindapañha (Mil 5.1.10) argue that it means the “lifespan”, an interpretation followed by the commentaries. Support for this comes from DN 26:28.3, which says that “long life” for a mendicant is the four bases of psychic power which enable you to remain for the kappa. Here it is surely talking about a full lifespan. Underlying this is the idea that in different epochs the “proper lifespan” varies; in the Buddha’s day it was one hundred years (DN 14:1.7.7). We can resolve the problem if we read kappa here, not as a period of time, but as “proper, fitting”, i.e. the “proper” lifespan of a hundred years. ↩
Here Ānanda’s mind is “as if” possessed (yathā), but in the Vinaya yathā is missing: he is possessed (Kd 1:1.10.17). Remember, Ānanda is telling this story about himself. ↩
Māra is the Buddhist deity of death, sex, and delusion; his aim is to trap beings in transmigration. He appears in many guises, both real and metaphorical, throughout the canon, but this sequence is his only direct appearance in the Dīghanikāya. Here he feigns compassion, urging the Buddha to find his final peace; but he has an ulterior motive, for with the Buddha’s passing Māra’s job will be much easier. ↩
Parinibbāna means “extinguishment”, as of a flame. Here it appears as both noun (“extinguishment”) and verb (“become extinguished”). It is not a particularly difficult term to translate. Linguistically it has nothing to do with “attachment”, so renderings such as “unbinding” are untenable. It should be translated rather than just keeping “Nibbāna”, not least because English resists verbifying adopted words, resulting in such constructions as “enter Nibbāna”, which reifies it in a way that the Pali does not. ↩
Māra is citing the Buddha’s words for his own purpose. The Pali tradition does not say when this encounter took place, but the Sanskrit Sarvāstivāda Catuṣparisatsūtra places it shortly after the Buddha’s awakening. ↩
This passage makes it clear that it was the Buddha’s intention from the beginning to establish an order of nuns (bhikkhunī). ↩
This passage is the narrative inverse of the occasion when Brahmā begged the Buddha to teach (SN 6.1:5.5, etc.). Throughout, the sutta artfully preserves a degree of narrative ambiguity. Here it almost appears as if the Buddha assents to passing away because of Māra’s request, although his intent was clear earlier. Māra’s reasoning, moreover, is based on the Buddha’s own words. ↩
It seems that at this point, the Buddha is still spending the rains in Beluva village, from where he would sometimes go to nearby Vesālī for alms, or to a local shrine for meditation. He left Vesālī only after holding a meeting for all the Saṅgha, which probably signified the completion of the rains (DN 16:4.1.2). If this reasoning is correct—and the text is not explicit—then he made this statement during the rains retreat. If, however, this reasoning is incorrect and we are already after the rains, it could not have been long after. Thus it is probably September/October, meaning that the final extinguishment was to take place in December/January. This conflicts with the tradition of ascribing his final extinguishment to the full moon of Vesak, in May. ↩
The Cāpāla shrine is unknown outside of this context. The Udāna commentary says that it was named after the yakkha who formerly lived there. Now, cāpalla means “fickleness, propensity to tremble” and is from the same root as earth-“quake” (bhumicāla; capala = pacala via metathesis). It is no great leap to cāpāla. If this is correct, it suggests that the shrine was dedicated to an earth spirit who commanded earthquakes; a fitting setting for the events to follow. ↩
Northern India lies in the shadow of the seismically active Alpide Belt, so the occurrence of earthquakes is realistic even if the causes are not scientific. ↩
For this difficult verse, I generally follow Bhikkhu Bodhi’s long discussion in Connected Discourses of the Buddha, note 255 on the Mahāvagga. | Sambhava means “production, creation”, and here I think it refers to the prolonging of life which the Buddha had just rejected. ↩
Bhavasaṅkhāra (“life force”) here is equivalent to āyusaṅkhāra and jīvitasaṅkhāra. ↩
Attasambhava (“self-creation”) refers back to sambhava in the first line. ↩
So far as it goes, this is a naturalistic explanation. The “water element” has the quality of softening, while the “air element” is traditionally understood as “movement”. Thus in modern terms this means, “When underground forces disturb a region of instability.” ↩
The might of ascetics was legendary in ancient India (eg. MN 56:14.2). The meditation described here might be compared with the “dimensions of mastery” below (DN 16:3.25.1). ↩
At DN 14:1.17.7 and MN 123:7.6 it is, rather, the entire galaxy that trembles, perhaps indicating that the enhanced miracle is a later development. ↩
There are many accounts of the Buddha’s awakening in the suttas, but none, so far as I know, that mention an earthquake. ↩
See SN 56.11:13.2. ↩
This refers to the Buddha’s death. The Pali here uses both nibbāna and parinibbāna. Sometimes it is said that nibbāna is the attainment of arahantship, while parinibbāna is the death of an arahant, but this distinction is not consistently applied in the suttas. | Regarding nibbānadhātuyā (“the element of extinguishment”), in Pali the case is ambiguous. It is sometimes translated “by means of” or “through”, which assumes the instrumental; but the Sanskrit is nirvāṇadhātau, which must be locative. ↩
As at AN 8.69. The following series of “eight things” seems arbitrarily inserted here and breaks the flow of the narrative. They are absent from the Sanskrit Sarvāstivāda text edited by Waldschmidt, which goes directly to the conversation where Ānanda realizes that the Buddha is going to die. ↩
These “assemblies” were formal deliberative meetings, not just gatherings. Thus “householders” here does not mean “lay folk” in apposition to “ascetics”; rather it means “home owners”. Some of these assemblies are depicted or alluded to in the Dīghanikāya. At DN 6:1.3, brahmins assemble in Vesālī; while at DN 3:1.13.3, Ambaṭṭha speaks of an assembly of Sakyans, who were aristocrats. At DN 18:12.1, we get a glimpse of the proceedings at a meeting of the gods of the thirty-three. ↩
There do not appear to be any records of this happening in the early texts, although that is perhaps to be expected. It does feel out of character for the Buddha, as normally he is very up front. The commentary says that this ruse was adopted so the Buddha could plant subtle seeds (vāsanā) for the future. At Kena Upaniṣad 3, Brahma appears to the gods and tests them, but they do not know him. ↩
These are another way of describing the different experiences of jhāna. Also at AN 8.65, AN 10.29:6.1, DN 33:3.1.142, DN 34:2.1.160, and MN 77:23.1. ↩
“Perceiving form (rūpa) internally” refers to someone developing meditation based on an aspect of their own body, such as the breath or the parts of the body. The “forms” (rūpā) seen externally are the lights or other meditation phenomena that today are usually called nimitta. An “ugly” form is the mental image that arises in such contemplations as the parts of the body. A “beautiful” image arises from practices such as mindfulness of breathing. ↩
“Not perceiving form internally” refers to meditations such as the external elements, or the decaying of another’s body. ↩
This is the meditation where one contemplates an external color, either a prepared disk or a natural phenomena such as the sky or a flower, which eventually gives rise to a “counterpart” image. Today such meditations are called kasiṇa following the Visuddhimagga, but in the early texts kasiṇa means “totality” and refers rather to the state of samādhi that results. ↩
Already encountered at DN 15:35.1. ↩
Note that this is the idiom that Ānanda uses when directly quoting the Buddha. ↩
“Misdeed” is dukkaṭaṁ. This term is familiar as the most minor class of offences in the Vinaya. Here we see an informal use of the term as something that has been wrongly done, rather than a legal violation. It is used in a similar way by Mahākassapa at the First Council, who accuses Ānanda of several misdeeds. As a legal term, dukkaṭa is late; the category of offences is not found in the Vinayas of the Mahāsaṅghika group of schools, which use vinayatikkrama for a similar idea. ↩
The Buddha goes on to list multiple places where he hinted to Ānanda, but the only record of such a conversation is at the Cāpāla shrine. ↩
The following group of places are all near Rājagaha, and collectively illustrate the variety of dwellings and environs enjoyed by the mendicants practicing there. | The Gotama banyan tree-shrine is mentioned only here. Gotama is a common name, and this shrine does not appear to have any connection with the Buddha. ↩
A cliff from which bandits were tossed as a means of execution. ↩
The Sanskrit form is Vaibhāra or Vaihāra. The Pali tradition says the First Council was held near the entrance to this cave (Dīpavaṁsa 4.19, Mahāvaṁsa 3.19, Samantapāsādikā Paṭhamamahāsaṅgītikathā). The Vinayas all agree that it was at Rājagaha, but traditions vary as to the exact location. ↩
A large open area where Jains did their penances (MN 14:15.2) and the Buddha taught occasionally (SN 8.10), but it is most famous as the place the monks Godhika (SN 4.23) and Vakkali took their lives (SN 22.87). ↩
Mentioned several times in the suttas as a pleasant place to meditate, it is notable as the site of the conversion of the Buddha’s chief layman disciple Anāthapiṇḍika (SN 10.8). But the most famous event there was when the Buddha moderated the monk Soṇa’s excessive striving (AN 6.55). ↩
The hot springs near Rājagaha were a popular place for monks to bathe, so much so that they prompted a rule ensuring that the monks did not monopolize the springs (Bu Pc 57). They are still in use and just as popular as ever. ↩
A personal gift of King Bimbisāra, this was the first permanent monastery offered to the Buddha and his Saṅgha (Kd 1:22.17.3). ↩
Mahākappina stayed here (Kd 1:5.3.1), and the Buddha rested there when his foot was first injured, apparently by Devadatta, before Jīvaka offered his mango grove (SN 1.38, SN 4.13). ↩
The following group of places are all in the Vajjian country near Vesālī. Whereas the varied sites around Rājagaha reflect the rugged terrain there, at Vesālī all the sites are tree-shrines, as the surrounding land is flat. DN 24:1.11.5 indicates where they lay relative to Vesālī; the Udena shrine was to the east, and the next three to the south, west, and north respectively. | Udena is an epithet of the “arising” sun (Rig Veda 1.48.7), although here it may have the sense “prosperity”. ↩
Named after the local yakkha, to whom offerings would have been made. It could get cold enough to snow, prompting the Buddha to lay down a rule permitting three robes (Kd 1:13.2.1). A short but galaxy-shaking discourse was once taught there (AN 3.125:0.3). ↩
The Pali has amba (“mango”) and ambaka (“maiden”) as variants. The commentary supports the latter, saying it was named for seven legendary princesses of Varanasi in the time of Buddha Kassapa, all of whom went on to become great disciples of our Buddha. I made this translation on the small island of Qimei off the south coast of Taiwan, where there is a shrine to the “seven maidens” who gave the island its name. Stories of “seven maidens” are widespread in myth and folklore all over the world, including Aboriginal Dreamtime stories. The archetype descends from the constellation known in English as Pleiades and in Sanskrit as Kṛttikā. Since there are six main visible stars in the cluster today, the stories often tell of how the youngest of the seven sisters was lost. In the Buddhist telling this is Visākhā, the only sister not to become an arahant in this life. ↩
This was, obviously, a fertility shrine. ↩
Previously mentioned as the place where the seven principles of non-decline were taught to the Licchavis. The meaning of Sārandada is obscure and variants profligate, but it might be derived from the Munda word sara, “funeral pyre”. The commentary says it was taken over from an old shrine to a yakkha of that name. ↩
“Take back” is paccāvamissati, which has several variants. It occurs in Ja 69 and Ja 509, where it is the opposite of vamati, to “expel, vomit”. ↩
This was the major Saṅgha residence near Vesālī. The Great Wood, according to the commentary, stretched as far as the Himalayas. Later tradition says that a town should have three woods: a “great wood” for wilderness (mahāvana); a “prosperity wood” for resources (sirivana); and an “ascetic wood” for spiritual practice (tapovana). ↩
Compare the earlier request to gather all the mendicants around Rājagaha (DN 16:1.6.2). ↩
Memorization was considered an essential basis for learning. In similar passages, we also find the injunction to “recite” the teachings, thus authorizing the recitation of the Buddha’s teachings after his death, which was later formalized in the Councils (saṅgīti). ↩
These are the sets of practices later called the 37 bodhiyapakkhiyā dhammā, the “wings to awakening”. Here they are presented as an essential summary of the Buddha’s teachings. They form the backbone of the final book of the Saṁyuttanikāya, the Maggavagga (or Mahāvagga). It is likely that the Buddha was referring to the earliest recension of this text. They are found as a summary of the Buddha’s teachings at DN 29:17.3, MN 103:3.2, MN 104:5.3, and AN 8.19:17.2 = Ud 5.5:25.2. ↩
This is perhaps the briefest summary possible of the Buddha’s teaching. The world as it is, and all the beings in it, are created and sustained through conditions. Since the conditions that sustain them are finite, the conditioned phenomena are also finite and must come to an end. Reflecting on this gives rise to gratitude for the life we have and the opportunities it grants us, and determination to live and practice dedicated to the realization of the unconditioned, Nibbana. ↩
“Ripe old age” is paripakko vayo. ↩
“Well-settled thoughts” is susamāhitasaṅkappā. Compare asamāhitasaṅkappo at AN 4.22:5.3. ↩
Nāgāpalokitaṁ is the “elephant look”. There is a similar Sanskrit term siṁhāvalokana, the “lion look”, said to be the slow glance back that a lion makes as he leaves his kill. There is a nuance in meaning here, because while apalokana literally means to “look back”, it is used in the sense to “take leave” before setting out on a journey. ↩
Bhaṇḍagāma, where bhaṇḍa means “wares”; it must have been a trading post. It seems the villages in this passage were named after their chief economic activity, so I translate them to highlight this pragmatic system. ↩
This four also found at AN 4.1:2.3 and AN 7.66:14.4. ↩
Here the text refers to the Buddha in the third person; compare the previous set of verses in first person. Although the text states that these verses were spoken by the Buddha, it is possible that, as with many similar cases especially in the Aṅguttaranikāya, the verses were added by redactors. ↩
Note the use of “quenched” (parinibbuto) here while the Buddha is still alive. ↩
Hatthigāma, probably a village which specialized in training elephants. ↩
Ambagāma. ↩
Jambugāma. ↩
Departing from the economic naming scheme, here bhoga does not mean “wealth”. Rather, the Bhogas were one of the clans of the Vajji Federation. ↩
“Great references” is mahāpadesa; also at AN 4.180. A different set of four mahāpadesas are Kd 1:40.1.1, which provide criteria by which mendicants may judge what is and is not allowable. ↩
The phrase used in the suttas when reporting a teaching heard directly from the Buddha, eg. SN 55.52:5.1, SN 22.90:9.1, MN 47:10.7, etc. ↩
Dhamma, vinaya, and satthusāsana are used in the suttas in the general sense of the entirety of the Buddha’s teachings. In his advice to Mahāpajāpatī (AN 8.53) and Upāli (AN 7.83), they are said to be whatever conforms with letting go. A stream-enterer who is a lay person is grounded in them (AN 6.16:7.2). They are more frequent in the Vinaya, being used as a general qualifier of a legitimate legal procedure (Bu Pc 63:2.1.8). Due to this, the fact that there are three items, and the fact that dhamma and sutta are different words, we should not take dhamma and vinaya here as equivalent to sutta and vinaya below. Rather, they are a general claim to authenticity and do not specify particular texts. ↩
As at MN 112:3.1, DN 29:18.4, and AN 4.180:2.5. ↩
It is tempting to assume that sutta here means the Suttapiṭaka and vinaya means the Vinayapiṭaka, or at least an earlier version of these texts; but this is not supported by tradition. The late canonical Netti explains sutta as “the four noble truths” and vinaya as “the removal of greed, hate, and delusion” (Ne 6). The commentaries discuss many interpretations; ultimately they agree with the Netti for vinaya, but say sutta means the entire Tipiṭaka. I think the Netti is correct: teachings should “fit in” with the four noble truths (like other footprints fit in to an elephant’s footprint, MN 28), and they should “be exhibited” in that the results of practice should be apparent (sandiṭṭhika). | “Memorize” (uggahetvā), because in an oral tradition a text is not learned until it is known by heart; such claims must be taken seriously. | “Fit into” is osāreti or otāreti per AN 4.180; the two words have a similar meaning, “to flow down into”. ↩
The text has ca (“and”) rather than vā (“or”), which would be expected if they were to be found in one or other textual collection. This is urging that any teaching fits in with the fundamental principles of the four noble truths, and is effective in removing defilements. ↩
The Pali text appears to say that one should remember the mahāpadesa, whereas the Sanskrit clearly says one should remember the passage (ayaṁ dharmo’yaṁ vinaya idaṁ śāstuḥ śāsanam iti viditvā dhārayitavyāḥ). It seems as if this pattern should underlie the Pali too, for if the passage is false, one “should reject it” (chaḍḍeyyātha). In the case of a correct passage we should expect a parallel injunction that one “should remember it” (dhāreyyātha). But if this applies to the mahāpadesa there is no such injunction. Thus it seems as if the Sanskrit is correct here and the Pali corrupt. I restore it by reversing the order of the phrases. ↩
Each of the four references is a little less solid than the previous. Here one hasn’t heard from the Buddha, but from the Saṅgha. The fact that one hears it from the Saṅgha implies a kind of formal group recitation such as a saṅgīti or “council”. ↩
Now one learns not from a unified Saṅgha, but from several learned elders. This is a stock description of learned mendicants (eg. AN 3.20:6.2). | “Inheritors of the heritage” is āgatāgamā, where āgama means “what has come down”, namely the scriptural heritage. Āgama is a synonym for nikāya in the sense of “collection of scripture”. | The “outlines” (mātikā, literally “matrix”) are the summary outlines of topics that served as seeds for the development of Abhidhamma. DN 16:3.50.5 features one of the earliest of such lists, the 37 path factors that the Buddha “taught from his own direct knowledge”. These serve as outline for the section on the path in the Saṁyutta, from where they were adopted in various Abhidhamma texts such as the Vibhaṅga. ↩
Finally the testimony of a single mendicant, which is the weakest of all. Nonetheless, the procedure is the same. ↩
The parallel at AN 4.180:9.11 omits dhāreyyāthā, which I take to be the correct reading. See my note on dhāreyyāthā at DN 16:4.8.13. ↩
Pāvā, a town of the Mallas, has more significance for this narrative than appears at first sight. It was, according to Buddhist texts, the place where Mahāvīra had recently died, plunging the Jains into chaos. (The Jains, however, say this was another Pāvā, east of Nāḷandā.) Pāvā became associated with especially ascetic monks: thirty Pāvā monks became awakened on hearing a particularly strong discourse (SN 15.13); Mahākassapa heard the news of the Buddha’s passing at Pāvā; and monks from Pāvā allied with monks of “Avanti and the south” arguing for strict Vinaya in the Second Council (Kd 1:1.7.11). ↩
Cunda was apparently a metal-worker, which was an advanced form of technological craftsmanship. ↩
This is, according to the commentary, preserved as the other discourse taught to Cunda, which deals with proper asceticism (Snp 1.5). ↩
The exact meaning of sūkaramaddava is unclear. Sūkara is “pig”, but some Chinese translations suggest the sense “mushroom”; and it is true that there are several names of plants or plant dishes that begin with sūkara or other animals. At Dhp 377, flowers are described as maddava, meaning “overripe, withering on the vine”. It is a common practice to allow meat to sit for a while to become tender and “high” for extra flavor when cooked. But this can lead to a proliferation of dangerous bacteria unless properly cooked, and such seems to have been the case here. In any case, this disputed term is marginal in a consideration of meat-eating in early Buddhism, which is discussed more fully elsewhere. ↩
If the Buddha knew the meal was dangerous, why ask to be served it? This is even more striking in light of the fact that it is a Vinaya offence to request fine food, including meat, and nowhere else is such a request recorded (Bu Pc 39:2.10.1). Such narrative ambiguities serve to escalate a sense of wonder. ↩
The Buddha’s illness is sometimes diagnosed as mesenteric infarction. The Buddha’s body rejects the world of conditioned existence entirely. ↩
The commentary says that these verses were added by the elders at the Council. ↩
The saṅghāṭi (“outer robe” or “cloak”) is double-layered, and served both for warmth and as bedding. The Buddha has not recovered fully from his illness. ↩
The Buddha was an exemplary patient. He did not complain, but made his needs known clearly to his carer. ↩
It would seem that, since the Buddha was enduring his illness without complaint and with dignity, Ānanda did not fully realize how weak he has become. ↩
The bowl (patta) was used both for eating and drinking. ↩
Pukkusa is not elsewhere mentioned. The reference to Āḷāra Kālāma recalls the narrative of the bodhisatta’s practices before awakening. There are several details that indicate the stories of the first part and the last part of the Buddha’s life were unified by such callbacks. We meet the Malla clan later on. ↩
Niśraya in the sense of “near” occurs at Śatapathabrāhmaṇa 3.1.2.17. ↩
In deep meditation the senses cease to function. ↩
A nearby town where the Buddha had stayed previously (Kd 1:37.4.2). ↩
Siṅgīvaṇṇa, or else siṅgīsuvaṇṇa (AN 3.70:38.3), is gold from a mountain peak (siṅgī). Kauṭilya mentions a form of gold that is śṛṅgaśūktija, “occurring on mount Śūkti” (Arthaśāstra 2.13.3). The commentary to that passage says it had the color of red arsenic, so it would have been a rose gold color. ↩
Closing the narrative circle with the story of awakening. ↩
The commentary says this verse was added by the senior monks at the Council. ↩
The monk Cundaka makes an abrupt appearance here; this is the only mention of this name. The commentary to this passage calls him cunda, while the gloss to the parallel passage at Ud 8.5:14.3 has cundaka throughout. The diminutive ending -ka is perhaps meant to differentiate him from the smith Cunda. There are various Cundas whose connection is unclear. Mahācunda was one of the great disciples (MN 118:, AN 6.17, MN 8), who later brought the Dhamma to the land of the Cetīs (AN 6.46, AN 10.24). He once stayed with Channa and Sāriputta (MN 144:4.1, SN 35.87:1.2); the commentaries say he was in fact Sāriputta’s younger brother. They also identify him with the “novice Cunda” who reported the deaths of Sāriputta (SN 47.13:1.3) and Mahāvīra (DN 29:2.1, MN 104:3.1), explaining that the title “novice” was a nickname that persisted from the time he ordained as a young novice. It is unclear whether the commentaries take the Cundaka of this passage to be the same person, but he is here performing a similar role as carer adjacent to the Buddha’s death. Later there appears a Cūḷacunda (Tha Ap 52:13.3). Thus there may have been one person known by different names, or several people whose stories have become conflated. ↩
These verses were also added at the Council according to the commentary. ↩
Adopt PTS and BJT reading satthā pavattā. ↩
The text addresses Cunda with the respectful āvuso. ↩
Again, the narrative circle. ↩
The text uses āyasmā here for Cunda, as does the Sanskrit, whereas it is normally reserved for mendicants (see below, DN 16:6.2.1). ↩
This became a point of discussion in later Buddhism: can it be that the merit of a gift grows after it is given? ↩
Known today as Kushinagar, it is a popular site for pilgrims, with many ancient stupas, Buddha images, and a peaceful park for meditation. ↩
Normally when the Buddha lies down, his mind is focused on getting up. But now he knows that he will not rise again. ↩
Sal trees blossom in April/May. This detail agrees with the Buddha’s final extinguishment in December/January, rather than in May (Vesak) as is currently celebrated (see note to DN 16:3.9.3). ↩
This calls back to the description of the fourfold assembly in the Māra section above (DN 16:3.7.4). ↩
This kind of narrative elevation is characteristic of the Buddha’s teaching. He did not try to deny or eliminate any belief in the miraculous, or in the power of devotion, but rather to show that such things were of limited worth compared with practice. ↩
Like Cundaka above, Upavāna shares the duties of an attendant with Ānanda; at DN 29:41.1 he is also fanning the Buddha. At AN 5.166, Ānanda goes to Upavāna for support when he feels he has disappointed the Buddha. ↩
In SN 7.13 Upavāna fetched hot water and molasses for the Buddha, an event he remembered in his own verses at Thag 2.33. ↩
For this usage of phuṭo, see AN 3.56:1.3. ↩
Elsewhere, pathavīsaññī refers to those who develop a form of meditation where they are “percipient of earth” (AN 10.6:1.2). Here, however, it simply means those deities who are aware of events on the ground. | Read chinnaṁpādaṁ viya papatanti. ↩
The Buddha as “eye” evokes the common (eg. Rig Veda 1.164.14, 5.40.8, 5.59.5, 10.10.9) Vedic image of the Sun as the “eye of all” (viśvacakṣāḥ, 7.63.1), the “eye” for “eyes to see” (10.158.4), moving as an unaging wheel through the sky (1.164.14). See Snp 3.9:11.1 = MN 98:7.23. | Pali has cakkhuṁ loke (“eye in the world”), Sanskrit has cakṣur lokasya (“eye of the world”). ↩
These two reactions—grief and equanimity—are depicted often in Buddhist art and narrative. They stimulated the two poles of development of the Buddhist community. The devotional tradition, feeling the need for an emotional connection with the Teacher, developed art, story, and doctrines to, as it were, keep him alive, resulting in the Jātakas and the Bodhisattva doctrine. A cooler, rational tradition developed a comprehensive system analyzing the impermanence of “conditions”, leading to the Abhidhamma. ↩
Manobhāvanīya is explained in the commentaries as “those who, when seen, cause the mind to grow in what is skillful.” ↩
These four sites are the primary destinations of modern Buddhist pilgrims in India. | Saṁvejanīya is “stirring, provoking inspiration or urgency” such as when seeing an astonishing, disturbing, or amazing sight. ↩
Lumbinī in modern Nepal, which today is a well-maintained and quiet place for devotion and meditation. The site is marked with an Ashokan pillar dated perhaps 150 years after this time. On the pillar is inscribed in Brahmī characters hida bhagavaṁ jāte ti, which is a direct quote in Māgadhī of the Pali phrase here, idha tathāgato jāto ti. (Tathāgata “realized one” is how the Buddha referred to himself, while bhagavā “blessed one” is how his followers referred to him.) This is the oldest direct quote from the early canon preserved in the archaeological record. ↩
Bodhgaya in modern Bihar, which is called Uruvelā in the Pali texts. It is a bustling center for pilgrims from all over the Buddhist world, at the center of which is the great stupa next to the Bodhi tree. ↩
Isipatana is modern Sarnath, in the northern part of Varanasi on the Ganges. In the temple next to the park, the first sermon is recited every night. | Note the passive voice, whereas the parallel at AN 4.118 is active. ↩
The phrase nibbānadhātuyā parinibbuto, “fully quenched in the element of extinguishment” shows how the Pali uses two roots simultaneously for Nibbana. The better-known term, nibbāna (Sanskrit nirvāṇa), is from the root vā (“to blow”), with the basic sense of going out through being deprived of air. The past participle form nibbuta (Sanskrit nirvṛta), from the root var (“to check or restrain”), has the basic sense of freedom from obstacles and constrictions. Generally, the Pali treats nibbuta as the past participle form of nibbāna, and for the most part the difference is purely verbal. Yet I believe the ambiguity is deliberate, as each captures a slightly different nuance of Nibbana. “Quenched” means both to go out like a flame and to be satisfied like a thirst. This positive feel appears in Sanskrit passages using nirvṛta, such as Manusmṛti 1.54, where it describes the blissful absorption of all beings into the great divinity. By using “extinguishment” for nibbāna and “quenched” for nibbuta I hope to express this subtle distinction, or at least to alert the reader that it exists. ↩
This passage is absent from the Sanskrit parallel and it is probably a late interpolation. Ānanda was handsome, and many stories of his encounters with women are preserved, for example at Bu Pc 41:1.1.5. ↩
As it stands, this appears to contradict MN 152:2.10, where the Buddha ridicules the idea that sense restraint implies not seeing. The commentary, however, explains it as not looking at a woman who is standing in the doorway of a monk’s hut, so as not to give rise to lust. Thus it restricts this apparently general rule to an unusually intimate encounter. ↩
The verb changes from paṭipajjāma (first person plural) to paṭipajjitabbaṁ (future passive participle), a shift that mirrors the following passage regarding the funeral proceedings. There, the shift to future passive participle indicates that the subject is the lay folk who carry out the funeral, whereas here that does not apply. This suggests that this passage has been derived from that later passage. ↩
The commentary refers to AN 5.55:6.5, which speaks of chatting alone in private with a woman, a circumstance also dealt with in Bu Pc 45. ↩
Ānanda does not hesitate to let the Buddha know he has no intention of following his advice. ↩
The commentary says, quoting SN 35.127:1.6, that when a woman has sincere motivations, one should speak while thinking of them as a mother, a sister, or a daughter. ↩
“Corpse” is sarīra. ↩
For abyāvaṭā (“don’t get involved”), compare samaṇena bhavitabbaṁ abyāvaṭena (“a monastic shouldn’t get involved” (in domestic matters)) at Bu Ss 5:1.3.34. ↩
Read sadatthe (“own goal”) rather than sāratthe (“essential goal”). ↩
An iron case was also used for Queen Bhaddā’s body at AN 5.50:1.6. The second iron case does not “enclose” the first; rather it “crooks” (paṭikujjati) like a lid to “close it up”. ↩
This is a rare mention of the thūpa (“sepulchral momunent”) that became a major feature of the Buddhist landscape. Buddhist monuments were round in shape, which was apparently a characteristic of the lands around Magadha. Śatapathabrāhmaṇa 13.8.1.5 says that the correct form of such a monument was square, and that round monuments were built by godless “easterners”. ↩
Here the Buddha is said to be explicitly instructing his followers to adopt the building of monuments from the local customs. ↩
“Independent Buddhas” are sages who discover the Dhamma and are awakened independently, but who do not themselves go on to found a dispensation or establish a monastic order. Text has paccekasambuddho rather than the usual paccekabuddho. ↩
This refers to the “eight individuals” who make up the “Saṅgha of disciples”, namely those who have achieved the four stages of awakening and those on the path. ↩
In contrast with Ajātasattu. ↩
Like Queen Subhaddā, wife of Mahāsudassana, at DN 17:2.8.7 and DN 17:2.12.1. | Kapisīsa is door-jamb, not lintel. | For vihāra (“building”) the commentary has “pavilion” (maṇḍalamāla), which may have been a temporary construction for the occasion (compare MN 92:4.6). ↩
At this point Ānanda was a stream-enterer. ↩
When admonishing Ānanda, the Buddha first gently but firmly restrains him, then gives words of support and encouragement. ↩
The phrase “undivided and limitless” (advayena appamāṇena) normally describes kasiṇa meditation (AN 10.25:1.3); here it is also found in the Sanskrit: ānanda maitreṇa kāyakarmaṇā hitena sukhenādvayenāpramāṇena. ↩
On the eve of the First Council—in about six months time—Ānanda devoted himself to meditation and achieved arahantship. ↩
The same is said regarding the chief disciples Sāriputta and Moggallāna at SN 47.14:2.4 and regarding assemblies of deities at DN 20:4.3. ↩
Tittha, literally “ford”, is a path to salvation, used as a term for a non-Buddhist “religion”. Titthakara is a “religious founder” (literally “ford-maker”); titthiya is a “monastic of (another) religion” (for example at Bu NP 22:1.2.5); titthiyasāvaka is a “disciple of a monastic of (another) religion”. ↩
As at AN 4.130:6.4. Ānanda was in awe of the “incredible and amazing” qualities of the Buddha, and spoke of them often. Here, when Ānanda is at his most vulnerable, the Buddha turns the teaching around, pointing out that Ānanda is incredible and amazing too. ↩
This anticipates the story to follow. ↩
Campā, Rājagaha, Sāvatthī, and Kosambī were the capitals of Aṅga, Magadha, Kosala, and Vaccha respectively. Sāketa was the former capital of Kosala. Varanasi was formerly the capital of Kāsi, but at this time was contested by Kosala and Magadha, and had recently been won from Ajātasattu (SN 3.14, SN 3.15). ↩
This story is also found in DN 17. It seems that the Pali tradition extracted the story and greatly expanded it in an independent long discourse, whereas the Sanskrit tradition kept it at a more moderate length within the Mahāparinirvāṇasūtra itself. ↩
Kusāvatī features in the Kusajātaka (Ja 531), where the ugly but wise prince Kusa, son of the legendary Okkāka, wins the hand of the radiant Pabhāvatī. The Rāmāyaṇa also tells the story of a Kusa, son of Rāma, who ruled the city of Kusāvatī, although this city was located far to the south in the Vindhya ranges. Both stories are united by the detail that kusa grass, a prominent feature of Vedic ritual, ensured the kingly lineage. ↩
A “league” (yojana) is usually estimated at between seven and twelve kilometers. By way of comparison, even at its greatest extent under Ashoka, Pāṭaliputta was less than a league per side, so the dimensions of Kusāvatī here are strictly legendary. ↩
According to DN 32, Āḷakamandā was one of the many cities of Kuvera in Uttarakuru. ↩
Vāseṭṭha is a Vedic priestly clan. The Mallas adopted the name of their priest’s lineage, which was the normal custom for initiated khattiyas. Other examples in the Pali are Saccaka who is called Aggivessana (MN 35:4.2), and the Buddha and his family who are called Gotama. ↩
Attadutiyo “with self as second” is also at MN 146:4.6 where Nandaka visits the nuns. Sanskrit has bhikṣuṇā paścācchramaṇena (“with a mendicant as accompanying ascetic”). It was apparently evening (the “wrong time”, vikāla), when it is inappropriate for a monk to be wandering the town alone. ↩
Evidently the Mallas, like the Vajjis, met frequently. ↩
This is the second Subhadda we have met in this discourse, the first being a deceased devotee of Ñātika (DN 16:2.6.13). The corrupt monk who, after the Buddha’s death, urges the rejection of the Vinaya rules is another person of the same name (DN 16:6.20.1). The Mahāsudassanasutta also features a Queen Subhaddā (DN 17:2.5.9). ↩
While some such as Mahāvīra the Ñātika (MN 14:17.2) and Pūraṇa Kassapa (AN 9.38:2.1) claimed to have direct knowledge, others such as Ajita Kesakambala denied that such knowledge was possible (DN 2:23.2). ↩
The Buddha responded the same way when asked this question by the brahmin Piṅgalakoccha (MN 30:2.6), and to a similar question at AN 9.38:3.2. ↩
The four ascetics are defined at AN 4.241:1.1 as those on the four paths. ↩
While many aspects of the eightfold path are shared with others, some details may be missing (such as not-self or Nibbāna), while others are added (such as the belief in the efficacy of rituals, an eternal soul, or a creator god). ↩
The Buddha points to the mendicants who have gathered there. ↩
This is the only place in the early texts where the Buddha identifies his age when going forth. ↩
This verse appears to be corrupt. The sense can be restored through two extra lines in the Sanskrit: “Ethics, immersion, conduct, and knowledge, and unification of mind have been developed by me, teacher of the references for the noble teaching.” | For padesavattī, the Sanskrit has pradeśavaktā, where vaktā means “speaker” and pradeśa has the sense “pointing out”. I think it means, “I am the one who taught the four great references (mahāpadesa)”. ↩
The commentary says this line was added at the Council. ↩
This is similar to the idea of the Four Great references, and sets the scene for the First Council at which the teachings were recited. | Paññatto here means “pointed out” rather than “laid down”, as can be seen from DN 9:33.21, where the same phrase refers to the four noble truths. ↩
Āvuso is from the root āyu (“age”) and thus has a respectful sense and does not mean “friend” as it is often translated. Like bhante, it is an indeclinable vocative of address that may be used with or without the name (see eg. MN 5:31.2). ↩
I render bhante as “sir” when it stands alone and “honorable” when it prefixes a name. | Unlike bhante, āyasmā (“venerable”) is declinable, so it is used in parts of speech other than direct address. It is from the same root as āvuso but with a slightly more respectful tone, perhaps because it sounds more Sanskritic. ↩
These are not defined here, and the senior monks at the First Council were unable to agree on them (Kd 21:1.9.3). Nonetheless, the Pali Vinaya consistently labels the Pācittiya rules as “lesser” (khuddaka; Bu Pc 92:2.2.22, Bi Pc 96:2.2.22, Pvr 1.1:219.3), which would make the Pātidesanīyas “minor” (anukhuddaka). The Sekhiya rules are also “minor”, but they were not at this point reckoned among the training rules for recitation. ↩
“Divine punishment” is brahmadaṇḍa. Channa features often in the Vinaya as a monk who refuses correction and acts disrespectfully. The Sangha had already imposed an act of “ejection” (ukkhepanīyakamma) on him due to his persistent bad behavior, but that was still not enough (Kd 1:25.1.1). The brahmadaṇḍa was imposed at the First Council (Kd 1:1.12.1), upon which Channa finally saw the error of his ways. Brahmadaṇḍa is encountered in a different sense at DN 3:1.23.21. ↩
Vattabba in such contexts means “advise, correct” rather than more generally “speak to”. Thus the brahmadaṇḍa is not the “silent treatment”. ↩
The commentary says this line was added at the Council. ↩
Even on his deathbed, the Buddha retains mastery over his mind. ↩
Ānanda’s question is prompted by the fact that it is very difficult to tell the difference between one who is dead and who has attained cessation (MN 43:25.1). Anuruddha can answer due to his mastery of psychic powers. | Note that Ānanda and Anuruddha have immediately adopted the forms of address recommended by the Buddha above. ↩
Each of these characters reveal something of themselves in their verses. Sahampati, as a royal deity, emphasizes the universal nature of the teaching and the grandeur of the Buddha. ↩
“Bag of bones” is a loose rendering of samussaya. ↩
The ten powers of a Realized One are detailed at AN 10.21 and MN 12:9.1. ↩
Less creative than Brahmā, Sakka repeats a famous verse spoken by the Buddha at SN 15.20:8.1 and DN 17:2.17.5. ↩
Anuruddha was a reclusive meditator who specialized in mindfulness of breathing. Here he remarks on the fact that, since breathing ceases in the fourth absorption (SN 36.11:2.19), the Buddha’s breathing had already stopped before he died. ↩
Ānanda has the most emotional reaction. While Anuruddha speaks only of peace, Ānanda empathizes with those who were distraught. ↩
Text omits “with hair disheveled” (kese pakiriya) when describing the shaven-headed monks. ↩
“Still on the same business” (teneva karaṇīyena) calls back to DN 16:5.20.1, where they were said to be “on some business” (kenacideva karaṇīyena). They had been discussing all night. ↩
An uplifting response to tragedy, full of beauty and celebration. ↩
It seem unlikely that everyone simply forgot. It was probably the custom to wait seven days before the cremation. ↩
“Unworn” is ahata, as at DN 14:1.33.9 and Kd 1:1.6.2. ↩
“Coronation” is makuṭabandhana, “the binding of the crown”. The commentary says there was, fittingly, an auspicious decorative royal hall there; perhaps too the name was felt to pun with muktabandhana, “freedom from ties”. ↩
I think sandhi here means “covered without gaps”. ↩
With the passing of Sāriputta and Moggallāna, Mahākassapa was the most senior of the remaining leading mendicants. As a solitary recluse, it was unusual for him to be travelling with such a large group, or with anyone at all really. He was to cite the events depicted here at the start of the First Council (Kd 1:1.1.1). ↩
A follower of the Bamboo-staffed Ascetic Gosāla (DN 2:19.1). | This may be an inspiration for the so-called “Flower Sermon”, a medieval Zen story that depicts the Buddha holding up a flower and Mahakassapa smiling. ↩
Compare Bu Pc 72. The syntax is clumsy here, perhaps deliberately so. ↩
Here sarīrāneva is plural and so must mean “relics”, whereas previously it was singular, “corpse”. ↩
As when he was born (DN 14:1.28.1). ↩
Ajātasattu would have learned of the news from spies. It is a 600 km round trip to Rājagaha and back, which a mounted messenger could make in fourteen days. ↩
A bold move, considering that his designs on the Vajjis were no secret. Perhaps he was seeking a pretext for war. The justification for taking a share of relics is caste, rather than practice of the Dhamma. ↩
Both the tribe and the town are exceedingly obscure, mentioned nowhere else in early texts. They must have been a small clan nearby. ↩
The Koliyans were south-eastern neighbors of the Sakyans, and several of their towns and people feature in the early texts. ↩
This brahmin is mentioned nowhere else. ↩
Dassāma (“we shall give”) is the future second plural of dadati. ↩
The brahmin Doṇa appears suddenly in the narrative, a reminder that there were many more people than the ones who are mentioned. The suttas record two encounters with a brahmin of this name: one is the wondrous story of seeing the Buddhas footprints (AN 4.36), while the other discusses the five kinds of brahmin (AN 5.192). ↩
The fear of war was justified and the resolution achieved by Doṇa probably marks the last time these parties achieved a diplomatic outcome. The relative peace that had lasted most of the Buddha’s life was crumbling. We hear of war or threats of war between the Kosalans and the Magadhans, the Magadhans and the Vajjis, the Sakyans and the Koliyans, the Kosalans and the Mallas, and the Kosalans and the Sakyans. It is probably because of the latter two conflicts that Viḍūḍabha—Pasenadi’s son and the newly crowned king of Kosala—did not send an emissary to the funeral. By sparking conflicts with former allies the Sakyans and Mallas, Viḍūḍabha undid the successes of his father and fatally weakened the Kosalan Empire. When the dust cleared a few decades later, all these lands had been consumed by Magadha. ↩
Thus begins the practice of establishing Buddhism by interring relics in a stupa. ↩
The Moriyas were a minor clan of the region, unmentioned outside of this passage, but their obscurity was not to last long. About a century after these events, Chandragupta the Moriyan, having won the Magadhan crown from the Nandas, proceeded to route the Greeks in the west. His empire, which covered most of northern India, was further expanded to the south by his son Bindusara and grandson Ashoka, under whom the Mauryan Empire became the greatest of all Indian empires. Thus Ajātasattu’s expansionist dreams were ultimately fulfilled beyond his imagining. ↩
The commentary says this summary was added at the Council. ↩
The commentary says this line was added at the Third Council, which was held about 150 years after the Buddha under Ashoka. The Buddha’s life was already fading into legend. ↩
According to the commentary, the remainder of the text was added by the monks of Sri Lanka. Note, however, that this verse and the next are fairly similar to those in the Sanskrit text. Since that is a northern text, it seems unlikely these verses were composed in Sri Lanka. ↩
The tidiva was the realm of Indra/Sakka (DN 21:1.12.22, DN 30:2.27.12, Thag 10.1:8.4), as it was from the time of the Vedas (Rig Veda 9.113.9, Atharva Veda 10.9.5, 17.1.10). In Buddhist cosmology, this agrees with the fact that Sakka’s realm is the third of the heavens (after the earth gods and the four great kings). Thus the Third Heaven is the heaven of the Thirty-Three. Both ideas spring from an old association of Indra, or divinity generally, with the number three. Agni Purāṇa lists tridiva as a synonym for “heaven”, as does Amarakośa 1.1.11. Kṣīrasvāmin clarifies that three here means “third”, while also adding that some connect it with the Brahmā realm (Amarakośodghāṭana 1.1.6; see SN 7.18:4.2). ↩
“Offering” is āyāga. ↩
Picking up the story of the Buddha’s past life as King Mahāsudassana from DN 16:5.17.1. ↩
From here we leave DN 16 behind and with it any semblance of realism. Some of these details are shared with SN 22.96, which however does not mention the name Mahāsudassana. ↩
Readings vary. The Sanskrit text has saptapauruṣā ardhacaturthapauruṣāś ca nikhātā. ↩
I think the point is that they listened to the music rather than doing bad things. ↩
This is specific instance, so I use past tense. Where it is an abstract description of a legendary past, I use the present tense to denote an eternal or mythic present. ↩
The wheel is firstly the sun and secondly the wheel of the chariots that drove the Indo-Europeans in their conquests. It is the manifestation of unstoppable power. The solar imagery is reflected in the name Mahāsudassana (“Great Splendor”). The whole story reflects the Indo-European dream of universal domination. ↩
Many of the details in this myth echo the Brahmanical horse sacrifice. Since the horse was the primary source of Indo-European dominion, its sacrifice served to authorize the power of a king. It was a costly and dangerous rite that was attempted only by the greatest of sovereigns. | Bhiṅkāra (“ceremonial vase”) and abbhukkirati (“besprinkled”) are elevated terms. ↩
In the horse sacrifice, the horse is released for a year, while the king follows it with his army, claiming any land that it wanders on as his. ↩
Read bhuñjati at MN 98:10.30 with yathābhuttañca bhuñjatha at DN 17:1.9.4, DN 26:6.7, and MN 129:35.7. These have sometimes been rendered “eat”, “enjoy”, or “govern”. But compare the archaic English “use” meaning “the benefit or profit of lands”. Thus yathābhuttañca bhuñjatha means “use as has been used”, i.e. “maintain the current level of taxation”. ↩
The Wheel plunges into the seas, while the sacrificial horse is born in the western and eastern seas. ↩
Historically, India has usually been divided into squabbling realms, but from an early age there was a dream of a unified and peaceful continent. ↩
“At the High Court” is uncertain. Read aḍḍa (variants attha, aṭṭa) which in Sanskrit has the senses “solve, infer, argue, discern”. The commentary interprets aḍḍakaraṇa as the “place of judgement” i.e. the court, which is clearly the case here (see also SN 3.7:1.5, MN 89:13.3). The affix -pamukha here does not mean “entrance”. Rather, it describes the attributes of a wheel-turning monarch in the sense of “finest” (eg. DN 17:2.5.1). ↩
The white elephant is a symbol of royalty to this day. The description recalls Indra’s elephant Airāvata. | For sattappatiṭṭho, the commentary has susaṇṭhitaaṅgapaccaṅga (“well-grounded on each and every limb”), a sense confirmed by the Mūlasarvāstivāda Bhaiṣajyavastu which has saptāṅgaḥ supratiṣṭhito (“well-established on seven limbs”). The subcommentary lists the four feet, trunk, tail, and penis (varaṅga). ↩
The sacrificial horse is likewise white with black head or forequarters. It is identified with the sun, thus being a “sky-walker”. “Thundercloud” (valāhaka; Sanskrit balāhaka) is the name of one of the four horses of Kṛṣṇa’s chariot in the Mahābharata. The description here also recalls the Vedic sacred horse uccaiḥśravas. ↩
The “commander” (pariṇāyaka) is mostly found in Buddhist texts of this context, and is not a regular term of governance. This passage shows that he was responsible for management of the realm, while below he appears as commander of the army (DN 17:2.8.2). Elsewhere he is said to excel in strategy (AN 5.134:2.5). ↩
The jarring inclusion of “women” (itthī) in this list probably refers to state-sponsored prostitution. ↩
The palace is named “Principle” (dhamma) in recognition of the king being subject to a higher law. Normally I translate pāsāda as “stilt longhouse” but here something grander is meant. ↩
For kūṭāgāra as “chamber” see MN 37:8.10. ↩
Thus denying the doctrine of Pūraṇa Kassapa at DN 2:17.5. This is the recognition, at least partially, of right view. ↩
The mahāviyūha must have been some kind of structure at the entrance to the palace, a “foyer”. ↩
These are the three factors of right thought. The king skillfully uses a transition in physical space to set up his intention to meditate. ↩
Here as in DN 1, jhāna is not a uniquely Buddhist practice. ↩
This segment breaks the expected pattern of “foremost” things. ↩
Not the British car of the same name. The chariot is the source of victory in battle. ↩
Read dukūlasandanāni, where dukūla is “fine cloth, silk” and sandana is “cord, tether”. ↩
An odd detail. Maybe the sound of the elephants disturbed his meditation? ↩
Like Ānanda at DN 16:5.13.1. ↩
He makes it clear that this will not be an intimate visit. ↩
The aorist is not past tense, as it is governed by mā. ↩
“Desire” is chanda, the first of the four bases of psychic power, which in DN 16:3.3.1 are said to lead to long life. By urging him to live long, she inverts the Mahāparinibbānasutta where Ānanda fails to do the same. ↩
Implying that Ānanda was right to not beg the Buddha to live long. ↩
At AN 6.16:2.2 this advice is given by Nakula’s mother. ↩
Like Ānanda at DN 16:5.13.1. ↩
This contrasts with the Buddha’s last meal at DN 16:4.20.1, which caused sickness and distress. The Buddha was rejecting existence entirely, whereas Mahāsudassana was continuing in a pleasant form of conditioned existence. ↩
After DN 5:21.16, this is the second Jātaka in the Dīghanikāya. ↩
Accepting the Mahāsaṅgīti’s reading of vessinī. I believe the variant velāmikā is a ghost word contaminated from AN 9.20:4.1. ↩
This picks up from the events of DN 16:2.5.1, which however discusses only the Ñātikans (who are reckoned among the Vajjis). Like DN 17, it bears many signs of a late sutta. The overall theme is the presence of a cosmic order where the liberating teaching of the Buddha is reconciled with the requirements of worldly power. ↩
This list of ten nations is unique. The omission of the Aṅgas and Magadhans is noted below. The more famous list of “sixteen nations” adds Avanti and Assaka in the south, and Gandhāra and Kamboja in the north-west (eg. AN 3.70:28.3). The Buddha did not visit these lands, which explains why they are omitted. ↩
“Devotees” is paricāraka, which normally means “servant”. It is not in the relevant passages of DN 16. This sense is found in only a couple of other places, both late (Snp 5.18:1.2, Kd 1:22.14.8). ↩
Bearing in mind that none of the nations were actually mentioned in the relevant Mahāparinibbānasutta passage, this whole introduction is framed to emphasize the importance of Magadha to Buddhism, especially given the problematic character of Ajātasattu. In the decades following the Buddha’s death, the Buddhist community adapted to a new political landscape which for a time saw the entirety of Buddhism contained within the sprawling Magadhan empire. ↩
As we known from DN 2, Bimbisāra had recently been murdered by Ajātasattu. ↩
A not-so-subtle hint of the changes under Ajātasattu. The passing of Bimbisāra signifies the crumbling of the social order that prevailed in the Buddha’s lifetime, bringing with it the immediate threat of war and chaos. This sutta establishes a timeless order that persists while worldly conditions fluctuate. ↩
Elsewhere the suttas say that Bimbisāra went for refuge (DN 4:6.33), while the Vinaya says he was in fact a stream-enterer (Kd 1:22.9.1), which is confirmed below. The Jains, however, claim him as one of their own but say he went to hell for committing suicide. Like his son Ajātasattu, it is likely that he frequented several teachers in his realm. ↩
Near the town of Uruvelā on the bank of the Nerañjarā River at the place known today as Bodhgaya. ↩
“Suggestion” is parikathaṁ, which elsewhere occurs in the Vinaya (Kd 7:1.5.16) and the Abhidhamma Vibhaṅga (Vb 17:43.2) in the sense of “hint”. ↩
Normally aṭṭhiṁ katvā manasikatvā sabbaṁ cetasā samannāharitvā describes listening to Dhamma. This whole process seems unusually laborious. ↩
Nāmadheyyaṁ means “name (borne by someone or something)”, not “one who bears the name” (MN 50:22.1). ↩
Janavasabha is “chief of men”, spelled janesabha at DN 20:10.10 and DN 32:10.9. The synonym narāsabha is an occasional poetic epithet of the Buddha (Snp 3.11:6.2, Snp 5.1:21.3, SN 11.3:14.2). In Sanskrit we find puruṣaṛṣabha in the same sense. ↩
Read ito. I think this implies what is stated more explicitly in Anuruddha’s partly parallel verses at Thag 16.9:23.1: after each of seven rebirths under Vessavaṇa he can become a king of men. This explains the name Janavasabha. ↩
It is rare to see saṁsāra used as a countable noun, but see Thag 2.48:2.2. ↩
As a stream-enterer he is freed from any lower rebirths, yet he still aspires to a higher realization. ↩
In this idiom, the verb for “aware” varies between sañjānāti, jānāti, pajānāti, and sampajānāti. ↩
Compare SN 1.50:5.1 and SN 2.24:6.1. ↩
It is not just the Vajjis and the Buddhist Saṅgha who meet frequently in a hall to discuss business, but the gods as well. Here we get a rare glimpse into how the heavens work, or more to the point, how depictions of heavenly proceedings act as a template for how things should be on earth. ↩
The thirty-three and the Four Great Kings are both present; the heavenly realms are not shut off from one another. ↩
For vipakkamati compare MN 127:11.1. ↩
Compare DN 11:80.12. ↩
For vipāko bhavissati in discerning the results of signs, compare DN 1:1.24.2. ↩
See AN 3.127:2.3. ↩
This phrase is also at DN 19:16.8, but apart from that the words pakativaṇṇa (“normal appearance”), anabhisambhavanīya (“imperceptible”), and cakkhupatha (“visual range”) are all unique in the early texts. ↩
For the unique term “human form” (mānusaṁ viggahaṁ) compare the Vinaya phrase manussaviggahaṁ (Bu Pj 3:2.49.1). ↩
Also appearing in DN 21:1.8.3, DN 20:10.11, and SN 35.119, Pañcasikha (“Five-Crest”) was a handsome and virile deity of the gandhabbas. ↩
Bhāsittha is 3rd singular aorist middle voice. ↩
Compare MN 91:21.4. ↩
Everything Sanaṅkumāra says is just a bit off. Here he adopts an idiom commonly used by the Buddha, but in third person rather than the Buddha’s second person; and he asks only rhetorically, where the Buddha engages with his audience. If it were only this one example it would mean nothing, but similar changes happen throughout. I believe this is a subtle literary device that tells two narratives to two audiences. To potential converts it sounds like Sanaṅkumāra is giving a ringing and learned endorsement of Buddhism, while to knowledgeable Buddhists he appears as less than well versed in the teachings. I note these eccentric wordings as we proceed. ↩
The sutta began by recounting those who have achieved various stages of awakening. But escape from rebirth threatens the gods; this potentially fraught relationship is played out in MN 49. Sanaṅkumāra is preempting such arguments by pointing out that many of the Buddha’s followers are reborn among the gods and do not escape transmigration, at least not for now. This is no trivial metaphysical argument. In order for Buddhism to prevail, it must show that its radical soteriology is compatible with worldly prosperity, lest it face opposition from kings and other temporal powers. The gods act as proxies to demonstrate the appropriate behavior for terrestrial kings. This is why the leading character is Bimbisāra/Janavasabha, who straddles the two realms. ↩
Sanaṅkumāra begins sharing the Buddha’s teaching with the gods, starting with the bases of psychic power that featured prominently in DN 16. Here, however, he focuses on the worldly dimensions of psychic powers, ignoring the liberating dimension that was central to the Buddha. This sets the pattern for the teachings to follow, except for the very last. ↩
Yāva supaññattā, which is also at MN 51:4.3, is a variation of the common exclamation yāva subhāsita. The phrase iddhipahutāya iddhivisavitāya iddhivikubbanatāya is unique. The Paṭisambhidāmagga draws on this passage to explain vikubbana both as a general term for development of psychic powers (Ps 3.2:4.3) and as specific kind of psychic power, namely the transformation of one’s apparent form as demonstrated by Sanaṅkumāra (Ps 3.2:15.1). ↩
These “three opportunities” are not found elsewhere. ↩
This unique term is the reverse of the phrase that begins the first jhāna. The passage, however, speaks only of lifestyle rather than deep meditation. ↩
“Aloof” (asaṁsaṭṭha) is a synonym of “secluded” (vivicca). The jhāna formulas are extremely stable and it is rare to find them played with like this. ↩
Since jhāna arises from pleasure, it cannot be meant here. ↩
“Coarse physical, verbal, and mental processes” (oḷārikā kāyasaṅkhārā …vacīsaṅkhārā … cittasaṅkhārā) is another unique term. They are probably to be identified with the three “processes” of MN 44:14.2. ↩
This builds off DN 1:2.24.1, but the full phrase is only here and DN 19:7.2. ↩
Normally satipaṭṭhāna is taught “in order to purify sentient beings, to get past sorrow and crying, to make an end of pain and sadness, to end the cycle of suffering, and to realize extinguishment” (eg. DN 22:1.7). Here, in yet another unique phrasing, a more humble goal is sought. ↩
Again the liberating dimension is ignored in favor of worldly psychic abilities. This is another unique formulation. ↩
Also found at AN 7.45:1.1. At MN 44:12.4 the four right efforts are said to be the “prerequisites of immersion”. Here at last Sanaṅkumāra introduces the liberating dimension of the path as a whole. ↩
To the standard passage on the qualities of the Dhamma, Sanaṅkumāra clumsily tacks on the line spoken by the Buddha when he was persuaded by Brahmā to teach (SN 6.1:10.1, DN 14:3.7.13, MN 26:21.6, MN 85:45.6). ↩
Finally the question is answered, although the number of deaths is obviously exaggerated. We cannot estimate the population size at the time with any confidence. But we know that Pāṭaliputta under Ashoka covered about 25 km², which suggests a population somewhere around 250,000. Probably there were a few million people in the whole of Magadha. ↩
The commentary identifies these as non-returners, but this is unlikely as puññābhāga (“share of merit”) indicates those who do good for the sake of a good rebirth rather than liberation (AN 6.63:30.2). There would have been countless more of such good folk than stream-enterers, whereas the number of non-returners, as indicated by the count of the Ñātikans, would have been small, not “countless”. This verse is also at SN 6.13:7.1, where the commentary says nothing of non-returners. ↩
Sanaṅkumāra lives longer than the lesser gods so he has a broader perspective. He emphasizes the long-term stability of cosmic order, which prevails through the crises that afflict the short-lived kingdoms of men. ↩
Astonishingly, this sutta traces its textual lineage directly to Brahmā, exactly like the Brahmanical texts (eg. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 6.5.4). Of course, Brahmā gets his teaching from the Buddha, but this is clearly copying the Brahmanical model. ↩
Here Ānanda plays a key role as the linchpin of the oral tradition. It is likely that not just the Mahāparinibbānasutta itself, but all these suttas of this cycle were composed by Ānanda or his students. ↩
With this unique ending, there is no claim that this sutta was heard by the mendicants in the usual way. Rather it makes its purpose explicit, to act as a means to widely propagate the Dhamma. The Mahāparinibbānasutta also speaks of the spread of the Dhamma, and the Janavasabhasutta indicates some of the means by which that was achieved in the decades following the Buddha’s death; in particular, by allying itself with the ascendant power of Magadha. ↩
We were introduced to Pañcasikha in DN 18, which is similar to the current sutta in many other details as well. Thus this sutta can be considered as a distant cousin to the Mahāparinibbāna cycle. ↩
The council of gods described by Janavasabha at DN 18:12.1, while otherwise similar, took place at the entry to a rainy season, whereas this one is at the end of a rainy season. This cannot have been the Buddha’s last rains, for he was already in Vajji by then. ↩
For “genuine praise” (yathābhucce vaṇṇe), see DN 1:1.28.1. ↩
This set of eight is not found elsewhere. | “Proffered” is payirudāhāsi, a unique term in early texts. ↩
Sakka adopts the same rhetorical style as Sanaṅkumāra (DN 18:20.2). ↩
Compare DN 18:25.1. ↩
Paṭipadā is instrumental. ↩
I don’t think this idea is found elsewhere in quite this way. Normally it is said that the path leads to Nibbāna like the rivers lead to the ocean (eg. SN 45.114:1.1). ↩
This item is unique. ↩
Another unique item. ↩
This is normally true, but in some cases the Buddha left a badly-behaved community (MN 48), dismissed misbehaving monks (eg. AN 8.10:2.2), or even dismissed a large community (MN 67). | The “joy of solitude” is ekārāmataṁ . ↩
Also at DN 29:29.5, AN 4.23:4.1, and Iti 112:5.1. ↩
Pariyositasaṅkappo (“achieved all he wished for”) is a synonym of the more common paripuṇṇasaṅkappo (eg. MN 29:2.5). ↩
This impossibility is also at AN 1.277:1.1 and MN 115:14.1. | “In one solar system” (ekissā lokadhātuyā): a single lokadhātu encompasses a single terrestrial world with a single moon and sun. ↩
It is not common to wish for the Buddha’s long life, but we do find this sentiment expressed in a conversation between Sāriputta and Ānanda (SN 21.2:3.5). ↩
“Having appraised” (saṅkhāya) is glossed by the commentary with “having known” (jānitvā). Compare the discussion on “judgmentalism” at DN 1:1.3.1. ↩
Disampati means “head of the directions”, i.e. king of all the land. He and his story are found nowhere else in the early texts. ↩
“Steward” is Govinda, literally “lord of cows”. The “high priest” (purohita) was a hereditary office, a learned ritualist and adviser attached to a specific family. For royal families the post could be highly contested. The closeness of the role is shown in that aristocratic families could be referred to by the lineage of the high priest. ↩
While the current sutta does not explicitly identify their realm, Dīpavaṁsa iii 40 records Disampati and Reṇu as kings of Kāsi. This fits with the geographical layout depicted in this sutta, with Kāsi at the center. The story, then, depicts the establishment of Brahmanical kings across India from Kāsi. ↩
Jotipāla means “guardian of the sacred flame”, i.e. someone who maintains the Vedic fire ritual (see below at DN 19:47.26). There was another Jotipāla in the time of Buddha Kassapa at MN 81:6.2, and another who was a religious founder of the past (AN 6.54:18.1, AN 7.73:2.5). Despite the popularity of the name in Pali, it does not seem to appear in Sanskrit sources. Given that it appears in Pali only in legendary contexts, it is probably a vocational epithet. ↩
The king’s only care, it seems, is not for the passing of his friend, but that he no longer gets to indulge in whatever he wants. ↩
This shows that Govinda is an office rather than a personal name. ↩
Following the Mahāsaṅgīti reading rather than the PTS (nānusāsi … nānusāsati). It seems required by the context that he does more than his father. ↩
Following PTS reading sukhaṁ edheyyātha. ↩
The meaning of sakaṭamukhaṁ (“front of a cart”) is clarified by comparison with the parallels. T 8 is identical (其界廣闊。正南南隅，其界狹略，猶如車形), while DA 3 expresses a similar idea more briefly (此閻浮提地， 內廣外狹). The Mahāvastu (Mvu 85.17) confirms this sense with dakṣiṇena saṁkṣiptā śakaṭamukhasaṁsthitaṁ. These appear to demonstrate a knowledge of the shape of the Indian subcontinent. Below it says that each of the kingdoms is shaped like the front of a cart, just as India is as a whole. ↩
Neither Rhys Davids nor Walshe translate this line, but it receives an extensive discussion in the commentary. It says that six kingdoms were arranged around Reṇu’s kingdom in the middle, like an umbrella (vitānasadisaṁ). ↩
The verses tell the realms starting with the rising sun at Kaliṅga in the east and proceeding clockwise (padakkhiṇā) until the circle is complete with Aṅga on the Kaliṅga border. Thus the original center was probably the last place on the list, Kāsi, which is indeed geographically central. ↩
Kaliṅga was a coastal realm in modern Odisha and Andhra Pradesh. There is no consensus on the exact location of Dantapura. ↩
Assaka stretched from Kaliṅga’s western border across the interior. Potana is modern Bodhan in Telangana state. ↩
Mahesaya of the Pali editions is a variant spelling for māhissatī; Mahāvastu has māhiṣmatī. It is in present-day Madhya Pradesh, on the banks of Narmada River, and is perhaps to be identified with modern Maheshwar. ↩
Sovīra was on the lower Indus, and Roruka is identified with modern Rohri in Sindh province, Pakistan. It is implausible that they received Aryan culture from Kāsi. ↩
Mithilā was the capital of Videha, to the north east of the Vajjian federation, nestled against the Himalayas. Mithilā was a dominant kingdom before the Buddha, its king Janaka featuring prominently in early Upaniṣads. It features rarely in the suttas (MN 91, Thig 6.2, Thig 13.4) and had apparently declined in importance. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.4.1.10–19 depicts its origins in terms of the spread of fire-worship from the west by its founding king Māthava Videgha with his priest Gotama Rāhūgaṇa. ↩
Campā is modern Champapuri near Bhagalpur in Bihar state, not far from West Bengal. Aṅga lay between the Chandan river to the west and the Rajmahal hills to the east. In the centuries before the Buddha it expanded its dominion to the sea on the south-east and Magadha in the west. But with the Kaliṅgas pushing back from the coast and the rise of Bimbisāra in Magadha, they were pushed back to their ancestral lands and fell under Magadhan dominion. ↩
Varanasi, one of the oldest cities in the world, was the capital of the Kāsī kingdom. It lost its status as an independent kingdom shortly before the Buddha, when it was taken over by Kosala. It appears in countless Buddhist stories of the past as the dominant city of the region in what appears to be a timeless and ageless past. However, despite its great antiquity, it is a historical settlement, of which the discovered remains date back to perhaps 1200 BCE; it was a capital city from perhaps 800 BCE. ↩
The names of the aristocrat kings—most of which are difficult to identify from other sources—are listed in an abruptly-inserted verse. The names are missing from the parallels in Mahāvastu and DA 3, but T 8 appears to have the same list of names in the same order, except with Reṇu at the start. Rhys Davids proposes to assign each one to a kingdom as listed in the same order. This seems to work for the first four names, as Ja 424, invoking this sutta, identifies Bharata as king of Sovīra. But it falls apart with Reṇu, who as we have seen, belongs in Kāsi rather than Videha. ↩
“Bharata” is the name of an individual king, while they are collectively known as “Bhāratas” (with a long initial ā due to secondary derivation). Ja 424, invoking this sutta, identifies Bharata as king of Sovīra. ↩
Here bhāratā means “kings of India” or perhaps, if read together with the preceding verses, “kingdoms of India”. India was called Bhārata after the legendary King Bharata of Hastināpura (Delhi), founder of the Lunar dynasty, conqueror of India, and sire of the warring tribes of the Mahābharata. His story is told in the Saṁbhavapara of the Mahābhārata. The name represents the success of Vedic culture across the subcontinent. ↩
In spiritual circles, such rumors spread like wildfire in an Australian summer. ↩
The ancient Brahmanical teachers are invoked to justify the Buddhist rains retreat. | Compassion is one of the “meditations of Brahmā” (brahmavihāra). Normally the suttas speak of the absorptions (jhāna) and of the meditation on compassion (karuṇā), but the idea of an “absorption on compassion” is unique to this sutta. ↩
Compare MN 51:10.3, where the same construction is a site for the sacrifice. ↩
“Deathless” from a Brahmanical perspective, but very much within the realm of saṁsāra from a Buddhist perspective. ↩
Brahme is the normal vocative for brahmā. However in verse it is sometimes used as vocative for brāhmaṇa (eg. Snp 5.1:7.3, Snp 5.19:3.4). ↩
These factors are explained as a summary of the Gradual Training. ↩
“At one” (ekodibhūta or more commonly ekodibhāva) normally describes deep meditation, and is part of the formula for the second jhāna. Here it is explained as equivalent to “seclusion” (viveka). ↩
“Putrefaction” (āmagandha) is the smell of (moral) decay or corruption (AN 3.128, Snp 2.2). ↩
“Desire” is (icchā). PTS reads vicikicchā (“doubt”), but this must be incorrect as the commentary explains it as “craving” (taṇhā). ↩
“Easy to quell” (sunimmadaya) is unique to this passage. ↩
As noted in the comment to DN 16:5.19.2, kingly clans adopted the lineage name of the high priest (purohita) during initiation. ↩
This is a rare use of the verb sikkhati in the sense “bestow, present”. ↩
“True teaching” (saddhamma) normally describes the Buddha’s teaching. ↩
“Leads to rebirth in the Brahmā realm” (brahmalokūpapattiyā), just as the teaching of Āḷāra Kālāma, based on the even more refined formless meditations, leads to rebirth in the dimension of nothingness (MN 36:14.14). ↩
Echoing the ancient hermit Araka at AN 7.74:2.2, who said life is evanescent like a dewdrop. ↩
It is regarded as normal that woman should renounce. ↩
Compare with the mass renunciation under Vipassī (DN 14:2.16.6). ↩
His meditation expands from compassion to include all four of the brahmavihāras. ↩
This is the third and final Jātaka in the Dīghanikāya, after DN 5 and DN 17. ↩
According to the doctrine of the “perfections” (pāramī), which emerged around two to four centuries after the Buddha’s passing, the practices he undertook in past lives laid the foundation for awakening in this life. Here, however, the Buddha states that his former practices did not lead to awakening. Rather, since they were based on the wrong view of eternal bliss in the Brahmā realm, they only led to a good rebirth so long as that kamma lasted. It is the eightfold path, which the Buddha discovered in his final life, which leads to awakening. The same saying in a similar context is found at MN 83:21.7. ↩
This discourse gives an extensive account of divine beings. Some are familiar from elsewhere in the Pali texts, others found in various Brahmanical sources, while still others occur only here. For the names we can compare the edition of the Sanskrit text by Waldschmidt and Sander and available on SuttaCentral as SF 140. ↩
The Pure Abodes are inhabited entirely by non-returners. ↩
“Great congregation” is mahāsamaya. ↩
A village (Bu Pj 2:3.8) or royal compound (Bu Pc 83:1.3.56.1) was marked with a “boundary-post” (indakhīla). It symbolized a fixed and immovable point, either in a good sense (SN 56.39:4.1) or, as here, an obstacle. The Sanskrit indrakīla is a two-foot long iron bolt securing a fort, presumably fixed in the ground (Arthaśāstra 2.3.26), or else a mountain in the Himalayas. The warrior Arjuna, journeying beyond the Gandhamādana, is stopped at the Indrakīla mountain by Sakra/Indra disguised as a brahmin ascetic, at whose urging Arjuna undertakes asceticism in order to gain the power he would need (Mahābhārata 3.3.37). The symbolic sense of “stopping” relates to the Pali sense of immovability, and suggests that the underlying metaphor is the irresistible power represented by Indra. | For Mahāsaṅgīti’s ūhacca manejā read ūhacca-m-anejā. ↩
Nāga can refer to a class of semi-divine beings in a powerful serpentine form (“dragon”); a large and powerful snake, especially a king cobra; a bull elephant; or any powerful and mighty being (“giant”). ↩
This recalls DN 14:1.10.1, where the relative sizes of the mendicant congregations of different Buddhas are tallied. That sutta, in another point of similarity, also featured a conversation with deities of the Pure Abodes. ↩
“Paean of praise” is siloka, a rare case where this means “verse (of praise)” rather than “fame, renown”. Siloka is also a poetic metre, the most common form in Pali. | Anukassāmi is present tense from the root kass, “to draw (up), to drag”. Compare Sanskrit anukarṣa in the sense “invoking, summoning by incantation”. ↩
This gives a hint as to one of the purposes of this sutta. Living alone in remote forests can be terrifying. Such places were widely believed to be haunted by all manner of supernatural creatures, not all of them friendly. While for an arahant this posed no threat, there would have been then, as there are today, many young or aspiring meditators who faced such challenges with trepidation. These verses offer succor, surrounding them with powerful, albeit invisible, allies. ↩
“Spirit” is yakkha. In later legend they appear as monstrous figures, but in the suttas they are ambiguous and may often be friendly to the Dhamma. Early statues of yakkhas at Madhurā (circa 100 BCE) depict noble and powerful kings, not ogres. Yakkha is also sometimes used more generally in the sense of an individual or deity. ↩
Colorful like the nymphs of MN 50:25.6 or Susīma’s gods at SN 2.29:7.1. ↩
Mount Sātā is unidentified, but according to the commentary it was in the middle region. ↩
Vessāmitta (“friend of all”) is the name of a Vedic hermit. Legend has it that he was a khattiya who earned brahminhood due to his intense austerities in the remote Himalayas. Perhaps this is a mountain named for him, although I can find no trace of it in Sanskrit. ↩
Kumbhīra means “crocodile”. ↩
We met two human King Dhataraṭṭhas (“Strongrealm”) in the Mahāgovindasutta. ↩
“Centaur” is gandhabba. Gandhabbas are wild, sexual beings who, being first to yoke the horse (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 5.1.4.8) and riding the steed called “Racer” (vājin, 10.6.4.1), “take the reins” from Indra (Rig Veda 1.163.2) as his charioteer Mātali. It is likely the Sanskrit gandharva stems from the same root as the Greek kentauro, and the ultimate origin of the idea comes from the proto-Indo-Europeans, who rode the horse, creating a potent entity that was invincible in battle. At Sanchi Stupa No. 2 there are images of men and women riding centaurs, although this may be a later Greek borrowing. ↩
By implication, they are renowned as being powerful as Indra, the king of gods who in Pali is more commonly called Sakka. It is also a nod to the multiplicity of divinities in the Vedic system, where one becomes many and many become one. ↩
Virūḷhaka is “growth”; he was probably a god of the fertile crops. In the Pali it is spelled Virūḷha here due to the meter. ↩
“Gnomes” is kumbhaṇḍa (Sanskrit kuṣmāṇḍa), “pumpkin-belly”, a race of lesser deities often depicted as ugly and misshapen. ↩
One of the “royal snake families” at AN 4.67:3.2. His name means “multiple eyes” (virūpa-akkha) for the false eyes on a cobra’s hood. ↩
Also known as Vessavaṇa (DN 32:7.43, Snp 2.14:6.1), which means “Son of the Renowned” from his father Viśrava. These two names appear together elsewhere in contemporary literature (Atharvaveda 8,10.28c, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 13.4.3.10), where, although the passages are obscure, he appears to be associated with wickedness, concealment, and theft. Although a god of wealth (dhanada), the name Kuvera is explained by lexicographers as “deformed”. Probably he was originally a god of the underground, blessed with the earth’s riches, yet deformed by its great pressure. ↩
The following verses are a treasure-trove of ancient Indian mythology, recording the names of deities otherwise lost to history. Many of the names are obscure and variant readings are recorded in manuscripts and noted in the commentary. My spellings follow Ānandajoti’s translation, The Discourse on the Great Convention, unless there is a reason to change. I try to identify the deities as best as I can, but many of them remain speculative. ↩
These deities are called dāsa, which normally means “slave” in Pali. But here, it seems, we have a singular instance of the old Vedic meaning, an uncivilized foe. The dāsas Vṛtra, Namuci, and Vṛṣaśipra are described as “deceivers” (māyin, Rig Veda 1.53.7; 2.11.10; 7.99.4; 10.73.7). This epithet is also used of the closely related dasyu (Rig Veda 1.33.10; 4.16.9; 8.14.14; 10.73.5; see note on DN 5:11.5). Such beings are said to be “godless” since they oppose the Vedic deities (Rig Veda 2.19.7; 3.31.19; 7.1.10; 10.11.6; 10.138.4, etc.), so we can translate as “heathen”. ↩
I am not able to identify any of these names with confidence, but perhaps kuṭeṇḍu and viṭeṇḍu could be traced to indu (“moon”), thus “crooked moon” and “defective moon”. Compare khaṇḍendu, a later term for Śiva as the crescent moon. ↩
The Sanskrit names are kiṭi, vikiṭi, bhṛgu, and bhṛkuṭi. Only bhṛgu is attested in the Vedas, but he was a sage, not a “crafty heathen”. ↩
Candana appears in MN 134:6.4, SN 2.15, and SN 40.11:1.1, and together with Kāmaseṭṭha in DN 32:10.4. Candana means “sandalwood”, although the name of the god might also relate to its root “shining”. | Kāmaseṭṭha means “Chief of Sex”, i.e. “Eros”; he does not seem to appear in a Brahmanical context. ↩
Panāda (“roarer”) was the name of an ancient king who performed the horse sacrifice (Thag 2.22:1.1, DN 26:26.1). In Ja 265 he is said to have been the son of Vessavaṇa (Kuvera). | Opamañña is a descendant of the ascended sage Upamanyu (“zealous one”; see note on MN 99:10.3). ↩
Mātali is the charioteer of Sakka (i.e. Indra; SN 11.6:1.5, MN 83:14.1, etc.), a role he plays throughout Brahmanical literature as well. He appears here as one of the centaur lords, and is father to the centaur Sikhaṇḍī, Pañcasikha’s rival in love DN 21:1.6.8. ↩
The gandharva Citrasena (“Brightspear”) appears in the Sanskrit Purāṇas as a friend of Arjuna in various adventures. ↩
Nala means “reed”. There was a King Nala of Vidarbha whose love for his Queen Damayantī is celebrated in the Mahābharata. | Janesabha is an alternate spelling of Janavasabha (DN 18). ↩
In DN 21 we shall learn of how the centaur Pañcasikha (“Fivecrest”) wooed Timbaru’s daughter Suriyavaccasā (“Sunshine”). ↩
Read nābhasa, which means “celestial, heavenly”. The commentary says this was the name of a lake, which agrees with the legend that a Nābhasa was a son of Nala (“reed”) and father of Puṇḍarīka (“lotus”). The Sanskrit here, however, has sahabhuṁ nāgo. ↩
Vesālā is from the adjectival form vesāla (“of Vesālī”). | Pali taccha can represent Sanskrit takṣa, and the Sanskrit does indeed have takṣakaḥ here, so Tacchaka is probably “of Takṣasilā”. This famous city, normally spelled Takkasilā in Pali, is Taxila in West Pakistan, an ancient center of learning. ↩
These nāgas are frequently mentioned together in Sanskrit literature such as the Mahābhārata (1.31.1a, 2.9.9a, 5.101.9c), where they are also said to come from Pāyāga (3.83.72a: prayāgaṁ sapratiṣṭhānaṁ kambalāśvatarau). ↩
Payāga (modern Prayagraj, formerly Allahabad) is the sacred ford at the confluence of the Ganges and the Yamunā beside Kosambī (see Bu Pj 1:4.18). ↩
The Dhataraṭṭha and Erāvaṇa nāgas also appear frequently in Sanskrit literature, and often in association with other deities in our text as part of a loose cluster of divinities (eg. Harivamśa 3.112–117). Erāvaṇa also appears at Snp 2.14:5.1. Here he is a nāga as in “dragon”, but later tradition saw him as a nāga as in “elephant”, in which role he became the mighty mount of Indra/Sakka. ↩
Here we see the eternal mythic struggle between birds and snakes, the creatures of the sky and the underworld. ↩
Birds are called “twice-born”, once from the mother, once from the egg. “Twice-born” is also an epithet of brahmins (Thig 15.1:31.3). ↩
The supaṇṇā (Sanskrit suparṇa, “brightwing”) or garuḷā (Sanskrit garuḍā, “devourer”) is the great eagle, king of birds, and later the vehicle of Viṣṇu. He has been falsely compared with the loathsome harpy; but his golden wings, closeness to the sun, and role as bearer of the nectar of immortality show that he is the Indian phoenix, the golden eagle of the sun. Unlike the western phoenix, he is not said to combust himself and be reborn anew. However this motif is merely the surface expression of the sun’s fiery immortality. As the brother of the Dawn (Aruṇa), his golden wings at sunset “devour” the sun, and he disappears only to be reborn the next day. ↩
Upavhayati occurs only here and SN 7.9:4.3 in Pali. It is Vedic term for invoking or calling up blessings in a whisper. ↩
The Buddha reconciles even such inveterate enemies. In the Buddhist view, all of these beings have their place in the great pattern of nature. ↩
Vajirahattha (“thunderbolt-in-hand”) is a synonym of vajirapāṇi (DN 3:1.21.3, MN 35:14.1). It is a frequent epithet of Sakka in the Vedas (eg. Rig Veda 1.173.10a indro vajrahastaḥ), an identification confirmed by the commentary here. ↩
Vāsava is another epithet of Sakka (see below, DN 20:14.9), meaning “endowed with wealth” (vasu; see for example Rig Veda 1.9.9a indraṁ vasupatiṁ “Indra, lord of wealth”). The Buddhist explanation of his name SN 11.13:9.1, rather, plays on the word āvasatha and calls him the “giver of a guesthouse”. Later Brahmanical texts enumerated eight Vasus, with Indra as their lord, who are reckoned among the thirty-three. | Sakka’s wife is the demon (asura) princess Sujā, daughter of Vepacitti, hence they are his “brothers”, technically in-laws (SN 11.12:6.1). ↩
The Kālakañja is the lowest class of titans (DN 24:1.7.19). Legend has it that they tried to build a fire altar of bricks (i.e. a mountain) to ascend to the heavens and contest with the gods (Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 1.1.2.4–6, alluded to at Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 2.1.2.13). Three are mentioned as being godlike at Atharvaveda 6.80.2. The Mahābhārata (eg. 4.44.9) says they are Dānavas, an association supported in the next line. They seem to be associated with the ferocious Kālakeyas, children of Kālā. But a common Sanskrit spelling is kālakhañja, where khañja means “lame”. This calls to mind the lame smith-god Hephaestus, who also ascended to heaven. Kāla (“black”) then would be the black metal iron (cf. English “blacksmith”), yielding the sense “iron-lamed”. ↩
The Dānavas are a prominent group of asuras otherwise unattested in early Pali. The name stems from “rivers, waters” after their mother Danū. | Ghasa (“devourer”) is occasionally mentioned as the name of a rakṣasa (Rāmāyaṇa 5.22.36a praghasā nāma rākṣasī). The commentary treats them as a single class of arrow-wielding asuras. ↩
Vepacitti means “wise thinker”, Sucitti means “good thinker”. Vepacitti was the lord of the asuras and Sakka’s counterpart. Their relationship was complicated (SN 11.23). Brahmanical literature regards him as the eldest son of Danū and hence chief of the Dānavas. The Sanskrit form is vipracitti, but in Buddhist texts it is incorrectly Sanskritized to vemacitra. Vepacitti’s fame matches Sucitti’s obscurity, for he does not seem to appear elsewhere. ↩
Pahārāda the ocean-loving asura lord appears in AN 8.19. His name (Sanskrit prahlāda) means “mirth”. Later Brahmanical legends say he was a righteous son of the wicked Hiraṇyakaśipu, who hated him for his devotion to Viṣṇu. | The story goes that when Namuci stole the soma from Indra, Indra’s vengeance was frustrated by his vow not to harm him with anything wet or dry, in the dark or the light (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 12.7.3.1). Indra’s ingenious solution was to dismember him with foam (Rig Veda 8.14.13) at dawn. Namuci’s name is explained as na-muci, “not letting go” (the waters). In Buddhism, Namuci is a name of Māra, although here Māra appears separately below.. ↩
According to legend, Bali was the grandson of Pahārāda and son of Virocana. His hundred sons were dread warriors (Bhāgavata Purāṇa 8.10.30). The word bali also refers to a kind of sacrificial offering, but the roots of the term are obscure. ↩
Virocana was their grandfather. He was another adversary of Indra, despite which they were both said to have sought knowledge from Prajāpatī, but Virocana misunderstood since he saw only the surface meaning (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 8.7.2–8.5). Here he is associated with Rāhu, while Gaṇeśa Purāṇa 2.29 says he was granted a crown by the sun which he then lost. These details hint at a connection with the eclipse, in which case virocana would be the rays that emanate during a solar eclipse. ↩
Rāhu is the mighty asura who “seizes” the moon (SN 2.9) or the sun (SN 2.10) to create an eclipse. He is the son of Vepacitti. It is strange to see him described as “auspicious” (bhadda), as he is a black planet and a force of darkness. ↩
These four are normally treated in the suttas as physical properties. Each of them is worshiped in the Rig Veda as a deity, and the Upanishads list them together along with other elements (eg. Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.4.5). I am not aware of any earlier contexts that group the four together systematically as deities in this way. ↩
Varuṇa is invoked frequently in the Vedas, and in the suttas he is associated with other leading deities such as Indra and Soma (DN 13:25.2, DN 32:10.2, SN 11.3:5.1). As one of the twelve children of Aditi he stood for a calendar month, and grew a wide and sometimes baffling array of associations—the oceans, water, the sky (at night), and justice. Vedic Varuṇa was the god of command, the king of tough rule. He was identified with the aristocrats, while his partner Mitra was the brahmins (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 4.1.4). ↩
Soma is the divine nectar that filled the ancient proto-Indo-Europeans with vitality. Its biological identity is disputed, but may have been ephedra. It is associated with the moon, hence the connection with Varuṇa as the night sky. | Yasa means “fame, glory”; so far as I know it is not personified in early Brahmanical texts, and rarely later. The connection between these two is illuminated by such passages as Rig Veda 7.85.3. To uphold Indra and Varuṇa in battle, there is an offering of Soma, which is described as svayaśasaḥ, “Self-Glorious”, i.e. the state of being high on speed, if speed were a god. ↩
In the Vedas, Mitra (“friend”) is almost always paired with Varuṇa, and the appearance of Mettā (“friendliness”) here echoes that closeness. He was the god of alliances. | Karuṇā in the sense of “compassion” does not occur at all in pre-Buddhist Sanskrit. It is probably introduced here as companion to Mettā by association with Mitra. The Sanskrit here, however, is maitrī varuṇikā. From a Buddhist point of view, these are deities reborn due to the development of jhāna based on love and compassion. ↩
Veṇhu (variant veṇḍu) is the Pali spelling of Sanskrit viṣṇu, who appears only here and at SN 2.12. In the Rig Veda he was a solar god who made three great strides (said to encompass the earth, the sky, and the heavens). | A deity named Sahalī (“with plow”) appears at SN 2.30:3.1 where he praises Makkhali Gosāla, but I cannot trace him anywhere else. ↩
Yama often refers to a god who guards the paths to the land of the dead (SN 1.33:10.3, MN 130:5.1), lord of the Yāma gods. Here, however, it refers to “twins” who in the Vedas are often identified with the Aśvins (the twin horses yoked to the chariot). In the Vedas, it seems asama (“unequalled”) is used as an epithet only, although the commentary says it is a name. | In Pali these lines lack a verb, while the Sanskrit supplies āgataś (“come”) instead of asamā, so perhaps we should read “the pair of Twins came”. ↩
Vāsava is above at DN 20:12.3. ↩
Purandara (“Fortbreaker”) is another epithet of Sakka or Indra (eg. Rig Veda 1.102.7). The Buddha reforms it to Purindada (“Firstgiver”) at SN 11.12:2.1. But Indra’s generosity is long renowned, eg. Rig Veda 1.10.6c: “He is the able one, and he will be able for us—Indra who distributes the goods” (sa śakra uta naḥ śakad indro vasu dayamānaḥ). ↩
Sanskrit has sabhikā. Most of the deities in the following verses do not seem to be met with elsewhere. The Sanskrit forms are often quite different but equally untraceable. ↩
Their names might mean “Unhurt” and “Hurter”. The Sanskrit implausibly has romā (“Romans”). ↩
For Varuṇa see above (DN 20:13.3). | Sahadhamma means “who share the same duty”. ↩
The “Unfallen” and the “Unshakeable”. ↩
The Sūleyyas might be “spear (or trident) bearers”; śūli is a name of Shiva. | Rucira means “brilliant, beautiful”. ↩
Vāsavanesi means “seekers of Vāsava”. ↩
“Equals” and “Great Equals”. ↩
“Humans” and “Superhumans”, but here perhaps “Descendants of Manu”. ↩
As per DN 1:2.7.2. ↩
Hari means “yellow, green” and is the astrological color of the planet budha (“Mercury”). It came to have the general meaning of “sacred, holy” and was an epithet for various deities, which in the Rig Veda included Indra and Vishnu. However the astrological connection is suggested by the references to Mars and Venus below. ↩
“Dwellers in the Red Place (= planet)”, i.e. “Martians”. ↩
Pāraga means “one who has crossed over”. ↩
The deities seem to represent the three main lights that announce a new day: the morning star, the newborn sun, and the aura of the dawn. | Sukka (“Bright”) is the name of the planet Venus, the morning star. | Aruṇa is the dawn, a major Vedic deity signifying the arising of consciousness and order. | Karambha means “porridge”, which was offered to the sun under the name Pūṣan (Rig Veda 3.52.7, 6.56.1; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 4.2.5.22; Kauṣītaki Brāhmaṇa 6.8.18; Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā 3.10.6). Hence he became known as karambhād, “porridge-eater”. Apparently the sun lost its teeth and could only eat porridge (Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 1.7.4.8). Being toothless like a baby, and lacking the risen sun’s “teeth” (i.e. “rays”), he probably represents the “newborn sun”. Compare for example Rig Veda 10.35, where Pūṣan is invoked, along with many other deities, in a hymn to the dawn. ↩
Mahāsaṅgīti has veghanasā, for which the Buddha Jayanthi variant vekhanasa is preferable. We meet a wanderer of that name in MN 80, and in Sanskrit vaikhānasa is a general term for ascetics; but this meaning seems unlikely in context. The astrologer Varāhamitra names it a constellation (Bṛhat-saṁhitā 47.62), but that is much later. The Sanskrit here is nīlakavāsinī (“Dwellers in the Blue”), which pairs well with lohitavāsino above. Nīlavāsa is a name for Saturn, whose color is blue. ↩
Odātagayha is probably “white planet”, i.e. the sun. Sanskrit has avadātakeśā (“white-haired”). Compare the description of solar gods Sūrya at Rig Veda 1.50.8 as śociṣkeśaṁ vicakṣaṇa (“flame-haired, brilliant”) and Varuṇa at Rig Veda 8.41.9 as śvetā vicakṣaṇā (“white, brilliant”). ↩
Sanskrit has pītakavāsinī, “dwellers in the yellow”, either Mercury or Jupiter. ↩
The sadāmatta (“everdrunk”) gods appear in some later Buddhist texts, alongside the māyādharas (or mālādharas), but they don’t seem to appear in a Vedic context. | I cannot find any reference to the hāragaja gods. Sanskrit has hāritakā, perhaps “sons of Harītī” (the yakkhinī; but see below, DN 20:20.12). ↩
“Assorted” is missaka, not elsewhere attested as a name of gods. ↩
Pajjuna (Sanskrit parjanya) is a Vedic god of thunderstorms closely associated with Indra/Sakka. His daughters appear in SN 1.39 and SN 1.40. Sanskrit has instead śuddhakā rucikā (“pure, bright”). ↩
The gods of Tusita and Yama are normal parts of the Buddhist cosmology. Neither khemiya nor the Sanskrit kṣemaka appear to be the names of gods elsewhere, and the commentary explains that they dwell in both the Tusita and Yama realms. ↩
The commentary acknowledges the variant readings kaṭṭhakā (from “stick” or “plowed”) and kathakā (“reciters”), while Sanskrit has kṛṣṇuktāś (“reciters of the black”). Perhaps related to Sanskrit kāṭhaka, a recension of the Black Yajur Veda taught by the sage Kaṭha. ↩
Perhaps from lamba (“hang, droop”) in reference to deities of the sunset (cp. Mahābhārata 4.31.4c sūrye vilambati). Sanskrit has lumbinī lumbinīśreṣṭhā, which is perhaps normalized to mean “of Lumbinī”. ↩
“Shining” (joti) is used widely of many gods, including the Sun and Indra. | The commentary derives āsavā from āsa (“wish”) not āsava (“defilement”), explaining that they achieved their status due to desire (chandavasena). This agrees with the Sanskrit svāśiṣā (“well-wish, prayer”), i.e. words of wishing or blessing uttered over the sacrifice (see Rig Veda 10.44.5; cp. 8.44.23). This is a case where using the Pali in a translation would be actively misleading. ↩
Pavuṭṭha (“shed”), from pavasati (“stay away”), seems to be unique in the Pali in this sense. Commentary glosses vigata, “disappeared”. | The first part of this verse, according to the commentary, addresses the Saṅgha as a group in the singular, but I translate in plural for clarity. ↩
Subrahmā appears as a godling at SN 2.17, but given his company this is likely the “independent divinity” of SN 6.6–8. | Paramatta appears only here in Pali. In Brahmanical texts it is a common term for the highest conception of Brahmā as the “supreme soul” (paramātman) of the cosmos. This term came into common usage later, but is found occasionally in earlier texts such as Maitrāyaṇī Saṁhitā 2.9.1. ↩
Sanaṅkumāra makes regular guest appearances in the suttas (DN 3, DN 18, DN 19, DN 27, SN 6.11, AN 11.10). | Tissa is a common name, meaning “born under the star Sirius”. Perhaps this is the former monk of that name who was reborn in the Brahmā realm (AN 6.34). ↩
The moniker “Great Brahmā” (mahābrahmā) is here used of an individual, but sometimes it is a class of leading Brahmās. ↩
“God Almighty” (issara) is a Brahmā god to whom the creation of the world is falsely attributed (DN 24:2.14.3, MN 101:22.5, AN 3.61:1.6). ↩
Sanskrit has hāritī, the name of the fabled yakkhiṇī of Madhurā converted by the Buddha. ↩
This late sutta exhibits considerable literary sophistication. The A-plot concerns Sakka’s rejection of his violent past and embrace of the Dhamma, while the B-plot concerns Pañcasikkha’s more modest growth from a libertine to a married man. | This discourse is quoted by name and a passage discussed at SN 22.4. In addition, the dialogue at MN 37 picks up directly where this leaves off and may be considered a sequel. A Sanskrit parallel published by Ernst Waldschmidt in 1979 is available on SuttaCentral as SF 241. A different discourse of the same name is found at SN 35.118. ↩
Rhys Davids follows the commentary in translating this “the cave of Indra’s Sāl Tree”. However the Sanskrit yāvacchailaguhāyām supports “hill cave”. ↩
Introduced in a minor role in DN 18, DN 19, and DN 20, Pañcasikha gets his moment to shine in this sutta. Outside of the Dīghanikāya, he appears only in SN 35.119. His name means “Fivecrest”, evidently in reference to his impressive hairdo; a nymph or group of nymphs bore the synonymous name Pañcacūḍā, “Five Topknots”. The centaur (gandhabba) was a wild rogue of music, dancing, and sex. He must be tamed, and here this is achieved through the power of love and filial respect. A less diplomatic approach is taken in Atharvaveda 4.37.7, where the gandharva with his “egg-crest” (śikhaṇḍino) is threatened with castration. ↩
The “arched harp” (vīṇa) was a multi-stringed instrument held in the lap, with the strings attached across a curved open arch or bow. It is not the modern Indian instrument called veena, which is a lute or stick zither. Gandhabbas are closely associated with music. Māra’s harp is described in the same way (SN 4.23:10.7), and tradition says they were in fact the same instrument. ↩
In the Buddhist hierarchy of divinity, gandhabbas occupy a more humble place than the gods of the thirty-three, yet here Pañcasikha appears with them in a position of honor. In DN 19:28.3 we saw that the even more exalted Brahmā takes the form of Pañcasikha. This fluidity is characteristic of old Vedic cosmology, where there is no clear hierarchy of divinity. The formalized hierarchies in Buddhism and Hinduism are a later conception. ↩
We will learn later of how Sakka’s appearance could be too disturbing for the Buddha while on retreat (DN 21:1.10.13). Pañcasikha, on the other hand, would appear alone, without a retinue. Note, however, that on subsequent occasions Sakka showed no such reticence, either because he was already a stream-enterer or because the Buddha was not in solitary retreat. ↩
The idea that the Buddha would be wooed by a love song seems like an absurd conceit, until you take into account the centaurs’ dangerous reputation as inveterate lechers. Pañcasikha wants to show that he is maturing and finally seeking a commitment in a respectable marriage. ↩
Suriyavaccasā (“Sunshine”) accords with the Vedic conception of the wife as the Sun (Sūryā, Rig Veda 10.85) who takes as husband Soma, the moon. She appears in Atharvaveda 8.10.27, which invokes the gandharvas with their female counterpart the “nymphs” (Pali accharā, Sanskrit apsaras). ↩
In Sanskrit literature, Timbaru (Sanskrit tumburu, “coriander”) was an elder gandharva musician in the courts of Indra and Kuvera. According to Rāmāyaṇa 3.4, he was cursed with a monstrous form by Kuvera due to an inappropriate lust for the nymph Rambhā. Upon his defeat at the hands of Rāma he was restored to his former status. Pañcasikha would have wanted to avoid a similar fate. Rather than Suriyavaccasā, the Sanskrit literature mentions his daughters Manuvantī and Sukeśī; the latter name (“pretty-hair”) evokes the streaming rays of the sun (Vāyupurāṇa 69.49 = Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa 2.7.13). ↩
Aṅgīrasi means “shining one” and is etymologically linked with agni (“fire”). Suriyavaccasā earned the name due to both her radiant nature and her family connections: her father Timbaru was a son of Kaśyapa, who was (according to certain lineages) brother of Aṅgīras, from whom the Aṅgīrasas were descended. In the Arthavaveda—the only early non-Buddhist source for a nymph named Suriyavaccasā—aṅgīrasi is associated with witchcraft (Atharvaveda 12.5.52). Aṅgīrasa is also a patronymic of the Buddha (DN 32:3.14). ↩
“Saints” is arahantā, which I normally translate as “perfected ones”. ↩
Parinibbāpaya, “please quench me”. Pañcasikha subverts imagery employed by the Buddha—quenching thirst, cooling breezes, extinguished flames—to erotic effect. ↩
Pañcasikha is showing off his literary skill. The same image, the elephant, illustrates opposing qualities, peaceful and violent. In these two sides of sensual desire, he reveals, unconsciously perhaps, the rapacious side of his own nature. For Pañcasikha, the elephant bursting its bonds illustrates his crazed devotion, whereas later it illustrates breaking free of desire (DN 21:1.12.45). ↩
For how a married couple may stay together in this life and the next, see AN 4.55. ↩
Pañcasikha is using the present participle jigīsāno in the historical present. ↩
In Indian culture, a gandharva wedding is a pure love-match, without the blessing of parents or priests. Here, however, Pañcasikha wants to do the right thing and get the father’s blessing. ↩
If Pañcasikha was seeking the Buddha’s approval for his love-match, he was doomed to disappointment, as the Buddha and his mendicants do not involve themselves in arranging marriages. The Buddha sidesteps the issue by politely complementing Pañcasikha on his musicianship. ↩
“When did you compose” is also at MN 56:30.1. ↩
“Sister” (bhaginī) is a respectful term of address, but is normally used in a chaste sense. When Raṭṭhapāla calls his wives “sister”, they faint in shock (MN 82:23.4). ↩
Sikhaṇḍī (“egg-crested”) is the term for the centaur as seductive threat to women in Atharvaveda 4.37.7. It is also a poetic term for a peacock. ↩
It is rare for the Buddha to address a deity as “venerable” (āyasmā), a term usually reserved for monks. Moggallāna addresses Sakka as “the venerable Kosiya” at MN 37:10.6; Mahākassapa calls him Kosiya without honorific at Ud 3.7:3.12. | The word kosiya is explained by the commentaries as “owl”, which, if correct, would have been the totem for a clan of that name. It is, however, a patronymic: Rig Veda 1.10.11 has indra kauśika which means “Indra, son of Kuśika (or Kuśa)”. Kuśa grass is critical to the performance of Vedic rites, and the label probably initially implied “Brahmanized”, i.e. a king whose reign was authorized according to Vedic ritual. Kosiya is said to be a low class family name (Bu Pc 2:2.1.18). ↩
A paricārikā is a maid attending on a nymph (MN 37:8.12). | Bhūjati (variant bhuñjatī) does not seem to appear elsewhere. ↩
Sakka pointedly ignores this, but perhaps his shame at disturbing the Buddha’s meditation explains his oblique method of gaining an audience. ↩
This implies she was a stream-enterer. ↩
In Buddhism, sex is mutable between lives and even within one life (Bu Pj 1:10.6.1). Later Buddhists sometimes held that the status of a male was preferable. Here this is not stated outright, but the narrative implies that she thought her station was improved when becoming a male. Notably, it is not the Buddha who says this, but Sakka, relaying the story of another deity. That the proponent was a woman, at least formerly, is a trope of Indian literature: a woman is the ideal misogynist (see eg. Ja 61 or Śivapurāna chapter 4). Here, though, the situation is nuanced, because despite her (presumed) inferior status, she has better rebirth than the monks she served. ↩
The realm of centaurs is “inferior” because the centaurs are known for their ribald sexuality. ↩
Kutomukhā, which occurs only in this sutta, contrasts with sammukhā (“in the presence of”, “from the mouth of”). The commentary explains it as a rhetorical question, “Were you distracted or falling asleep?” Alternatively, it might mean “From whom did you learn the Buddha’s teaching?” It recurs later in the verses. This is not the only such case: duddiṭṭharūpaṁ and kāyaṁ brahmapurohitaṁ are other examples of terms found nowhere else in the Pali canon, yet found here both in prose and in verse. Clearly one has been copied from the other; it seems to me that the rarity of these terms and the greater coherence of the verses suggests that the prose is a (somewhat altered) summary of the verses. ↩
The commentary explains the verb “gained” (paṭilabhiṁsu) as serving dual roles here: “gaining” of “absorption mindfulness” (jhānasatiṁ), upon which they “gain” rebirth in the Brahmā realm. However, the verses below speak of “recollecting” (anussaraṁ) the Buddha’s teachings at this juncture. Compare Bu NP 23:1.1.20, where the king “remembered” his long-forgotten promise (vissaritvā cirena satiṁ paṭilabhitvā). AN 4.191:2.24 speaks of the “arising of memory” (satuppādo) in a deity when reminded of Dhamma passages they once recited as a monk. | The phrase kāyaṁ brahmapurohitaṁ is syntactically incongruous; I think it was clumsily copied from the verses below, where the required verb (ajjhagaṁsu) is present. The commentary explains it as “a Minister of Brahmā’s body” (brahmapurohitasarīraṁ), but in such contexts kāya usually means “host”. ↩
When bowing, it is a special sign of devotion to touch the feet of the one revered (eg. MN 89:9.1). ↩
Here Gopaka shifts from speaking about them in third person to speaking to them in second person. ↩
I.e. she was a lay person. ↩
Up until now, the verses have been spoken by Gopaka, but here a narrator appears. ↩
Normally rebirth is described as passing away in one realm then being reborn in another. Yet here the gods of the thirty-three—in their traditional abode on Mount Meru—were watching them literally fly from one realm to another. ↩
The truncated janind’ is not vocative janinda for Sakka, but nominative janindo for the Buddha. ↩
“Sakyan Sage” (sakyamuni) became a favorite epithet of the Buddha, but in early texts it appears only here and the Ratanasutta (Snp 2.1:4.2). ↩
“Sons” in a spiritual sense. ↩
The commentary says, “In this dispensation the explanation of the teaching is such that because of it, disciples become endowed with such qualities” (ettha sāsane evarūpā dhammappakāsanā, yāya sāvakā etehi guṇehi samannāgatā honti). This explains the feminine etādisī; pakasanā, which is normally neuter, is feminine here. This use is fairly common in later texts (it occurs at the conclusion of the Ṭīkā for this sutta). ↩
Kiṅkaṅkhati is a unique term for “doubt”. ↩
The end point of Gopaka’s speech is hard to determine, as there is no -ti to mark it. Various editions and translations either ignore the issue or end it in different places. The next line marks the beginning of Sakka’s direct speech to the Buddha, and I think it makes the best sense to assume that up to here he has been relating the story he was told. ↩
This question hints at Sakka’s own evolution from the battlegod of the Vedas to an acolyte of peace. ↩
Jealousy is wanting what others have, while stinginess is not wanting to share what you have. ↩
Compare with such contexts as the side branch of dependent origination at DN 15:9.1, the origins of disputes at Snp 4.11, and the analysis of proliferation at MN 18. Note the constructive use of the “yes, and” method of questioning. Sakka finds wisdom due to his curiosity, neither being too-easily sated with a simple answer, nor quibbling that the answer is inadequate, but building on the foundations of understanding. ↩
Compare Snp 4.11:4.1. ↩
Here we depart from the normal sequence, which is that feelings give rise to craving (taṇhā). In Snp 4.11:6.1 it is said that pleasure and pain give rise to desire, not thought. ↩
“Judgments that emerge from the proliferation of perceptions” renders papañcasaññāsaṅkhā. Again the sequence departs from MN 18:16.1, which says that thoughts—which are normal and morally neutral psychological processes—give rise to “proliferation” (papañca), which is when craving and delusion cause thought to spin out of control. “Proliferation” then solidifies into “judgments” that fuel an individual’s delusion of “self” persisting through time. ↩
Jaññā is 3rd singular optative (cp. AN 9.6:3.4). ↩
That is, second jhāna is better than first jhāna. ↩
Overwhelmingly, the suttas speak of happiness in the path to liberation. They do, however, also acknowledge that sometimes temporary states of sadness leading to disillusionment can spur a person on the path. ↩
It is hard to know what the text is getting at here, as there is no “sadness” in any jhāna. ↩
Here the Buddha emphasizes the psychological and spiritual underpinnings of the “monastic code” (pātimokkha). ↩
The suttas frequently describe three kinds of search: for sensual pleasures, for continued existence, and for a spiritual path (eg. SN 45.161:7.3). The last search led the Buddha to awakening (MN 26:15.1). ↩
Sakka switches his term of address for the Buddha from mārisa to the more respectful bhante here, then back to mārisa below. This passage is found at MN 114:24.5, where bhante is used, suggesting it was imported from there. ↩
The Pali ekanta (“single”) here is a little tricky; it could mean either “the same” or “of one goal”. The Sanskrit has just eka (ekakāmā ekacchandāḥ, “one desire, one wish”), while the commentary explains the first and last terms as “one goal” and the middle terms as “one”. ↩
The Buddha points out that spiritual teachers, when faced with a world of experiential diversity, tend to prioritize their own experience or doctrine, dismissing others as less real or meaningful. ↩
This is the final substantive question of the series. It is picked up in MN 37:2.2 where Sakka, in a subsequent visit, inquires further as to the nature of those who have realized the ultimate goal. ↩
“Turbulence” is ejā, from a root meaning “motion, agitation”, and hence the opposite of the “imperturbable” (aneja) peace of the Buddha (SN 35.90). ↩
“Nectar” is ojā, in Vedic texts called soma or amṛta (“ambrosia” of immortality). The battle over nectar by gods (deva) and demons (asura) is a very ancient element of Indo-European mythology. ↩
Here Sakka makes a clean break from the violent delights he enjoyed in former (Vedic) times. ↩
Punarāyu is a unique term. It probably means that Sakka can extend his current fortunate birth due to the merit of Dhamma. ↩
To die “unconfused” or “consciously” is said to be a benefit of Dhamma practice (eg. AN 5.215:2.3). ↩
“According to method” (ñāyena) recalls ñāyapaṭipanno as a description of the noble ones. It means practicing according with the noble eightfold path, a “method” that yields definite results. ↩
This refers to the possibility of achieving perfection (arahattā). ↩
That is, after passing away as Sakka and being reborn as a human, he will subsequently return to the heaven realm. ↩
He predicts that his final life will be in this high realm that is inhabited by non-returners (AN 9.12:6.7). ↩
Karomasi is middle imperative 1st plural, “we should do”, glossed by the commentary as “we should pay homage” (namakkāraṁ karoma). ↩
Samaṁ is an indeclinable in the sense “likewise”. ↩
Sāmaṁ is an indeclinable in the sense “oneself, personally, one’s own”. ↩
A gandharva wedding must be a mutual love match. ↩
“Touching the ground with his hand” is a unique gesture in the early Pali, immortalized in later legend when the Buddha touches the ground to invoke the Earth Goddess as witness of his striving. ↩
Sakka is also said to have been accompanied by 80,000 deities at SN 40.10:4.4. This is one of many indications that this is a late discourse, several of which have been touched on above: late or unique terminology; fancy literary styles; adoption of doctrinal passages from elsewhere in a sometimes clumsy fashion; and so on. In determining whether a sutta is late or early, we do not rely on a single definitive reason, but on a cluster of independent criteria which taken together are most easily explained in terms of historical development. ↩
This discourse is copied from MN 10. The section on the four noble truths has been expanded with material mostly drawn from MN 141. These discourses are the most influential texts for modern Theravada meditation, prompting countless modern commentaries. Comparative study of the several parallel versions reveals that this discourse, while comprised almost entirely of early material, was compiled in this form as one of the latest texts in the Pali suttas. | While mindfulness is always useful (SN 46.53:15.4), the “establishment of mindfulness” (satipaṭṭhāna) refers especially to a conscious development of contemplative practices based on mindfulness, i.e. “mindfulness meditation”. ↩
The phrase ekāyano maggo (“path to convergence”) is given multiple meanings in commentaries and ancient translations. Outside of satipaṭṭhāna, it is used in only one context in Pali, where it means to “come together with” (MN 12:37.5). At SN 47.18:3.4 the phrase is spoken by Brahmā, which suggests it was a Brahmanical term. At Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.11—a passage full of details shared with the suttas—it means a place where things unite or converge. Thus satipaṭṭhāna leads to everything “coming together as one”. In other words, as seventh factor of the noble eightfold path, it leads to samādhi, the eighth factor (SN 45.1:3.9; see also MN 44:12.3). ↩
The idiom kāye kāyānupassī, literally “observes a body in the body” refers to focusing on a specific aspect of embodied experience, such as the breath, the postures, etc. | “Keen” (or “ardent”, ātāpī) implies effort, while “aware” (sampajāno) is the wisdom of understanding situation and context. | “Covetousness and displeasure” (abhijjhādomanassaṁ) are the strong forms of desire and aversion that are overcome by sense restraint in preparation for meditation. ↩
“Feelings” (vedanā) are the basic tones of pleasant, painful, or neutral, not the complexes we call “emotions”. ↩
“Mind” (citta) is simple awareness. In meditation contexts, “mind” is often similar in meaning to samādhi. ↩
“Principles” (dhammā) are the natural “systems” of cause and effect that underlie the “teachings”. The renderings “mind objects” or “mental qualities” are incorrect, as many of the things spoken of in this section are neither mind objects nor mental qualities. “Phenomena” is a possible translation, but the emphasis is not on the “appearance” of things, but on the “principles” governing their conditional relations. ↩
The context here—a mendicant gone to the forest—establishes that this practice takes place in the wider context of the Gradual Training. Indeed, this whole sutta can be understood as an expansion of this phrase, mentioned briefly at DN 2:67.3. ↩
The most fundamental meditation instruction in Buddhism. Notice how the Buddha phrases it: not “concentrate on the breath” as an object, but rather “breathing” as an activity to which one brings mindfulness. ↩
The stages of breath meditation are not meant to be done deliberately, but to be observed and understood as the natural process of deepening meditation. When starting out, the breath is somewhat rough and coarse. ↩
Over time, the breath becomes more subtle and soft. ↩
Contextually the idiom “whole body” (sabbakāya) here refers to the breath, marking the fuller and more continuous awareness that arises with tranquility. Some practitioners, however, interpret it as the “whole physical body”, broadening awareness to encompass the movement and settling of energies throughout the body. ↩
The “physical process” (kāyasaṅkhāraṁ) is the breath (SN 41.6:1.8). ↩
Text has “long” and “short”, but “deep” and “shallow” or “heavy” and “light” are more idiomatic for describing the breath in English. ↩
“Internally” is one’s own body, “externally” the bodies of others, or external physical phenomena. This distinction is applied broadly in Buddhist meditation, but it is more relevant in some contexts than others. In the case of the breath, one is focusing on one’s own breath, but when contemplating, say, a dead body, or the material elements, there is more of an external dimension. Starting with “me” in here and the “world” out there, this practice dissolves this distinction so that we see we are of the same nature as everything else. ↩
This is the vipassanā (“insight” or “discernment”) dimension of meditation, observing not just the rise and fall of phenomena, but also their conditioned “nature” as being “liable” (-dhamma) to impermanence. The meaning of this passage is explained at (SN 47.42). Apart from these passages, vipassanā in satipaṭṭhāna pertains specially to the observation of principles. ↩
Mindfulness meditation leads to a range of knowledges as detailed by Anuruddha at SN 52.6 and SN 52.11–24. An arahant is “independent” of any attachment (eg. MN 143), but satipaṭṭhāna is also taught to give up dependency on views of the past and future (DN 29:40.1). ↩
In early Pali, this practice is found only in the two Satipaṭṭhānasuttas and the closely related Kāyagatāsatisutta (MN 119). It is practiced by developing a reflexive awareness of one’s posture and activity as it proceeds, often assisted by moving slowly and carefully. ↩
“Situational awareness” (sampajañña) understands the context and purpose of activities. The main examples here illustrate the activities of daily monastic life: leaving the monastery on almsround, restraint while in the town, care wearing the robes, then mindfully eating and going to the toilet. ↩
This practice is intended to counter sexual desire and obsession. The primary focus is on one’s own body, rather than another’s body, although that can be brought in also. By focusing on aspects of our body that we normally prefer to ignore, we move towards a healthy sense of acceptance and neutrality towards our body. ↩
Thirty-one parts are mentioned in early texts, later expanded to thirty-two with the addition of the “brain” (matthaluṅga). ↩
The “bag with openings at both ends” is the body. Not all the varieties of grains and beans can be positively identified. ↩
While meditation on the elements is commonly taught in early texts, this phrase is found only in the two Satipaṭṭhānasuttas and the Kāyagatāsatisutta. Detailed instructions are found in such suttas as MN 28 and MN 140. This meditation works in any posture, whereas breath meditation is best done sitting, to allow the breath to become still. ↩
The “elements” are the four states of matter as represented by their primary material example and their dominant property: earth as a solid with the property of resisting or upholding; water as a liquid with the property of binding; air as a gas with the property of movement; and fire (“heat” or “energy”) as plasma with the property of transformation. ↩
This gruesome image shows that butchery of cows was a normal feature of ancient Indian life. ↩
Cremation was expensive and not available to everyone. Bodies might be left in the charnel ground for a variety of reasons, such as local customs, lack of funds, or in cases of inauspicious death such as murder or execution. This is still seen in some places today, and monastics occasionally take the opportunity to practice meditation beside a corpse. However the wording of the Pali sounds like an imaginative exercise. ↩
The observed corpse is not gendered. The purpose is not to become repulsed by an objectified other, but to understand the mortality of one’s own body. ↩
It takes decades for bones to rot to powder, again suggesting it is an imaginative contemplation. ↩
Literally “a feeling among the feelings”; the practice shows that the meditator contemplates specific feelings as they occur. ↩
Pali employs direct quotes to indicate reflexive awareness: you feel the feeling and you know that you feel the feeling. It does not mean that you have to literally say “I feel a pleasant feeling”, although some adopt that as a meditation method. ↩
Feelings “of the flesh” (sāmisa) are associated with the body and sensual desires (SN 36.31:4.1). ↩
Feelings “not of the flesh” (nirāmisa) are associated with renunciation and especially with the jhānas and liberation (SN 36.31:5.1). ↩
This would include the feelings of loss, doubt, and dejection that can occur during the spiritual path (see MN 44:28.6). ↩
The feeling of the fourth jhāna and higher liberations (SN 36.31:8.2). ↩
In Buddhist theory, awareness of the presence or absence of qualities such as greed is explained on three levels. There is the simple happenstance of whether greed is present at that time or not. Then there is the mind freed of greed through the power of absorption. Finally there is the liberation from greed which comes with full awakening. ↩
The mind is “constricted internally” due to dullness and “scattered externally” due to the distractions of desire (SN 51.20:18.1). ↩
The following terms “expansive” (mahaggata), “supreme” (anuttara), “immersed” (samāhita), and “freed” (vimutta) all refer to states of absorption and/or awakening. ↩
The Satipaṭṭhānavibhaṅga of the Pali Abhidhamma only mentions the hindrances and awakening factors in this section (Vb 7). This, together with a range of other evidence, suggests that this was the original content of the observation of principles. ↩
Here causality is introduced. In the contemplation of mind, the meditator was aware of the presence or absence of desire in the mind. Now they look deeper, investigating the cause of desire and understanding how to be free of it forever. This contemplation of the “principles” of cause and effect is the distinctive feature of this section. ↩
The Buddhist schools debated whether this included physical tiredness or not. The Theravada argued that it was purely a mental laziness, as even the Buddha got sleepy. ↩
“Form” (rūpa) is one’s own body and the external material world experienced through the senses. More subtly, it represents the “appearance” of physical phenomena, even when experienced solely in the mind as color, visions, etc. ↩
“Perception” (saññā) is the recognition or interpretation of experience in terms of meaningful wholes. We see, for example, “color” yet we perceive a “person”. In the Vinaya we find many examples where a person perceived things in one way, yet they turned out to be something else. ↩
In the five aggregates, saṅkhārā is a synonym for “volition” (cetanā). The traditions later used it as a catch-all category for everything that does not fit in the other aggregates. In the suttas, however, the purpose of the aggregates is not to classify everything that exists, but to contemplate aspects of experience that we tend to identify as a “self”. ↩
At SN 35.232:3.2 the “fetter that arises dependent on both” is identified as “desire and lust” (chandarāga). ↩
These seven factors that lead to awakening (bojjhaṅgā, SN 46.5) are commonly presented in opposition to the five hindrances (eg. SN 46.2, SN 46.23, SN 46.55). ↩
“Mindfulness” includes the recollection of the teachings (SN 46.3:1.8) as well as mindfulness meditation. ↩
Likewise, this includes the inquiry into dhammas as “teachings” as well as “phenomena” or “principles”. ↩
Due to their development of the two wings of samatha and vipassanā meditation as described in this sutta, practised in the context of the teaching and training as a whole, the meditator realizes the four noble truths at the moment of stream-entry. ↩
The sutta now proceeds in analytical fashion, digging deeper into the details of the four noble truths. The fundamental definitions were taught in the Buddha’s first sermon (SN 56.11:4.1). ↩
As at DN 15.4.3, jāti is invariably defined as the rebirth of beings, not as simple arising. The same applies to old age and death. ↩
In this and following definitions we mainly find mere verbal variations of the basic term. ↩
Dukkha (“pain”, “suffering”) is here restricted to physical pain. Elsewhere it may be any kind of painful feeling, while in the four noble truths it is suffering of any sort, including subtle forms of existential suffering. ↩
Domanassa normally means “sadness”, but sometimes it contrasts with desire, in which case it is a form of aversion. ↩
Piya often refers to those who are dear and beloved, but as shown here it can also mean simply anything that is liked. ↩
This is an example of “painful feeling not of the flesh”. The Buddha is here denying the efficacy of prayer, invocation, or magic spells. ↩
The following list of properties that relate to the senses gradually moves from the more basic to the more sophisticated. ↩
“Eye consciousness” is aware only of “light”; it sees colors but does not interpret them. ↩
“Contact” or “stimulus” happens when the sense base, the sense object, and the sense consciousness all occur together. ↩
“Perception” interprets the “light” that is seen, organizing it in meaningful wholes. For example, the eye sees the color white, while perception recognizes that it is “white”, and further, that that white color is in fact a “wall”. ↩
To continue the example, once the light has been interpreted by perception as a “wall”, we then make the choice to walk around it rather than through it. Choices therefore depend on perceptions. ↩
“Thought” is vitakka. ↩
“Consideration” is vicāra, a more sustained exercize of thought. ↩
Mindfulness is not a path in and of itself, but rather is the seventh factor of the eightfold path. ↩
The fourth noble truth is the path, while the first path factor is the noble truths. These two teachings are different perspectives on the same dhamma. ↩
Saṅkappa is normally a synonym of vitakka in the suttas, hence the rendering “right thought”. It is, however, not just verbalized thought, but the direction in which one applies the mind. This factor is the emotional counterpart of right view, ensuring that the path is motivated by love and compassion. ↩
The first three of the five precepts. “Sexual misconduct” is the betrayal of trust in a sexual relationship. ↩
Defined for a monastic in the long section on ethics in the Sāmaññaphalasutta (DN 2:56.1) and for a lay person as trade in weapons, living creatures, meat, intoxicants, and poisons (AN 5.177:1.3). ↩
The emphasis is on “develop in this way” (evaṁ bhāveyya), that is, with the full practice including deep absorption as the culmination of the path as a whole. ↩
A similar promise of results in at most seven years is found at DN 25:22.9, MN 10:46.3, and MN 85:59.3; and at most ten years at AN 10.46:7.3. ↩
Kumārakassapa was ordained at twenty (Kd 1:75.1.1). He features in the Vammikasutta (MN 23), and his verses are collected in the Theragāthā (Thag 2.41). He was declared the foremost of those with brilliant speech (AN 1.217), apparently on the basis of this discourse. | The Pāyāsisuta is the only major Buddhist text that has a Jain parallel, Paesi-kahāṇayaṁ, a similar dialogue between Paesi and Keśin in Setavyā. ↩
Setavyā was north-east of Sāvatthī. ↩
Pāyāsi was a khattiya yet he receives a brahmadeyya. The sense of brahmadeyya as a donation to brahmins is well attested in inscriptions, so I think this is likely a mistake in the text, rather than evidence that the practice was not for brahmins only. ↩
This is wrong view per MN 117:5.1. ↩
This idiom recurs at AN 6.38:1.5 where, as here, it refers to a well-known view and cannot mean that they have never heard of it. There the text and commentary read māhaṁ, which with the aorist is prohibitive not negatory. It is an idiom expressing dislike. ↩
While the world “down here” is bogged down in its messy and ephemeral issues, the heavenly bodies proceed in their serene, glorious, stately indifference. Ignoring gravity, self-luminous, and apparently eternal, they operate according to what appears to be an entirely different set of rules, a “meta-physics”. What Newton did in physics the Buddha did in spirituality: show that the heavens, despite appearances, operate with the same set of conditioned rules as apply down here. ↩
Kassapa’s argument here doesn’t directly establish his conclusion. It is possible that gods exist on an entirely separate plane that has nothing to do with kamma and rebirth. ↩
This is still a major factor in shaping belief. People will reject the opinions of experts and believe people that they know. ↩
Compare Jaiminīya Brāhmaņa 1.42, where Varuṇa asphyxiated his son Bhṛgu in order to send him on a journey to the “other world”, inducing a near-death experience. Bhṛgu saw men cutting other men to pieces and eating them, and other sights both horrifying and beautiful, all the while wondering if what he saw was real, before his breath was returned to him. ↩
Follow PTS reading uddassetvā, which at MN 82:11.9 has the sense “visit”. ↩
Kassapa, however, has not established the existence of an afterlife, he has merely refuted Pāyāsi’s argument. Per Occam’s razor, the burden of proof lies on the one who wishes to establish the existence of the afterlife, not on the one who denies it. His arguments, however, become more persuasive if they are understood as building on the initial agreement on the divinity of the sun and moon. He knows that Pāyāsi accepts some form of other world, even if he says otherwise, so the argument hinges on whether Pāyāsi’s methods are sufficient to disprove the kind of other world that Kassapa proposes, i.e. one driven by kamma. ↩
Follow PTS reading ubbāhati. Cf. AN 3.93:6.4 for the sense “transport”. ↩
36,000,000 years. ↩
This recognizes the relativity of time. ↩
Pāyāsi makes a good point; he only relies on sources that he knows he can trust. ↩
Kassapa establishes the empirical method by which these truths are known. Science extends knowledge by means of external instruments, while meditation extends the scope of consciousness. A non-scientist cannot understand how a scientist establishes their conclusions, and can only rely on trust in the scientific establishment. Likewise a non-meditator cannot understand the capacity of expanded consciousness. ↩
The commentary explains opabhoggā (“reward”) as pādaparicārikā (“wife”). ↩
Read opāṭesi. ↩
Prefer Mahāsaṅgīti reading yāva vijāyāmi over PTS yāva jānāmi (“until I know”); it echoes yāva vijāyāmi above. The phrase is not fully coherent, which is understandable given the circumstances. ↩
“Irrationally” is ayoniso, literally “not sourcewise”. This passage gives a nice real world example of what it means: the means employed are unrelated to the end sought. ↩
Pāyāsi’s experiments were cruel, but no more so than many recorded in recent history. ↩
We assume that a soul must be immaterial and invisible, but clearly this was not always the case at the time. From DN 1 we know that there was an almost inexhaustible variety of views about the self or soul. ↩
This echoes Upaniṣadic discussions of the nature of the dream state and its relation to death. See for example Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.1.18, which says one might become a brahmin or king in a dream. ↩
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.3.19 describes the soul returning to the body like a tired hawk returning to the nest. ↩
Aside from the cruelty, this echoes the dictum attributed to Galileo: “Measure what is measurable, and make measurable what is not so.” Given sufficient precision, this method could be effective in testing for the existence for a physical soul that has mass. ↩
A dead body will, if anything, weigh less due to excretion and dehydration. ↩
The misconception that iron is lighter when heated is repeated elsewhere (eg. SN 51.22:4.1). In fact, assuming there are no chemical reactions, it will be very slightly heavier due to relativistic effects, yet less dense and hence more buoyant. These changes are too small to be detected by Pāyāsi’s methods, though. ↩
The commentary explains āmato as addhamato (“half-dead”). ↩
At AN 9.37 this rather abrupt insertion more aptly describes a deep meditation. ↩
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2.4.8 employs the same metaphor in the search for the soul. ↩
Such “matted-hair ascetics” are apparently the “forest hermits” (vānaprastha) whose lifestyle Kauṭilya describes as “celibacy, sleeping on the ground, wearing matted hair and antelope skin, offering daily fire sacrifice, bathing, venerating gods, ancestors, and guests, and eating forest produce” (Arthaśāstra 1.3.11, Olivelle’s translation). ↩
Accept PTS reading gavesasi. ↩
Pāyāsi honestly acknowledges the role of social conformity and shame in shaping views. ↩
Although this became the first story of the Jātaka collection (Ja 1), here it is not a Jātaka, as it is not framed as a past life of the Buddha. ↩
While the places are not specified, the journey from “east to west” across desolate lands suggests they may have been venturing from the rich plains of the Ganges west across the Thar Desert of Rajasthan. ↩
Read with PTS gadrabharathena (“donkey cart”) for bhadrena rathena (“fine cart”). ↩
The obviously suspicious stranger depicts the genuine dangers of trade in unknown regions, warning the traveler of raiding tribes as well as supernatural creatures. ↩
Again the criteria that only those who are known may be trusted. ↩
The ancient Indian game of dice involved casting vibhītaka seeds (also known as “bedda nuts”, from Terminalia bellirica) in a hollow, from which the players would take a handful. A number divisible by four was “perfect” (kaṭa), so the fifth seed meant a “losing” hand (kali; cf. apaṇṇaka in MN 60 and notes). ↩
Pajohissāmi is related to Sanskrit juhoti, usually used in the sense “to offer as libation”, a meaning accepted by the commentary here. More likely it simply means to “roll out” (like pouring a sacrifice) by analogy. ↩
Gāmapaṭṭaṁ (variants -padaṁ, -paddhanaṁ, -patthaṁ, pajjaṁ) is explained by the commentary as an abandoned village site. ↩
The sunk cost fallacy. ↩
Say what you will about Pāyāsi, he had character. ↩
Bilaṅga is allowed with other medicinal fruits at Kd 6:6.1.4. It is Sanskrit viḍaṅga, identified as embelia ribes or “false black pepper”. | For guḷavālakāni, guḷa is “ball”, vāla is “tail”; compare macchavāḷaka (“fish-tailed”) at Kd 15:29.4.2. ↩
Divāvihāra is the “day’s meditation”, while divāseyya is “siesta”. ↩
This late sutta satirizes the failings of Sunakkhatta in a fashion so broad that it borders on slapstick. The town of Anupiya is mentioned only here. ↩
The Bhaggava clan was descended from the ancient sage Bhagu (Sanskrit Bhṛgu). They received the gift of fire conveyed by Mātariśvan the wind from the god Agni (eg. Rig Veda 1.60.1). In Pali they appear as potters (eg. MN 81:19.3, MN 140:1.3, SN 1.50:11.2, SN 2.24:12.2). Archaeologists refer to the strata around the Buddha’s time as the Northern Black Polished Ware culture on account of the distinctive highly glazed polish that was achieved on the pottery of the time. This, together with the production of iron, marked a significant advance in the mastery of fire. Thus potters were no mere humble craftsmen, but leading technological innovators. ↩
Sunakkhatta’s dismal spiritual career began when he met the Buddha in MN 105. In DN 6:5.3 we learn that, after being ordained three years, he spoke of his limited success in meditation. The current sutta and MN 12 deal with Sunakkhatta’s bitter criticisms of the Buddha shortly after his disrobal. ↩
A candidate for ordination is expected to go for refuge to the Buddha, and may be said to live dedicated (uddissa) to him (Kd 1:23.4.1). Moreover, a noble disciple is unable to dedicate themselves to another teacher (AN 1.276:1.1). But when the Buddha called candidates to go forth, he spoke of practice rather than personal devotion: “Come, monk. The Teaching is well-proclaimed. Practice the spiritual life to make a complete end of suffering.” (Kd 1:6.32.3) ↩
There are at least eight spellings for this tribe, including thulu, bumu and khulu. Below we meet a member of the ruling clan of the tribe named korakhattiya. I propose that kora is “of Kuru” by way of secondary derivation; cp. Koravya as a regular name for the kings of Kuru. Thus korakhattiya is not a personal name, but rather “the aristocrat of Kuru”. The name of the city uttarakā means “northern”, and Kuru is indeed northern. Occam’s razor would urge us not to assume the existence of an otherwise unknown tribe on such a dubious term when it can be explained more parsimoniously as an ancient misspelling of Kuru. The Chinese at DA 15 (T 1, 67a15) has 白土 (“white clay”), which does not seem to clear it up. ↩
This practice is further described, along with the “cow vow”, at MN 57. ↩
“Holy man” is sādhurūpo (cp. Dhp 263, AN 6.54:26.1). ↩
Alasaka is otherwise unknown in early Pali. Sanskrit medical texts describe it as flatulent indigestion. This agrees with the subcommentary’s ajīraṇena āmarogena (“indigestion”). | In this sutta, the Buddha is depicted as making specific predictions about the future, whereas normally he does not and probably cannot. Rather, he makes conditional predictions that if such courses are pursued, such results will follow. ↩
The terrifying Kālakañjas are mentioned at DN 20:12.5. ↩
This whole passage is unprecedented in early Buddhism. If Sunakkhatta was indeed able to revive the dead with three punches, it would explain why he thought so little of the Buddha’s powers. But the ease with which this information is obtained contrasts with the elaborate failures of Pāyāsi (DN 23). ↩
Spellings for Kaḷāramaṭṭaka vary greatly. ↩
In these practices we see some examples of the vows or observances (vata) that Buddha rejected as “grasping at precepts and observances” ↩
A diet of pure meat is still undertaken today by certain would-be gurus. ↩
Compare the “vow of restraint in the directions” in the Jain Tattvārthasūtra 7.1. ↩
Āsādimhase is middle aorist plural. Below Sunakkhatta again refers to himself in plural, but as usual I render with singular. ↩
The Burmese reading pāthikaputta means “son of a traveler”. However the commentary says Pāṭika (or Pāthika) was the name of his father. ↩
For ñāṇavādo (“one who speaks from knowledge”) see AN 9.38:3.3, AN 10.24:2.1, MN 26:15.7. ↩
“Ambiguous” is dvayagāminī, literally “two-going”. ↩
Apadāna means “what has been left over, leavings, traces”. ↩
This kind of elaborate display is commonly depicted in late texts, but is not otherwise found in early Pali. ↩
Compare DN 1:1.36.3. The following passage is largely adapted from the Brahmajālasutta. ↩
Text has suññaṁ, but this appears to be a mistake, since the mansion is no longer “empty” as Brahmā is already there. Follow DN 1:2.4.3, which lacks suññaṁ. ↩
This statement is not explicitly phrased as a question, but the Mahāsaṅgīti edition inconsistently punctuates it as one. It makes more sense in context, especially as a response to the initial question: Kathaṁvihitakaṁ (“How do you describe …”) … Evaṁvihitakaṁ (“Is this how you describe …”). ↩
This is adopted from DN 1:2.2.1. These philosophers belong with the “partial eternalists”. ↩
The Buddha refers to the events of this sutta at DN 8:23.2, but apart from that Nigrodha (“Banyan”) appears to be unknown. A “wanderer” may or may not be Brahmanical, but in DN 8 Nigrodha is called tapabrahmacārī, which suggests he was a celibate student of a Brahmanical teacher. | The commentary describes udumbarikā (“Fig”) as devī (“Queen”), while DA 8 says she is a “brahmin lady”. She too does not seem to appear elsewhere. ↩
Sandhāna (“Conciliation”) was recognized as an eminent lay follower at (AN 6.120–139:1.14). ↩
“One-eyed cow” is gokāṇā. ↩
Orodheyyāma normally means “enclose, trap” like ox in a pen (AN 6.60:3.1), but here it is glossed in the commentary as vinandheyyāma (“twist around”). ↩
This discourse highlights the Buddha’s method of engaging with people of other religions. He is open-hearted and interested in their views. He prefers to build on common ground, but is not afraid to criticize when it is warranted. And his aim is not to win converts, but to help people be free of suffering. ↩
“Higher disgust of sin” renders adhijegucche. The idea is that people are tainted with corruption, somewhat comparable to the notion of “original sin”, although due to their own actions in the past rather than ancestral legacy. In “disgust” at that sin, they practice forms of fervent mortification (tapas) to burn out the corruption. ↩
The phrase kathaṁ santā is unique; it echoes evaṁ sante below. ↩
The Buddha shifts attention from the external practice to the psychological state that accompanies it. ↩
“In expectation” (sāpekkho): when they give up something they cannot eat, they expect to be given more suitable food. ↩
“Sneaks” is attānaṁ adassayamāno, literally, “not showing himself”. They like to hang about with lay folk, but hide the fact that they do so. ↩
As here, this item typically follows “wrong view”. At AN 10.78:1.9 it is said to be a bad quality of Jain ascetics. Thus being “attached to one’s own views” refers both to the subjective clinging as well as the objective incorrectness of the views. ↩
A “fourfold restraint” (cātuyāma, or cāujjāma in Jain Ardhamagadhi) is attributed to Jain founder Pārśva in Isibhāsiyāiṁ 31, where it is an abbreviated list: “from refraining from killing to refraining from possessions” (pāṇātivāta-veramaṇeṇaṁ jāvā pariggaha-veramaṇeṇaṁ); the missing items are not stealing (asteya) and truth (satya). The Jain text Uttarādhyayanasūtra 23 shows that Mahāvīra added nakedness to make five. Five are also found in Yogasūtra 2.30 and the Jain Tattvārthasūtra 7: non-harming (ahiṁsā), truth (satya), no stealing (asteya), celibacy (brahmacarya), and non-possessiveness (aparigrahā). | A different “fourfold restraint” is said to be a Jain practice at DN 2:29.2. ↩
This extends the basic precept. The same analysis is applied to the “ten ways of performing deeds” at AN 3.163. | The distinction between one’s own action and another’s action is noted at Isibhāsiyāiṁ 31.42, although the wording and sense are different. ↩
Bhāvitamāsīsati is unique. In this and similar contexts, the Pali tradition says bhāvita (“reward”, normally “developed”) is the “five sense pleasures” as they see it (bhāvitaṁ nāma tesaṁ saññāya pañca kāmaguṇā; cp. MN 56 commentary: ettha ca bhāvitanti pañcakāmaguṇā), explaining that this is a usage of the sectarians (Saddanīti ch. 4: titthiyasamaye pana bhāvitoti kāmaguṇo vuccati). ↩
This passage sets a powerful template for sincere engagement. ↩
This whole ending sequence is unique. ↩
Mātulā means “maternal uncle”. This Magadhan village is mentioned only here and Cp 9:39.2. ↩
As at DN 16:2.26.1. ↩
Two parables on mindfulness expand this idea (SN 47.6, SN 46.7). ↩
Evamidaṁ indicates entailment, as at SN 56.21:1.3, MN 73:13.2, DN 16:4.2.4. ↩
We have heard the story of the wheel-turning monarch Mahāsudassana in DN 17. Daḷhanemi appears only here. His name means “Strong-rim”, such being one of the characteristics of the Wheel. His story of renunciation shares much in common with that of Maghadeva (MN 83). ↩
“Receded back” (osakkitaṁ): like a woman shrinking away from a man’s unwanted advances (DN 12:16.12). ↩
The same point of view is expressed at Bi Pc 21:1.4, where sex workers teased nuns, suggesting they enjoy themselves while young and ordain when old. The Buddhist position is that Dhamma can be practiced at any age. ↩
The signs of the renunciate predate Buddhism. ↩
The “royal seer” (rājisi, Sanskrit rājarṣi) is described by Kauṭilya (Arthaśāstra 1.7.1). Such a king should pursue pleasures in moderation, rely on good advice, and work energetically for the welfare and prosperity of his people. ↩
“Inherited from your father” (pettikaṁ dāyajjaṁ) calls back to the four satipaṭṭhānas that for a mendicant are “the domain of your fathers” (pettike visaye). In both cases they are to be earned, not conferred by lineage. ↩
“The noble duty of a wheel-turning monarch” (ariye cakkavattivatte; this is locative singular). Ariya (“noble”) qualifies “duty” (vatta), as it does in the title below, cakkavattiariyavatta, rather than “monarch”. Normally ariya is reserved for those who have attained the Buddhist path, but here we might have a rare use of ariya in reference to Indo-Aryan (Vedic) culture. Compare the use of ariyaka for Indo-Aryan language (Bu Pj 1:8.4.10), and ariyaṁ āyatanaṁ for the “civilized region” (DN 16:1.28.7, AN 6.96:1.3, Ud 8.6:17.9). However, the commentary says it simply means “flawless” (niddoso). ↩
Saṁvidahassu is second middle imperative. ↩
Pavattittha is aorist middle. (A)dhammakāra (“(in)justice”) doesn’t seem to occur elsewhere in early Pali. It is found in Ja 513 and Ja 498, both times in the context of just rule. ↩
“Provide” (anuppadeti) is used elsewhere in the sense of paying back a loan (AN 3.20:3.5), serving honored guests (SN 7.2:2.6), paying wages (DN 31:32.2), or a king supplying provisions for essential workers to do their job (DN 5:11.8). It is thus more about fulfilling a moral obligation of fairness than offering charity. ↩
Where the phrase “from time to time go to them” (te kālena kālaṁ upasaṅkamitvā) occurs elsewhere in the suttas, it is always followed by “ask and question” (paripucchati paripañhati). Here, however, the second verb is “you should learn” (pariggaṇheyyāsi). ↩
“Own ideas” is sa-mata. ↩
Pabbanti is unusual and probably unique in early Pali. It is related to Sanskrit parvati (“fill”) and is explained by the commentary as vaḍḍhanti (“grow, prosper”). | I assume janapadā (“countries”) is a misspelling of jānapadā (“people of the country”), as janapada is otherwise in singular. ↩
“Military officers” (anīkaṭṭhā) would have been standing officers in the army. According to both the commentary here and Monier-Williams’ Sanskrit Dictionary (anīkastha), it includes elephant officers, who would have stood at the head of the army. | “Professional advisers” (mantassājīvino) is explained by the commentary as those who make a living from giving wise advice. ↩
Ensuring citizens have enough to live on is not merely a matter of kindness and common decency, but is crucial to ensure stability and national unity. ↩
The origins of theft are told at DN 27:19.1. The myth recounted here overlaps, with points of both similarity and difference. ↩
The king uses the same procedure as the Buddha. When presented with an alleged wrong-doer, the first thing is to ask them whether they did it. ↩
Simply providing money is not enough, nor is simply expecting that people can just work for what they want. They need something to get started, together with the support and opportunity to build a life for themselves. ↩
Sadly, bad faith actors take advantage of kindness. ↩
While the king’s concern is legitimate, his overreaction escalates the problems. ↩
The violence of the state leads to an armed and violent citizenry. ↩
Today we can see that, even among developed nations, a degraded and violent culture leads to declining lifespans. ↩
Paresaṁ dāresu: both “others” and “wives” are in plural, so polygyny is assumed. Compare parassa dāresu (“the wives of another”) at SN 55.7:6.3. Note the significance granted to beauty in influencing human society. ↩
At this point, the three factors of wrong action—killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct—are present, as are the four factors of wrong speech—lying, backbiting, harsh speech, and nonsensical speech. ↩
This completes the three factors of unskillful thought: desire, ill will, and wrong views (which are a strong form of delusion). Here wrong view probably means moral nihilism. ↩
These three terms recur in a similar context at AN 3.56:2.1. The commentaries to the two passages give quite different explanations. | “Illicit desire” (adhammarāgo) probably refers to any form of desire that is illegal or transgressive, such as incest, rape, or pedophilia. | “Immoral greed” (visamalobho) implies excess and imbalance. Both are, however, explained in the commentary to AN 3.56:2.1 as desire for the belongings of others. | Micchādhammo is hard to pin down. Its opposite, sammā dhammo always means “right teaching”. The commentary here explains it as “men with men and women with women”, but this must be rejected as there is no hint anywhere in early Pali (or elsewhere in early Indian culture) that homosexual relations were considered immoral. The commentary to AN 3.56:2.1 explains it as “indulgence in what is reckoned an inappropriate basis” (avatthupaṭisevanasaṅkhātena). This implies intercourse with one of the women mentioned at MN 41:8.4, which includes those who are “protected by principle” (dhammarakkhitā). This sense of dhamma is explained at Bu Ss 5:4.2.16 as “religion”. Here I think the sense is similar: customs or beliefs that legitimize immorality. ↩
This brings us to the Buddha’s present. ↩
Here the Buddha paints a devastating picture of societal collapse. Life expectancy as low as thirty years has been recorded in some countries in the 20th century. ↩
The age of onset of puberty has been dropping globally over the past century, with isolated cases as young as five. ↩
“Finger millet” (kudrūsaka; Pahari kodra, Garhwal koda) is a robust secondary grain in Asia and Africa, growing in places rice cannot. Due to its resilience in the face of global heating, 2023 was declared the International Year of Millets by the UN. ↩
The Buddha’s father gave this luxury food to servants and staff (AN 3.39:2.3). ↩
The narrative above traced the gradual disappearance of these ten factors. | Atibyādippissanti is a unique term. At AN 7.66:9.2 a sign of the end of days is the “erupting” (ādippanti) of volcanoes, suggesting “explode” for the intensive form here. ↩
“Skillful” is kusala, otherwise translated as “good” or “wholesome”. ↩
At AN 2.9 = Iti 42 the world is protected from this by conscience and prudence. ↩
For sambheda in the sense of “dissolving, leaking”, see DN 3:1.15.11, AN 5.103:6.4, AN 10.45:4.1. The commentary here says “mixedness, breaking of boundaries”. ↩
“Interregnum of swords” is satthantarakappo. Seven days seems optimistic. ↩
Dehumanization of the other is an essential precursor to genocide. ↩
“Let us neither kill nor be killed” (mā ca mayaṁ kañci, mā ca amhe koci) is an idiomatic phrase, the Golden Rule framed as a negative: “Let us not do unto others nor let others do unto us.” It is explained by the commentary as, “Let us not take even a single person’s life or let them take ours”. ↩
Sabhāgāyissanti = sabhāga + āyissanti = “will come together”. | Samassāsissanti = sama + sāsati = “cry in one voice”. The latter term is absent from some manuscripts. ↩
Diṭṭhā is Sanskrit diṣṭyā, “fantastic, how fortunate”, per DN 16:2.24.5 and Ja 81:1.4. | Sattā is nominative singular for sattar (“enemy”), not plural of satta (“being”), which disagrees with both verb and vocative in number. ↩
The first precept, and the first of the ten ways of skillful action. The Buddhist ethical principles are not just a part of Buddhist teaching, they are essential for the healthy functioning of human society. ↩
In the legendary past, too, only these three afflictions prevailed (Snp 2.7:29.1). ↩
Ketumatī means “adorned with flags”. ↩
Saṅkha is “conch shell”. ↩
This is the only sutta appearance of the future Buddha Metteyya (Sanskrit Maitreya, meaning “one full of love”). He became a prominent figure in later Buddhism. ↩
Throughout, the Buddha is concerned to emphasize that the future Buddha will offer no more or less than his own teaching and practice. He wanted people to practice now, not to establish a cult of a future savior. ↩
The maximum number of monastics cited in the suttas is 1250 at a single gathering. ↩
This event is found in Bhaddaji’s verses at Thag 2.22, expanded to a full story at Ja 264. The commentary explains yūpa as “palace”, but Bhaddaji’s verses clearly depict a sacrificial post, to which the animal would be tied for slaughter. Such posts are connected with the horse sacrifice, which establishes imperial power. This is but one aspect of the wheel-turning monarch to draw on imagery from the horse sacrifice. Here, of course, no horses are killed. ↩
Ajjhāvasati in this sutta means “reign” not “dwell” (DN 26:2.5). ↩
This sutta is the closest we come to a Buddhist myth of origins. It draws on features of Vedic mythology, while giving its own spin. Related stories may be found in DN 26 and Snp 2.7. The Buddha describes a natural process of evolution that requires no metaphysical intervention, yet differs strikingly from Darwinian evolution in prioritizing the role of desire over selection. ↩
After the Jetavana, this was the best-known monastery in Sāvatthī. It was offered by the lady Visākhā, known as Migāra’s mother. ↩
We met Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja as the students of Pokkharasāti and Tārukkha respectively in DN 13, at the end of which they went for refuge. Some time later they must have asked for ordination. The commentary says that probation (paravasati) was required, not because they had previously gone forth in other sects (as the naked ascetic Kassapa at DN 8:24.1 or the wanderer Subhadda at DN 16:5.29.1), nor because they had committed an offence, but because they were not yet the required twenty years of age. ↩
This verse is also at MN 84:9.19 and MN 93:5.4. | For “best class” (seṭṭho vaṇṇo) see varṇaśreṣṭhaḥ at Mahābhārata 1.24.4c. ↩
Mahābhārata 12.181.5 says that brahmins are the white class, aristocrats red, peasants yellow, and menials black. Underlying this is an assumption of the superiority of the fair-skinned northerners of Indo-Aryan descent over the dark-skinned natives (see DN 3:1.10.3). ↩
I cannot trace this statement to Brahmanical texts, and indeed they have a strong tendency to push back against the idea that only brahmins can find purity. ↩
An allusion to the famous Puruṣasūkta (Rig Veda 10.90.12): “His (the cosmic Man’s) mouth became the brahmin, his arms became the ruler (rājanya, an alternate name for the khattiyas), his thighs became the peasant (vaiśya); the menial (sūdra) was born from his feet.” This belongs to the latest portion of the Rig Veda, and probably represents a time when the system of four castes was established in the late Vedic period, some centuries before the Buddha. Apart from this, the Rig Veda hardly mentions any of these as castes, let alone all four together. ↩
The Buddha gives a rationalist critique of Vedic myth (see also MN 93:5.9), the fairness of which is not easy to assess. Within the Brahmanical world, especially the progressive Kosalan brahmins to whom Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja belonged, there had been a shift towards a more nuanced symbolic understanding of such claims. Yet the subtle distinctions of the philosophers rarely influence the more straightforward beliefs of the common practitioner. ↩
“Dark” (kaṇha) and “bright” (or “light”, sukka) are redefined in ethical not racial terms. ↩
Vedic theory claimed that the caste system was part of the order of nature (dhamma) established by Brahmā, and hence to follow the obligations of caste was a duty (also dhamma). The Buddha posited a higher “principle” (dhamma) beyond caste. The English word “principle” carries the senses of a fundamental law; a code of conduct; a devotion to right living; a source; and an underlying faculty, all of which are aspects of dhamma in this passage. ↩
A great king such as Pasenadi ruled his central realm, while outlying districts pledged allegiance to him, enjoying royal protection while ceding some sovereignty. It is the same relationship described for the kingdoms subsumed under the Wheel-Turning Monarch (eg. DN 17:1.9.5). The Buddha described his people as natives among the Kosalans at Snp 3.1:18.4. ↩
The Mahāsaṅgīti reading na naṁ yields a better sense than the PTS nanu, which would make this a question. ↩
Vāseṭṭha was said to be a high family, while Bhāradvāja was low (Bu Pc 2:2.1.18). ↩
The Buddha adapts the Brahmanical rhetoric of birth from the “mouth of Brahmā”. Having criticized them for taking this literally he employs it in a metaphorical sense. ↩
“The embodiment of principle” is dhammakāya. This is a term of unique occurrence in the suttas, which was seized on in later days to posit a metaphysical theory of a quasi-eternal Buddha. In the suttas, it means that he, having practiced the Dhamma to its fullest, embodies the qualities of the Dhamma to the highest degree. ↩
Here begins the story of origins. The Buddha begins his creation myth with the end of the world. For this passage, compare DN 1:2.2.1. ↩
In the Brahmajālasutta, beings pass from one Brahmā realm to another, but when they come to this world it is as a human. Here we have a different perspective, where beings apparently still like the Brahmā gods exist in the physical realm. ↩
The role of food is critical throughout this narrative. Food is a fundamental sustenance on which all creatures must rely, and the nature of the food reflects the type of creature that eats it. Taittirīya Upaniṣad 2.5.1 says the highest form of self is made of bliss (ātmā ānandamaya). ↩
Creation myths often begin with a dark, formless world of water, and describe the emergence of divisions and structures of the world. They do not differentiate the physical, biological, ecological, or social, as such distinctions came later. | Aitareya Upaniṣad 1.3.3 says the Divinity “brooded over the waters” and created food. ↩
Throughout, the discourse has a special interest in tracing the origins of language and how different usages came about. Here the term “beings” is presented as a natural choice: they are “beings” because they are alive. Later, words are selected to convey a certain political or moral stance. ↩
The reading and sense of samatani is obscure. I think it is connected with santānaka in the next line, in the sense of “networks” or tendrils appearing in the water as it curdles. The Sanskrit at SF 277 and Mūlasarvāstvāda Vinaya 17 has saṁmūrcchitaḥ saṁtanoti (“curdled tendrils”). | Rasapathavī (“earth’s nectar”) is also obscure. We would expect pathavīrasa (cp. phalarasa “fruit juice”, etc.), which is indeed found at SN 5.9:5.3 in the sense “nutriments in soil”. Since this reading also appears here in the Sanskrit sources, I assume it is the correct sense. For another example of a tappurisa compound with reversed order, see DN 4:6.46. ↩
Khuddā (literally “small one”) is said to be a species of small bee, also known in Sanskrit as kṣudrā. The “dwarf bee” (apis florea) fits the bill, as it is a small wild honeybee found in India. ↩
Ghee and honey were among the finest offerings to the gods. The soma was often described as “honeyed”. Our text is suggesting that the Vedic sacrifices led to the corruption of divinity. ↩
For acchadesi read assādesi (“enjoyed”) after Mu Kd 17’s āsvādayati. The commentary explains acchadesi as “becomes suffused”, so if it is a misreading it is an old one. ↩
At DN 26:17.2 it is the ugly ones who are at fault for jealousy. ↩
This is another veiled critique of the Vedic tradition. In DN 13:13.1 the Buddha told Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja the Vedas were recited by people who did not understand them. This problem was well understood within the tradition of the Brāhmaṇas and Upaniṣads, which constantly emphasized that they are effective for “one who knows this” (ya evam veda). ↩
“Fungus” is pappaṭaka (Sanskrit parpaṭaka). At Bu Pj 1:2.2.5, Moggallāna suggests that, to alleviate famine, the monks might eat the pappaṭakojaṁ (“fungus-nutrition”) under the earth. Given that it is compared to a mushroom, I think it is the fungal mycelia of a mycorrhizal network. Such fungi spread like tendrils underground, sometimes appearing above the surface, sharing nutrients and information between organisms. ↩
Readings and meaning of padālatā are uncertain. It has usually been understood that the second element is latā (“creeper”). But this leaves padā unexplained, and the commentary’s gloss of bhaddālatā is unconvincing. It also leaves unexplained the connection with kalambukā. This is probably the fruit of the kadam tree—fleshy, yellow-orange capsules with about 8000 seeds that split apart when ripe. I think padālatā is related to padālana in the sense of “bursting”: a seed pod that splits open like a fig or pomegranate. ↩
The commentary to Bu Pj 1:10.6.1 explains “male characteristics” as “beard and whiskers, etc.” (massudāṭhikādi), so this is not just genitals but also secondary sex characteristics. ↩
Pali seṭṭhi is explained by the commentary as “ash” (chārikā), although this sense does not seem to be attested anywhere else. Mahāvastu has leṣṭu while Mu Kd 17 has loṣṭa, both explained as “clod”. Given that it is easier to throw a clod than ash, I think these probably convey the correct sense. ↩
Nassa could mean “die!” or “get lost”. I take the softer meaning, as killing has not yet appeared among these beings. | This behavior looks much like scapegoating rituals, where certain members of the community are deemed to bear the sins of all and are sacrificed to erase the sin. Often the victim was expelled from the community, temporarily or permanently. ↩
Mob shaming over perceived sexual transgression is the most primitive form of moralizing. ↩
“Carrying off” (nibbuyhamānā) like being swept away by a river. Mu Kd 17 says they throw powder, scent, garlands, and nets, while wishing the bride happiness and well-being. ↩
“Unprincipled” is adhamma. In the past the lovers were spurned, now they are celebrated in marriage. ↩
The sight of others having sex provokes strong reactions of arousal, jealousy, and disgust, often leading to violence. A culture of sexual modesty regulates these emotions, promoting the growth of larger societal structures. ↩
Human society evolves first from greed, second from sexual desire, and third from laziness. The effort to avoid manual labor drives cultural and technological innovation. ↩
Humans are focused on short term comforts and ignore long term consequences. ↩
The wild grasses used as grains evolve in adaptation to human needs. ↩
The beings tell their story within the story. The oldest myths, such as the Vedas or Gilgamesh, speak of myths that were already ancient for them. And the oldest story of all is the Fall: the death of God, the recession of divinity, how things were better in the old days. The story is a reckoning with the consequences of their actions, yet it is not sufficient for them to change course. ↩
Scarcity has arisen because of greed, giving rise to agriculture and land ownership. Up until now, the changes have been driven by individual choice, whereas now they are starting to make agreements among themselves, hoping to mitigate the irresponsibility of individuals. ↩
With ownership and inequality come theft. ↩
It turns out that moral scolding does not deter wrong-doers. ↩
The mob violence escalates. ↩
All a direct consequence of thoughtless greed and inequality. ↩
“Accuse” is khīyeyya. Here the beings are taking charge of their social evolution, deciding among themselves how to manage their society. They are active agents in their own story, not merely passive subjects of evolution. And the primary decision they make is to form a democracy by election (sammata). Doing so, they create a two-class system: rulers and subjects. ↩
The origin of upper class, white-collar workers who do not have to till the soil. Taxes are not coerced, but voluntarily offered in recognition of services rendered. ↩
The emphasis on appearance reflects a wider acknowledgement of the potency of beauty in shaping human conduct. The Buddha rejected the notion that beauty indicates worth (eg. SN 21.6), yet was himself regarded as especially beautiful. Unfair it may be, but beautiful people are listened to. ↩
The ehi formula echoes the original ordination method (Kd 1:6.32.3). ↩
Note that “popularly elected” (mahāsammata) is not a name but a term describing their position. The passage suggests that the prefix mahā does not mean that the elected one is “great”, but that they were elected by the “populace” (mahājana). | “Applied to them” (upanibbattaṁ) is unique. The Sanskrit texts have saṁjñodapādi, “arisen by agreement”. It is distinct from DN 27:11.2 above, where beings “come to be called” beings (saṅkhyaṁ gacchanti). Clearly it cannot mean the first word that appeared. I take it to mean this was a specialized term invented and applied just for them. The commentary says, na kevalaṁ akkharameva, “not just a universal term”. ↩
“Aristocrat” (khattiya; Sanskrit kṣatriya) is related to khatta (“authority”, “power”; in eg. Rig Veda 8.25.8 it is an adjective, “powerful”), hence “ruling class”. The sutta, however, relates it to khetta, “field”. The two senses possibly stem from the same root kṣi in the sense “owner”, “master” with the “field” being the dominion owned by the chief. In Pali suttas, the primary connotation of the khattiya was of an aristocratic land-owning class, so the connection with “field” is apt. Khattiyas are often said to be a “warrior” caste, but that is not a primary association in the suttas. They are rarely depicted as having anything to do with the military, which had become professionalized by the time of the Buddha. Nonetheless, at MN 96:10.7 a khattiya’s wealth is said to be the bow and arrow. At SN 3.24, the Buddha argues that someone from any caste could be as proficient a warrior as someone from the khattiya class. ↩
Modern linguists trace the Proto-Indo-European root of rāja as *reg in the sense “one who leads people in a straight line”, literally “ruler” or “regulator”. The pun rañjeti (“they please”) is meant to emphasize the obligations that a ruler has for their people. As here, rājā and khattiya can have the same meaning, although commonly a rājā is an actual king or chief, while khattiya is the class from which the rulers come. ↩
Read bāheyyāma. ↩
Bāhenti (“set aside”) sounds a bit like brāhmaṇa. Such puns which don’t quite land are sometimes used to infer a language underlying Pali. Brāhmaṇa is a Sanskrit form, and the colloquial pronunciation may have been closer to bāhmaṇa. ↩
The phrase jhāyanti vītaṅgārā vītadhūmā pannamusalā works at a double level. Jhāyanti is to “meditate” but also is the light of a lamp. Vītaṅgārā vītadhūmā means “without coals and smoke”, implying that they do not light cooking fires; but as meditation it means their minds are free of corruptions. Pannamusalā is “with shovel put down”, i.e. they do not dig the soil (thus killing the creatures there). Not cooking or digging are also precepts for Buddhist and Jain mendicants. ↩
“Meditator” is jhāyaka. ↩
At DN 3:2.3.11 the brahmins come down from the forest and set up shrines in the town. Chāndogya Upaniṣad 5.10.1–5 compares the forest contemplatives destined for the Brahmā realm with the ritualists who are reborn on the moon before returning to earth. | The “texts” (ganthe) were the Vedas. ↩
Ajjhāyaka is from ajjhāyati (“to recite”), but here it is punned as the negative of jhāyaka (“meditator”). ↩
“Various” is visu, which loosely echoes vessa (“peasant”). The Sanskrit form is vaiśya, from viś, to “stay” or “settle” on the land. They were probably originally peasants who over time transitioned into more diverse livelihoods. In MN 96:10.10 they are said to engage in cattle-rearing and agriculture, and over time trade was added to that. ↩
Sudda (“menial”) rhymes with ludda (“hunter”) and khudda (“minor”). In MN 96:10.14 their wealth is said to come from the “scythe and flail”, i.e. seasonal manual labor such as threshing grain (SN 35.248:1.2). At MN 96:16.4, bamboo-workers, chariot-makers, and waste-collectors are cited as other low-class jobs. They may have originated as a distinct branch of Aryan peoples who were assimilated into Vedic culture (Ram Sharan Sharma, Śudras in Ancient India, 37). ↩
“Vocation” is dhamma, which is rarely used in the suttas in this sense; normally it is universal. ↩
The Buddha invokes Brahmā to support his contention that his own caste, the khattiyas, were superior, a sequence supported by Pañcaviṁśa Brāhmaṇa 13.4.7. Ultimately, however, the Buddha rejected the notion that caste tells us anything intrinsic about the worth of people. ↩
This discourse is expanded from the events of DN 16:1.16.1. ↩
Here the additional material begins. While they are all said to be teachings of the Buddha, some sections cannot be traced in the Pali Canon as it stands today. Perhaps Sāriputta was demonstrating his talent for creative rephrasing and synthesis. ↩
Perhaps a reference to his enlightenment experience in MN 74. | This passage plays on the different senses of dhamma as linguistic “teaching” and observable “principle”. ↩
Also at DN 16:3.50.5, etc. ↩
The primary source is the SN 35, the Linked Discourses on the Six Sense Fields. ↩
The Bodhisatta is said elsewhere to be conceived in awareness (eg. DN 16:3.15.1), but this systematic analysis is found only here and at DN 33:1.11.176. It seems like an abrupt shift from central Dhamma topics. ↩
Called “demonstrations of revealing” (ādesanāpāṭihāriya) at AN 3.60:9.1. ↩
Meditation is described in this way only in MN 136:9.1 and DN 1:1.31.1 where, as here, it is pursued by an “ascetic or brahmin”, who in those cases is not Buddhist. Here, however, it sounds like Sāriputta is talking about a Buddhist practice. The asubha contemplation of the parts of the body is described in several places in the canon (eg. DN 22:5.1), but never exactly like this. ↩
The remaining practices are unique to this passage. This is perhaps related to the contemplation of death, as it seems to imply looking at another person’s body rather than one’s own. ↩
This is a unique description of the process of rebirth. Consciousness is a “stream” in that it flows and moves, ever-changing, and is not a static self-same entity. To be “established” (patiṭṭhita) is to be attached because of craving. | The phrase “consistent on both sides” (ubhayato abbocchinnaṁ) is unique. Ubhayato is used of “both ends” of a pole Ja 533:37.4. I think the sense is that one’s consciousness is consistent with regards to this world and the next. If one is attached to this world, one will be attached to the next, and vice versa in the next section. ↩
As at AN 7.14:1.3. ↩
Normally we would expect the four kinds of right striving here. This is the only place the seven awakening factors are described in this way. ↩
These descriptions are unique. | Vebhūtiya is only used here and DN 30, where the context shows it is a synonym for pesuṇiya. ↩
The Mahāsaṅgīti omits a heading for this section. ↩
The sequence from “memory” (satimā) to “retention” (dhitimā) is related to the good qualities of Ānanda (AN 1.220:1.1), and pertain to textual fluency. Satimā here is “memory”, not “mindfulness”, which is sato at the end. ↩
We don’t find this exact passage elsewhere, but it is similar to AN 10.46. When the Buddha speaks of future consequences it is conditional. He is not a fortune-teller, but he understands the results of the practice. ↩
Paccattaṁ yonisomanasikārā occurs at SN 46.8:2.1 and MN 50:3.1, where it means “investigate inside oneself”. Here it is applied to another. ↩
Another unique passage, similar to MN 68:12.4. ↩
Compare the four kinds of eternalism at DN 1:3.1.1. The theories based on rationality are omitted. ↩
According to the PTS edition, the Sinhala-script manuscripts read na jānāmi (“don”t know”) against the Mahāsaṅgīti jānāmi. | The means of knowledge given here is solely based on the recollection of past lives, which agrees with the Brahmajālasutta that these are views based on the past. It seems the sectarian here is admitting the limits of their experiential knowledge, but nonetheless inferring eternalism in both past and future. ↩
Some manuscripts read “twenty” here. ↩
“Accompanied by defilements and attachments” (sāsavā saupadhikā) is unique, but compare sāsavā puññabhāgiyā upadhivepakkā at MN 117:6.3 and sāsavaṁ upādāniyaṁ at SN 22.48:2.2. ↩
Also at MN 152:11–15.3, AN 5.144:2.2, SN 52.1:4.2, SN 46.54:12.5, SN 54.8:7.1. ↩
From the first sermon at SN 56.11:2.3. ↩
Here the jhānas stand in the place of the path as a whole. In DN 29:24.5 the Buddha uses a similar framing. ↩
Here abhi- in abbhanujānāti conveys the sense “grant in respect of one”. ↩
Here Sāriputta is quoting the Buddha, yet this phrase is not found in the Pali Canon. ↩
At MN 115:14.1. ↩
There are several individuals called Udāyī. ↩
The Vedhaññās are not mentioned elsewhere; their name means “Marksmen”. ↩
When this event is mentioned at MN 104:2.1, the Buddha is also in the Sakyan lands, but near the village of Sāma. Both texts tell the story of Cunda conveying the news via Ānanda at Sāma, which was presumably near the Vedhaññā’s mango grove. It does seem strange that two distinct discourses are recorded from the same prompt, but then, why shouldn’t the Buddha give more than one teaching on such an important topic? At DN 33:1.6.1 the Buddha is at Pāvā in the Mallian lands, and the discourse is spoken by Sāriputta there. Given the evident lateness of DN 33, this is a less convincing framework. A parallel to MN 104 (MA 196 at T i 752c12) says he was in the Vajjian lands at the time; both Sakya and Vajji border on Mallā. Jain tradition holds Mahāvīra died after the Buddha, and it was at a different Pāvā in Magadha near Nāḷandā, perhaps the place known in Pali as Pāvārika’s mango grove (DN 11:1.2). The earliest Jain source for Mahāvīra’s death, the Kalpasutra, is, however, much later than the Buddhist sources, and does not say where Pāvā is. But it does say the events were commemorated by the rulers of Kāsī and Kosala, and the Mallians and the Licchavīs. The absence of Magadha and the presence of Malla sit better with the location of Pāvā in Malla rather than Magadha. ↩
While this description of the Jains might seem like sheer sectarian calumny, it is a fact that the Jain tradition is split into two sects, the “sky-clad” Digambara, whose male ascetics went naked, and the “white-clad” Śvetāmbara who wear an unstitched cloth. Jain tradition holds that the split occurred about a century later, in the reign of Candragupta Maurya. ↩
A slight on the movement whose signature virtue was non-violence. ↩
“With broken monument” (bhinnathupe) is used only in this context. When a great teacher or leader died, a “monument” was built to keep their memory alive. The breaking of a monument—whether physical or symbolic—was, in a way, truly killing them. ↩
Cunda took the time to complete his rains residence before conveying the news, reminding us of the speed with which news traveled in those days—slowly. | Apart from the events described here, we hear of Sāma only once (AN 6.21). The topic there is the decline of the Saṅgha, hinting at a connection with these events. ↩
This harsh critique is repeated at DN 33:1.7.4, but not at MN 104:5.1, where the Buddha’s response focuses on his own community. ↩
Normally we find vokkamma (“having turned away”) in the sense of straying from the Dhamma. But this passage shows the phrase is, in itself, neutral, as it is good to turn from a bad teaching. ↩
The Dhamma is primary, not the teacher. This is applied to Buddhism as well; for example, a student is expected to help a mentor who is falling away from Dhamma (Kd 1:25.20.1). ↩
“Collected sayings” is saṅgāhapada. This is a unique term, but the sense seems to be that the process of gathering and organizing teachings is incomplete. I take the negative na to be distributed separately among the clauses. ↩
Compare DN 16:3.8.4ff. ↩
One of the Brahmanical sages under whom the Bodhisatta practiced before awakening (MN 26:16.1). Another of his enigmatic sayings is found at SN 35.103:1.2. When the Bodhisatta began his study, he first learned to recite the scriptures, and in these two passages we find examples of what those scriptures were. ↩
Sharp razors were known even in Vedic times (Rig Veda 8.4.16). ↩
This is a distorted reference to Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.4.7. There, the Self is said to be hidden in a body like a razor in its case. People do not see it (taṁ na paśyanti), for they only see the partial and incomplete functions of the Self, such as breathing, speaking, and so on. Seeing only the aspects, they do not see that each aspect is an expression of the one whole. This confirms that Uddaka was a Brahmanical teacher who was familiar with this passage. Similar phrases, but without the razor simile, are found at Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.3.23 and Chāndogya Upaniṣad 6.12.1. ↩
“Recite in concert” is saṅgīti. Reciting together affirms the mutual teaching and ensures the correctness of the text. The implication is that the entire Buddhist community participates, but in the saṅgīti after the Buddha’s death there were only monks. ↩
Here the Buddha outlines the topics to be recited, which are the main chapters of the Saṁyutta Nikāya. ↩
The “meaning” is the attha. Here we see the source of the atthakathā, which we translate as “commentaries”, but which are literally “discussions on the meaning”. Such discussions are undertaken through a civil and polite inquiry. ↩
Meaning and phrasing are interdependent, so care must be taken with both. Often it happens that when the phrasing slips, a new and unwarranted meaning is imputed. ↩
These are the four basic requisites for monastics, said to overcome defilements by usage (AN 6.58:4.1, MN 2:13.1). ↩
This repurposes the phrase used right at the beginning of the Buddha’s first teaching, the Dhammacakkappavattasutta (SN 56.11:2.3). There he was persuading hard-bitten ascetics that he did not indulge in sensual pleasures. While the affiliation of those five ascetics is not stated explicitly, clearly their practices were similar to the Jains. And given the context, no doubt the Buddha has the Jains in mind here. ↩
Again echoing the first sermon (SN 56.11:3.1), here the Buddha places the jhānas where, in the Dhammacakkappavattasutta, he put the middle way. He uses a similar strategy at DN 28:19.2. ↩
Some meditation teachers warn of the supposed dangers of becoming attached to the pleasure of meditation. The Buddha’s view was that the pleasure of meditation arises from letting go and leads to Nibbana. ↩
At AN 8.19:3.1 the ocean is said to be ṭhitadhammo, “naturally stable”. Both places are glossed as ṭhitasabhāvā. It seems this is in reference to the fact that the Buddhist Vinaya is gentle and flexible. The Buddha was ready to alter and adjust details when circumstances required, yet the fundamental principles hold firm. ↩
As at AN 9.7:3.3, etc. ↩
It is possible to remember the past, but knowledge of the future is restricted to inferences in specific contexts and cannot be predicted in general. ↩
The Buddha claims no gift of prophecy, unlike some other sages, but he knows that which matters. ↩
Here these questions follow on from the Buddha’s acknowledgment of epistemological limitations. Not everything can be known, and if it is, it is not always useful to speak of it. ↩
The idea “made by oneself” (sayaṅkata) assumes a metaphysical “self” which creates “the self and the cosmos”. This implies the Vedic creation doctrine, whereby Prajāpati created the cosmos and all things in it from himself by an act of self-sacrifice. Thus the sacrificer offers to Prajāpati as the sun with the words, “You are self-made” (svāṁkṛta, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 4.1.1.22, 4.1.2.21). For more details on this teaching, see SN 12.17 and notes there. ↩
The Brahmajālasutta describes the path to the end of these views in terms of understanding dependent origination through contemplation of contact in the six senses (DN 1:3.71.12). The Buddhist path is integrated, so one part always implies the whole. ↩
This is one of the latest suttas in the Pali Nikāyas. Typically this topic only comes up in relation to the Buddha’s fulfillment of Brahmanical prophecies. Here it is developed with a series of ornate verses, none of which have parallels. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that nowhere in the extensive discussions of the Buddha’s past good deeds is there any mention of the later concepts of the pāramīs (“perfections”) or the Bodhisatta path. ↩
The marks are elsewhere listed in DN 14:1.32.7 and MN 91:9.1. I discuss the translation of the marks in my comments to DN 14. ↩
The later astrological texts such as the Gārgīyajyotiṣa and Bṛhatsaṁhitā that discuss similar marks are more concerned with how they indicate character and destiny than their moral causes. ↩
The key terms here are daḷha (“firm”) and avatthita (“persistently”), which result in his firm stance. ↩
The commentary explain akhilamanimittamakaṇṭakaṁ as “free of bandits” (niccoraṁ). Bandits are also regarded as “pests” (abbuda, literally “tumor” or “cancer”) at SN 1.77:3.4. ↩
K.R. Norman’s series of five articles on The Metres of the Lakkhaṇa-suttanta discusses the verses in detail, and my translation is indebted to him. He notes that the 20 verse passages employ no less than seven distinct metres, all of them either new or updated styles. Such a display of poetic virtuosity is rare in the Pali canon. ↩
The commentary confirms the Mahāsaṅgīti reading khambhana (“obstacle”) here rather than PTS gabbha (‘womb”). ↩
He “conveyed happiness” (sukhāvaho), like a wheeled cart would convey goods. | Parivāra means “surroundings, accompaniments”, and I follow the commentary, which takes it in the sense of the “trimmings” accompanying the food. Given, however, that the kammic result is a large parivāra (“following”), it might mean that he gave not just physical things, but was generous with his followers also, engaging them in such beneficial tasks. ↩
This refers to the late legend of the soothsayers seeing the baby Siddhattha, and as such kumāra should be taken as “prince”. ↩
Giving up killing results in long life. This seems to be applied by metaphor to having these long and elegant body parts. ↩
Whereas in the phrase brahmujugatto, brahm- means “extended, tall”, here brahmāva means “like Brahmā”, either as a play on words or by mistaken etymology. ↩
This verse spoken by the soothsayers. ↩
He receives bodily fullness as a result of giving food. ↩
Nandana, the celestial garden in the realm of the Thirty-Three. ↩
“Tender” because he treated people tenderly; “serried” because his fingers and toes are kept gracefully together, not splayed and separated. ↩
“Inclusive and well-managed” renders saṅgahita. It means “included”, as in those people who, due to the kindly actions, feel that they belong. For the sense “well-managed” see AN 8.49:2.3. Because of acting kindly and inclusively, people are well-disposed and work well together. ↩
Even though the community is geographically dispersed, it is still coherent. ↩
Perhaps the uprightness of these marks relates to his speech being beneficial, leading upwards. ↩
It seems that his “swift” teaching techniques evoke the antelope. ↩
Read anomanikkamo. ↩
Asking questions leads to wisdom, and the mind of wisdom does not get attached. ↩
Giving fine coverings leads to fine skin. Less obviously, anger is said to lead to discoloring and ugliness. ↩
For this positive sense of adhiṭṭhahi compare AN 6.52:8.2 and MN 140:11.1. ↩
There’s a play on abhivissaji (“gave away”) and abhivassa (“pouring rain”). ↩
Kanaka, one of the many Indic words for gold, is from the same Proto-Indo European root as the English word “honey”. ↩
Here mokkha = pāmokkha (“chief, best”). ↩
The penis is the generative organ and hence part-creator of family. Being covered suggests that his sexuality was moderated and contained. His role was more than having children, it was building family. ↩
The banyan tree is not just proportioned, it offers shelter to many creatures. Touching the knees indicates connecting with the manyfolk, who at AN 5.196:3.1 are likened to caterpillars reaching the knees. ↩
A khema is a sanctuary where animals flourish in peace, without fear of the hunter. Likewise, the Buddha’s body flourishes and has a fullness to it. He is slim but not skinny. ↩
Decline in dhamma is missing here, but present both above and below in verse. ↩
The “ridged taste buds” are not merely for tasting, but support excellent digestion. Kammically, the rationale is that since he did not kill others, now nothing hurts him when he eats. ↩
Dark colored eyes give the impression of wide pupils and an open gaze, while the eyelashes of cows lend them a tenderness. ↩
Abhiyogino (“soothsayers”) is a unique term, explained by the commentary, “they are dedicated to the lore of marks”. ↩
The commentary says he took the lead in good deeds “unembarrassed, with head held high, his head filled with rapture and joy”. ↩
One hair per pore, because his words of truth have only one meaning. Likewise, the tuft conveys purity and integrity. ↩
The number four connotes “all around, complete, universal”, primarily from the four directions. It is multiplied to eight with the intermediate directions, and ten including above and below. Forty, then, is four times ten, a number of super-inclusiveness or super-universality. The lack of gaps corresponds with the lack of division between his followers. ↩
The commentary explains that those who flap their mouths with nonsensical gossip end up with weak or misshapen jaws. ↩
His teeth are not “crooked” or “stained” by corruption. ↩
Sigālaka only appears in this sutta. His name means “little jackal”. ↩
Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 5.5.1 recommends offerings to Agni in the east, Indra or Soma in the south, the All-gods in the west, Mitra and Varuṇa in the north, and Bṛhaspati in the middle. The quarters themselves are divine, since one can travel them and never reach the end (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.1.5). Atharva Veda 12.3.7–10 gives a domestic prayer for the quarters; here Yama dwells in the south with the Fathers, while Soma is in the west, and the other directions are not associated with specific deities. Vājasaneyi Saṁhitā 22.24a worships the six directions. Maitrī Upaniṣad 7.1–6 details the spiritual meanings of the six quarters. In Buddhism, the quarters are said to be inhabited by the respective Four Great Kings as per DN 32. ↩
Sigālaka followed blindly without considering the meaning as urged by Chāndogya Upaniṣad 1.3.11. ↩
It is unusual to find “six” directions. Normally it is four, then eight (with intermediate directions), then ten (above and below). Praśna Upaniṣad 1.6 lists the six, then the intermediates. ↩
The Buddha outlines the contents of the discourse to follow. ↩
The teaching is structured to reinforce memorization. Give the number of items (twice), so you will notice if any are missing; list the items; recapitulate the numbers; then recapitulate the items once more in verse. ↩
First we learned what the bad deeds were, now we learn why people do them. ↩
“Drains on wealth” is apāyamukha, literally “openings for departure”. This is emphasized here since Sigālaka wants to be a good son and not squander the family fortune. ↩
The most common phrase in Pali for alcoholic beverages lists three items. Surā is brewed from grains with yeast (Bu Pc 51:2.1.2) Meraya is made from flowers, fruits, or sugars (Bu Pc 51:2.1.4). Madya is apparently a catchall. Together they correspond fairly well with the modern classification of alcoholic drinks as “beer, wine, and liquor”. See also Manu 11.94, Arthaśāstra 2.25, Suśrutasaṁhitā 1.45, Amarakośodghāṭana 3.6. ↩
Now each of the six drains on wealth are expanded and explained. ↩
Vārunī is said to have been distilled from hogweed with palm sap, “toddy”. ↩
Assume vāruṇī is a truncated instrumental. ↩
Kāhiti is third person singular future of karoti. ↩
The subcommentary explains atthā as dhanā (“riches”). ↩
Having explained the six drains on wealth, the Buddha moves on to the next item in the table of contents. ↩
Parents are in the east because that is where the sun is born. Tutors are to the south (dakkhiṇā) as they are owed an offering (dakkhiṇā). Family is one’s legacy, so they lie with the setting sun in the west. Good friends keep you on the upright way to the north. Servants support you and make your life possible, like the earth below. And spiritual teachers lead you to heaven or transcendence above. ↩
“Protection in every region” (disāsu parittāṇaṁ) refers to when the student has completed their studies and goes off to travel, the teacher does what they can to ensure their safety in other regions. ↩
Marriage is based on mutual care and respect, not on dominance and obedience. ↩
This discourse bears similarities to the Mahāsamayasutta (DN 20). Thematically, that discourse is about the devotion of the deities, whereas this is about protection for the mendicants. | I believe this is only place in whole canon that lists the bhāṇavāra at the start. ↩
Here Kuvera is called Vessavaṇa, which our text below explains as being derived from the name of his city. ↩
“Protection” is rakkhā, which is a synonym of paritta. ↩
For these verses, I lean heavily on the translation by Ānandajoti, The Āṭānāṭiya Discourse. They are commonly recited in Theravada countries today. The recital begins with the seven Buddhas, for which see DN 14. ↩
Here Aṅgīrasa is used as a name rather than a descriptive epithet. Aṅgīras was one of the Vedic sages and the Aṅgīrasas are his descendants. Aṅgīras is regarded as the pravara or revered ancestor of the Gotama clan. Both names are associated with light: aṅgīrasa shares a root and is often synonymous with agni (“fire”), while gotama means “light dispelling dark”. ↩
Here begins a series of verses dedicated to the divinities in each of the four quarters, proceeding in the standard way: east, south, west, north. ↩
This is according to the commentary (taṁ rahadaṁ tattha evaṁ jānanti). ↩
This relates back to the basic problem facing the yakkhas: shame. They know what they do is wrong, but they like it and hence feel shame when hearing the Dhamma. But the Buddha treats them with respect, without shaming or bias, and thus is able to lead them to the good. The commentary implicitly connects this line with DN 30:2.1.2, where the Buddha “examines” (samekkhati) the population for their individual and shared traits. ↩
The south has the shortest and least auspicious description. To the extent that it relates to physical geography, this echoes the perception of northerners at the time that the south of India lay outside the “civilized” realms (āryāvarta). ↩
The description of the west mirrors the east. ↩
The description of the north is by far the most elaborate. | The “land north of Kuru” (uttarakuru) is mentioned in Sanskrit and Greek literature, where it sometimes appears as an actual country and other times as a place of fantasy. Attempts to locate it in a specific region in or beyond the Himalayas have proven inconclusive. ↩
Meru is another place that appears sometimes as a physical mountain and other times purely mystical. As home of the gods (Snp 3.11:4.3), its peak is accessible only by psychic powers (Thig 14.1:19.3, MN 50:30.1). It is the center of the world in Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain cosmologies. Today it is sometimes identified with Mount Kailash. ↩
This agrees with the description at AN 9.21:1.3. ↩
Due to their lack of selfishness, they live in a kinder state of nature, which we selfish humans have lost (DN 27:16.1). ↩
Tuṇḍikīre is explained by the commentary as “firestone”. In the notes to his translation, Walshe suggests a relation with tandoor, which has been found as far back as the Indus Valley Civilization, a millennium before the Buddha. ↩
Cloven and uncloven was an important classification of animals in the Dharmaśāstras. ↩
The commentary says they were mostly carried on the backs of pregnant women(!). But the verb anuyanti indicates, rather, that they were “drawn along after”, which suggests a rickshaw. ↩
The discourse is named after the first of these cities. The name is hard to explain, but all the names in this series have the element nāṭa, which is probably the name of the people. One meaning of nāṭa is “dance”, and one of the unique features of this discourse is that each of the Four Great Kings is said to delight in song and dance. There is a long history of dancing divinities in India, and images of dancers go back as far as the Indus Valley Civilization. If we take nāṭa in the sense “the people of the dance”, kusināṭā would therefore be “dancers of the grass” after the kusa grass essential to the Vedic rites of kingship. Parakusināṭā is the “further dancers of the grass”, and parakusiṭanāṭā is probably a variation on that. Nāṭapuriyā is the “citadel of the dancers”. Each of these associates the people of the dance with the idea of protection or authority, agreeing with the context, where the cities are said to belong to a great king. Thus the prefix āṭā- probably stems from tāṇa (“shelter, refuge”; the same root as paritta), in the sense of the “refuge of the dancers”. ↩
Adopt the reading nāṭapuriyā found in Sinhalese-script manuscripts against the Mahāsaṅgīti’s nāṭasuriyā. ↩
“Abounding in monkeys”. ↩
“Flood of folk”. ↩
Navanavutiya is “the city of the ninety-nine” i.e. three times thirty-three. | Ambara is “sky”. ↩
Also encountered at DN 17:1.3.8 and DN 16:5.18.5. Alakā is the capital of Kuvera in Sanskrit sources. ↩
The city Visāṇa is not encountered elsewhere, but it means “horn”, possibly reinforcing the importance of “song and dance”. ↩
These three names appear to be purely onomatopoeic, perhaps echoing musical sounds. ↩
These names suggest a connection with sustenance: “Nutritive”, “Powerful”, “Nourished by That”. ↩
These are a set of associated solar names. Ariṭṭha and Nemi appear compounded in Sanskrit, Ariṣṭanemi, which evokes the powerful chariot of a conqueror (“indestructible rim”, Rig Veda 1.89.6, 1.180.10, 3.53.17, 10.178.1). It was the name of the 22nd Jain tīrthaṅkara, and in Brahmanical texts of several figures, including a dragon (Mahābhārata 1.59.39a, 1114.62a, etc.) and an Asura king (Bhāgavatapurāṇa 8.6.31, 8.10.10). Along with the divine steed Tārkṣya, he is associated with Garuḍa, and was probably originally an epithet for the unstoppable wheel of the Sun, Sūra. This line, then, while a simple list of four names in Pali, appears to be a fragmented memory of a Vedic conception which might be translated: “King Sun, (the wheel) of indestructible rim”. ↩
Dharaṇī the “bearer” is also a pregnant woman or Mother Earth. ↩
Sāla means “hall” or “sal tree”, but the commentary says it was surrounded by creepers of that name. ↩
Kuḷīrakā appears to be the name of a crab-eating bird (kuḷīra). In honor of my native country, I name it after the kookaburra, which eats crabs and is renowned for its cry. ↩
In Ja 547:426.2 we find koṭṭhā pokkharasātakā, where the koṭṭha is evidently a woodpecker. Satapatta can mean woodpecker or lotus (or crane or peacock), and perhaps there is an association here, the “hundred-leaved [bird] of the lotus pond”. ↩
For these gods, see my comment on DN 13:25.2. Here I will comment on the names not discussed elsewhere, especially in DN 20. ↩
This is presumably Bharadvāja Bārhaspatya, the rishi ancestor of the Bhāradvāja clan, many members of which are encountered in the suttas. It is unusual to find him listed along with the primary Vedic gods. The Bhāradvāja verses are mostly collected in the sixth book of the Rig Veda, where they show a special devotion to the god Pūṣan. See also note on SN 7.1:1.2. ↩
These deities appear nowhere else. Puṇṇaka is “full”, guḷa is “lump”, and karatiya is unclear (“bean-like”?). ↩
The yakkha Sivaka (“blissful, auspicious”) helped Anāthapiṇḍika visit the Buddha (SN 10.8:1.12); he is possibly to be identified with Shiva. | The dragon king Mucalinda sheltered the Buddha after his awakening (Ud 2.1:2.2). ↩
Yugandhara is the tutelary deity of the mountain of that name. ↩
Gopāla is “cowherd”, an epithet of both Krishna and Shiva.| Suppagedha (or supparodha) is obscure. ↩
“Shame”, “conduit” (or “craving”), and “stupidity” seem like odd companions. ↩
A saying by Pañcālacaṇḍa at SN 2.7 is quoted by Udāyī and explained by Ānanda at AN 9.42. He would appear to be the fierce (caṇḍa) protector of the Pañcāla clan, but a Pañcālacanda appears as a brahmin teacher (Aitereya Āraṇyaka 3.1.6, Śāṅkhāyana Āraṇyaka 7.19, Gopatha Brāhmaṇa 1.1.27n). | Āḷavaka is the tutelary deity of Āḷavī (SN 10.12, Snp 1.10). ↩
Pajjuna is Parjanya, the Vedic god of rain, especially the thunderstorm. His daughters appear in SN 1.39 and SN 1.40. | Sumana is “Happyheart”, sumukha is “Fairface”. ↩
Dadhimukha is “Milkface”, and in the Mahābhārata is a name of a dragon. | Maṇi is “gem”. | Māṇivara is “fine gem”, although the commentary takes this as two names. | Dīgha is identified by the commentary with Dīgha Parajana of MN 31:21.1. ↩
Serīsaka means “of sirīsa wood”, perhaps the tutelary deity of a forest. ↩
This discourse picks up from DN 29:17.1, where the Buddha urges that the Sangha should gather and recite the Dhamma for the long lasting of the dispensation. There he lists the 37 factors of awakening, a standard early collation of practice-oriented teachings that are primarily collected in the Mahāvagga of the Saṁyutta Nikāya. This discourse is a late one, and appears to be an initial attempt to compile a more thorough list of the Buddha’s teachings. The Sarvāstivāda version of the same discourse formed the basis of one of their seven Abhidhamma books, the Sangītiparyāya. ↩
At AN 10.176 Cunda asks about the purity of the western brahmins; at DN 16:4.13.5 = Ud 8.5 he offers the Buddha’s last meal; at Snp 1.5 he asks about a true ascetic. ↩
The completion of a town hall was celebrated by a talk for the Sakyans SN 35.243:1.2 and MN 53:2.1. Such halls were community meeting places that played a central role in civic society and communal decision-making in democratic republics such as the Mallas and the Sakyans. The Buddha’s participation is a sign of his support for their civic and democratic process. ↩
As at DN 16:5.19.2, the Mallas are called Vāseṭṭhas after the family lineage of their priest (purohita). ↩
The Buddha likewise mentions his bad back and invites another monk to teach in both the other suttas where he is first to teach in a new hall (MN 53:5.3, SN 35.243:3.4), and also on the uposatha at Naḷakapāna (AN 10.67, AN 10.68). These were all occasions when the community was sitting late into the night. ↩
As at DN 29:1.3 and MN 104:2.1, in both of which the Buddha was in the Sakyan lands at this time. There, the news is conveyed to the Buddha by the novice Cunda. Perhaps he was confused with Cunda the smith. ↩
Sāriputta adopts the “Aṅguttara principle” of arranging teachings by number rather than the “Saṁyutta principle” of arrangement by topic. Thus this list of teachings has more in common with the Aṅguttara Nikāya than with the Buddha’s original list of Saṁyutta topics. I note unusual or rare terms, but the references here are meant to be indicative rather than comprehensive. ↩
AN 10.27:10.5, AN 10.28:4.5, Kp 4:1.2. | Compare Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣad 5.12.1, “for all these beings are contained in food”, Chāndogya Upaniṣad 1.11.9, “all these beings live when they partake of food”, Taittirīya Upaniṣad 2.2.1, “any creatures who dwell on earth are produced from food, and by food alone they live.” ↩
This phrase is unique, but here saṅkhārā (“conditions”) is a synonym of āhāra (“food, fuel, nutriment”). ↩
The paucity of teachings of “one” reflects the fact that the Aṅguttara Nikāya Ones consists mostly of longer teachings that have been split into atoms to artificially create “ones”. ↩
These Vinaya concepts also at AN 2.97:1.3. ↩
Samathanimitta at SN 46.2:14.2 and SN 46.51:11.2; paggahanimitta at AN 3.102. ↩
“Knowledge of ending” (khaye ñāṇaṁ) refers to the aggregates; it is discussed at SN 12.23. | “Knowledge of non-arising” (anuppāde ñāṇaṁ) is the knowledge that one will not be born again. ↩
At AN 4.33:2.2 cessation is the middle, not an extreme. But SN 22.103 has four extremes. ↩
The “right way” is the eightfold path, the “wrong way” the opposite (SN 45.21. “Surety in the right way” is mentioned often (eg. AN 5.151), but “surety in the wrong way” seems to be found only in later texts. “Lack of surety” is impermanence. And elsewhere these are not said to be “heaps”. ↩
Despite the explanation, and the prevalence of reading kaṅkhā, the commentary requires the Mahāsaṅgīti reading tama. ↩
AN 7.47:12.3. | For dakkhiṇeyyaggi, compare Sanskrit dakṣiṇāgni, a fire sacrifice for ancestors established in a hearth to the south. ↩
Elsewhere found only in Abhidhamma. “Visible and resistant” refers to material phenomena perceivable by the eye. “Invisible and resistant” is a shorthand for material phenomena that are not perceivable by the eye, but which nonetheless impinge on other senses, such as sounds or smells. “Invisible and non-resistant” includes form perceived solely in the mind. ↩
The last item is elsewhere found only in Abhidhamma texts. A “trainee” is a noble one who has at least entered the path to stream-entry; an “adept” (asekkha) has completed their training; one who is neither is yet to begin. ↩
Only found here. ↩
These are Abhidhamma categories. ↩
Otherwise found only in Abhidhamma and other late texts. ↩
The “weapon of learning” is at AN 7.67:17.3, the “weapon of wisdom” in verse at Dhp 40:3 and Thag 16.3:17.3. ↩
Found at SN 48.23:1.3 and Iti 62:2.3, this went on to become a standard Abhidhamma set. ↩
This threefold presentation of the process of absorption focuses on vitakka (“placing the mind”) and vicāra (“keeping it connected”), looking closely at how they cease (see also DN 34:1.4.7, MN 128:31.4, SN 43.3:1.2, and AN 8.63:3.1). The standard jhāna formula focuses more on the refinement of feelings, from which perspective the first two stages of immersion here fall under the “rapture and bliss born of seclusion”, while only the third qualifies as “rapture and bliss born of immersion”. Thus Analayo describes the two descriptions' as “complementary perspectives on the same process of deepening concentration” (Comparative Study, vol. ii, pg. 739, note 263). ↩
AN 6.79:1.3; explained at Vb 16:259.1. These passages, and Thag 2.19:2.1, are the earliest appearances of the phrase “skill in means” (upāyakosalla) that would become famous in later Buddhism. ↩
Called “high and luxurious beds” at AN 3.63:5.3. ↩
These are described as “limitless” in the formula, but this is the only early text they are called the “four limitless states” (or “immeasurables”). This is a sign of systematization. ↩
Often described as “formless”, here is the only place we find “four formless states” (āruppā). ↩
AN 4.28. The sequence of pahāna (“giving up”) and bhāvanā (“meditation”) is swapped as compared with AN 4.28:4.1. ↩
“Knowledge of the teaching” is the understanding of the observable principles of the teaching. | “Inferential knowledge” applies that to the past and future, especially in understanding the minds and behaviors of others without reading their minds. | “Knowledge of encompassing” is the psychic ability to read or “encompass” the mind of another. | “Conventional knowledge” is explained as understanding that is not included in the former three (Vb 16:310.1). It would especially include Vinaya matters that are agreed on “by convention” (AN 8.90:1.2, DN 33:1.10.82). | The first two are found at SN 12.33:14.2; see notes there for further discussion. The four are found at DN 34:1.5.3 and Vb 16:307.1. ↩
This discourse distinguishes the “factors of a stream-enterer” (sotāpannassa aṅgāni) from the “factors of stream-entry” (sotāpattiyaṅgāni), but elsewhere only the latter term is used SN 12.42:3.1, AN 9.28:4.1. ↩
MN 9:11.4, SN 12.11:1.5, etc. ↩
SN 22.54:2.1, etc. ↩
By treating ethical decisions via a tetralemma, the Buddha rejects the “law of the excluded middle” and the consequent belief that acts must be either right or wrong. ↩
AN 4.189, but the order there is direct experience, recollection, vision, wisdom. ↩
SN 35.238:12.2, etc. ↩
MN 12:32.1. The four describe the births of different kinds of nāga, etc. (eg. SN 29.1). ↩
This and the next are found in AN 4.250, etc., but there defined, as below, in terms of speech about what you’ve seen, heard, thought, or known. ↩
AN 4.198. | “With self become divine” (brahmabhūtena attanā) deliberately echoes Upaniṣadic language. Pali is sometimes said to lack reference to the cosmic Brahman (in neuter), having only the personal Brahmā (in masculine). The grammatical case of brahma- in the compound here is undetermined, yet no scholar of Sanskrit would hesitate to interpret the common phrase brahmabhūtātmā in the sense “self become one with the cosmic divinity Brahman”. Surely the Pali draws from the same sense, using it to describe Nibbāna. ↩
For the distinction between “aggregates” and “grasping aggregates” see SN 22.48, SN 22.82, MN 109. ↩
Also at MN 12:35.3. Later the asura (“demon” or “titan”) realm was added as the sixth. The number and nature of different realms is always somewhat fluid. ↩
Also at AN 5.213, Ud 8.6:4.1, DN 16:1.23.2, and Kd 6:28.4.1. ↩
See DN 14:3.31.1, MN 120:21–30.7, etc. ↩
SN 48.16:1.5, etc. ↩
AN 5.205; with the next, AN 10.14:1.1, MN 16. ↩
As above, also AN 5.206:1.1. ↩
These five are found at AN 5.72 and AN 5.305, and also as part of longer lists. They are not, however, called “perceptions that ripen in freedom”. ↩
As “roots of arguments” at AN 6.36:1.5 and MN 104:6.5 (see below), and as impossibilities for a stream-enterer at AN 6.92. ↩
As a cause for the long lasting of the dispensation at AN 6.40:2.2. ↩
At AN 3.61:12.1 and MN 140:10.1 these three sets of six are combined as the “eighteen mental preoccupations”. ↩
In AN 6.57 this is a response to the doctrine of Pūraṇa Kassapa. ↩
At AN 6.142 and AN 6.35, but not called “perceptions that help penetration”. ↩
Ariyadhana appears to be constructed after ācariyadhana, “a teacher’s fee”, and hence ariya here would be a noun rather than verb. ↩
At AN 7.68 dhamma in this context is shown to be “teachings”, not “qualities”. ↩
Primarily a Vinaya topic (Kd 14:14.16.1), but also found at AN 7.84 and explained at MN 104:13.1. ↩
These are just called “gifts” at AN 8.31. The “reasons to give” at AN 8.33 are different. ↩
See MN 120:3.4 and AN 8.35:1.8. ↩
“Settled for less” also occurs at AN 8.35:1.9. Readings vary between hīne vimuttaṁ (“released in what is inferior”, per MS) and hīne ’dhimuttaṁ (“resolved upon what is inferior”). This is an example of an ambiguity between vi + √muc (“release”) and adhi + √muc (“resolve”) that is sometimes seen in Pali texts. The subcommentary reads vimuttaṁ and offers two explanations: “‘Released’ (vimuttaṁ) means ‘resolved’ (adhimuttaṁ); the meaning is slants, slopes, and inclines. Or else ‘released’ means ‘set free’ (vissaṭṭhaṁ).” Given that it is clearly accepted in the commentarial tradition, and that it is the more difficult reading, it seems we must accept vimuttaṁ as the correct reading here. But from context, and from the subcommentary, it has the same sense as adhimutta, namely, “resolved upon”. This goes some way to explaining the ambiguity between the two words, as they not only have a similar form, but their meanings can overlap too. ↩
Notice that they have “seen” the well-to-do brahmins or aristocrats, but have only “heard of” the various deities. ↩
Previous rebirths required only ethics. Rebirth in the Brahmā realm, however, requires the freedom of the mind from hindrances through practicing absorption. ↩
Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1.3.10 warns that, because the knowledge of the gods have not reached them, the lands beyond the borders are the domain of death. ↩
Eight at AN 8.29 and DN 34:2.1.122; the ninth here is made by adding the asura rebirth. ↩
The pre-Buddhist sense of sati is “memory”, while “mindfulness” evolved from the practice of “remembering” scripture, creating an uninterrupted flow state in the present. In this sense, mindfulness can be understood as the element of continuity that knits consciousness together in a coherent stream. Thus when practicing “mindfulness of breathing” one pays continuous attention to the breaths, not “forgetting” what one is doing. ↩
AN 10.25. Kaṣina means “universal”, “totality”, and it refers to a measureless state of jhāna. In later usage it became a term for a physical object, such as a disk, on which a meditator focused, but it never has this meaning in early texts. Yājñavalkya says that, just as salt is “entirely” salty, the Self is an “entire mass of consciousness” (kṛtsnaḥ prajñānaghana eva, Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 4.5.13). ↩
This discourse is similar to DN 33; seventy items are shared between the two. Here Sāriputta teaches without prompting. The scheme is more rigorous; items listed according to a specific pattern, then the same pattern is amplified one by one. The constraints of this scheme mean that, while almost all the items listed here are found elsewhere, they are mostly not known by the name used here. This sutta seems a little later than DN 33, but such conclusions should be drawn cautiously; in at least one detail, the absence of the asura realm from the “lost opportunities”, the passage here is earlier. ↩
The use of a verse to introduce the teachings is unusual. ↩
This echoes Chāndogya Upaniṣad 7.26.2, sarvagranthīnāṁ vipramokṣaḥ. ↩
Each number from one to ten follows this same scheme. ↩
Compare SN 3.18:8.2. ↩
Compare SN 16.11:12.2. ↩
Compare SN 22.48:2.2, but this is the five aggregates rather than contact. ↩
This term is only found in the Ratanasutta (Snp 2.1:5.2). It means a kind of meditation that results in the realization of the Dhamma in this very life. ↩
The “unconditioned element” is Nibbāna, everything else is conditioned. ↩
With the addition of “rational application of mind” at AN 4.249. ↩
These three “portions” of knowledge are not found elsewhere, but compare eg. SN 12.34. ↩
A different group of five factors of immersion is at AN 5.28; the final factor is the same in both. The first four factors, however, appear only as part of this same group in later texts (Ne 21:5.1, Ps 1.1:246.2, Vb 16:342.2). ↩
At this point, DN 33:3.2.53 has an extra possibility, rebirth among the titans, making nine in all. ↩
The negative is absent from the text due to abbreviation, so it is inferred from the parallel passage at DN 33:3.2.69. ↩
AN 8.30. | Read nippapañcārāmassāyaṁ per AN 8.30:3.11. ↩
Similar sequences are found throughout the suttas, but this exact sequence appears to be unique. ↩
Four are found at AN 4.194. Seven, phrased slightly differently, are found at MN 23. ↩
The sutta, and hence the Dīgha Nikāya as a whole, ends with the qualities of the arahant, the one who completes the path and practice of the Buddha. ↩
Bhikkhu Sujato was born as Anthony Aidan Best on 4/11/1966 in Perth, Western Australia. He grew up in the pleasant suburbs of Mt Lawley and Attadale alongside his sister Nicola, who was the good child. His mother, Margaret Lorraine Huntsman née Pinder, said “he’ll either be a priest or a poet”, while his father, Anthony Thomas Best, advised him to “never do anything for money”. He attended Aquinas College, a Catholic school, where he decided to become an atheist. At the University of WA he studied philosophy, aiming to learn what he wanted to do with his life. Finding that what he wanted to do was play guitar, he dropped out. His main band was named Martha’s Vineyard, which achieved modest success in the indie circuit.
A seemingly random encounter with a roadside joey took him to Thailand, where he entered his first meditation retreat at Wat Ram Poeng, Chieng Mai in 1992. Feeling the call to the Buddha’s path, he took full ordination in Wat Pa Nanachat in 1994, where his teachers were Ajahn Pasanno and Ajahn Jayasaro. In 1997 he returned to Perth to study with Ajahn Brahm at Bodhinyana Monastery.
He spent several years practicing in seclusion in Malaysia and Thailand before establishing Santi Forest Monastery in Bundanoon, NSW, in 2003. There he was instrumental in supporting the establishment of the Theravada bhikkhuni order in Australia and advocating for women’s rights. He continues to teach in Australia and globally, with a special concern for the moral implications of climate change and other forms of environmental destruction. He has published a series of books of original and groundbreaking research on early Buddhism.
In 2005 he founded SuttaCentral together with Rod Bucknell and John Kelly. In 2015, seeing the need for a complete, accurate, plain English translation of the Pali texts, he undertook the task, spending nearly three years in isolation on the isle of Qi Mei off the coast of the nation of Taiwan. He completed the four main Nikāyas in 2018, and the early books of the Khuddaka Nikāya were complete by 2021. All this work is dedicated to the public domain and is entirely free of copyright encumbrance.
In 2019 he returned to Sydney where he established Lokanta Vihara (The Monastery at the End of the World).
Primary source was the digital Mahāsaṅgīti edition of the Pali Tipiṭaka. Translated from the Pali, with reference to several English translations, especially those of Bhikkhu Bodhi. Older translations by Maurice Walshe and T.W. and C.A.F. Rhys Davids were also consulted.
This translation was part of a project to translate the four Pali Nikāyas with the following aims: plain, approachable English; consistent terminology; accurate rendition of the Pali; free of copyright. It was made during 2016–2018 while Bhikkhu Sujato was staying in Qimei, Taiwan.
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Long Discourses is a translation of the Dīghanikāya by Bhikkhu Sujato.
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